Edexcel Bio Notes by Dr. Mohab Megahed

ht
tp
s: /
/b
rit
i sh
st u
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
IGCSE Biology
OL BIOLOGY
Simplified Lecture Notes
Dr. Mohab Megahed

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
Table of Contents
nt
ro
om
.co
m
Chapter 1: Introduction to Biology 2
/
Chapter 2: Movement of substances in & out of a cell 8
Chapter 3: Biological molecules and nutrition 11
Chapter 4: Enzymes 19
Chapter 5: Cellular respiration 22
Chapter 6: Classification of living organisms 24
Chapter 7: Nutrition in plants 31
Chapter 8: Coordination in plants 37
Chapter 9: Transport in plants 39
Chapter 10: Reproduction in plants 43
Chapter 11: Respiratory system 48
Chapter 12: Digestive system 53
Chapter 13: Circulatory system 58
Chapter 14: Excretion 66
Chapter 15: Homeostasis 70
Chapter 16: Reproduction in animals 73
Chapter 17: Coordination in animals 80
Chapter 18: The Eye 85
Chapter 19: Inheritance 89
Chapter 20: Cell division & Variation 100
Chapter 21: Natural Selection & Selective Breeding 103
Chapter 22: Cloning 106
Chapter 23: Nucleic acids & protein synthesis 108
Chapter 24: Genetic modification 110
Chapter 25: Uses of microorganisms 113
Chapter 26: Ecosystems 115
Chapter 27: Human influences on the environment 122
Chapter 28: Modern methods of food production 129
ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
Section I
Life Processes and Variety of living

organisms
Dr. Mohab Megahed 1

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 1: Introduction to Biology
stu
de
nt
ro
om
As we get to start, we need first to understand the basic characteristics shared by all living
.co
m
/
organisms, which are;
1. Movement: Change in the position of a living organism or part of a living organism.

2. Respiration: The breakdown of food inside cells to release energy. It is a chemical
process.
3. Sensitivity: The ability to detect changes in the environment and to make responses.
4. Growth: The increase number or size of a living organism.
5. Reproduction: Producing new living organisms sharing the same basic characteristics
of their parents.
6. Excretion: Getting rid of metabolic waste products. Examples: urea by the kidneys,
sweat by the skin or CO2 by the lungs.
7. Nutrition: The intake of food needed for health and growth.
N.B. Other important characteristics of some living organisms:
Breathing: The entry & exit of air through the lungs. It is a physical process.
Development: The increase in complexity. (Cell ® Tissue ® Organ ® Organ system)
Tissue: A group of similar cells working together to achieve a certain function.
Organ: A group of different tissues working together to achieve certain functions.
Egestion: Getting rid of undigested food from the anus in the form of feces.
Dr. Mohab Megahed 2

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Cell structure
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Plant Cell
m
/
Cell wall:
- Made of Cellulose.
- Fully permeable.
- Protects the cell & maintains its shape.
Cell membrane:
- Made of fats mainly.
- Selectively permeable.
- Controls what enters and exits the cell.
Cytoplasm:
- Jelly like material (70% water)
- Site of all metabolic reactions.
Sap Vacuole:
- Large & permanent.
- Maintains turgidity.
Chloroplast:
-Contains chlorophyll pigment that traps sunlight for the process of photosynthesis.
Dr. Mohab Megahed 3
ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Mitochondrion (Plural: Mitochondria):
stu
de
nt
- Site of aerobic respiration to release energy.
ro
om
.co
m
Nucleus:
/
- Carries genetic information on DNA arranged in chromosomes.
- Controls all metabolic reactions of the cell.
- Responsible for cell division.
Starch grains:
- They store food in the form of starch.
Animal Cell
The animal cell has similar organelles to the plant cell but no cell wall, no sap vacuole & no
Chloroplasts. However, it has small temporary vacuoles that store food in the form of
glycogen.
Dr. Mohab Megahed 4

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Modification of Cell structure for a specific function
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Root Hair Cells: (Absorb water and mineral salts from the soil)
m
/
- Hair like projection to increase the surface area of absorption.
- Thin cell wall and cell membrane to allow easy absorption of water and minerals from
the soil into root hair cells.
- They have no chloroplasts as there is no light for photosynthesis.
- Highly concentrated sap vacuole to absorb more water by osmosis.
- They have many mitochondria to absorb mineral ions from the soil by active transport.
Red Blood Cells: (Transport Oxygen to different body parts)
- Biconcave in shape to increase the surface area available for diffusion of oxygen.
- They are the smallest body cells so they can
pass through fine blood capillaries.
- The cell membrane is thin for easy diffusion of
oxygen & Elastic cell membrane so they can
squeeze themselves through blood
capillaries.
- They contain the Oxygen carrying protein
Hemoglobin.
- They have No nucleus or organelles to provide more space for Hemoglobin.
Dr. Mohab Megahed 5

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Practical Concepts
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Variables of an investigation
.co
m
/
1- Independent Variable: Variable changed by the experimenter.
2- Dependent Variable: Variable measured by the experimenter.
3- Controlled Variables: Variables kept constant by the experimenter.
Aspects of an investigation
1- Accuracy: How correct are your measurements.
To improve accuracy, we can use a more sensitive measuring device or technique.
2- Validity: How correct is your method.
To improve validity, keep all other variables constant.
3- Reliability: How similar are your results after several repeats.
Anomaly: A result that doesn’t fit the pattern of change. It should be

repeated or ignored while taking average.
A reliable investigation should be:
Repeated & average calculated.
Producing similar results on repeats.
No anomalies/ if present, they should be ignored while taking
average.
Practice Question: Comment on the reliability of this investigation.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Dr. Mohab Megahed 6

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Basic Calculations
stu
de
nt
ro
om
1- Calculating the average/mean: Sum of the values
.co
m
/
Their number
2- Calculating percentage change: final – initial x 100

initial
N.B. We use percentage change when the initial values are different, this allows for a valid
comparison.
3- Calculating the rate: Change in something

Change in time
4- Surface area of a cube: 6 X (side)2
5- Volume of a cube: (side)3
Plotting Graphs:
When you are asked to plot a graph, always remember that marks will be awarded for:
- Correct labeling of the X axis & Y axis with units included.

- Choose an appropriate scale for both axes. Your scale should be consistent & Using more
than 50% of the graph.
- Plot your points/bars accurately.
- Join your points with straight lines. Don’t extrapolate.
- If you are drawing 2 lines/paired bars, you should draw a key to the graph.
Dr. Mohab Megahed 7

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Chapter 2: Movement of substances in and out of the cell
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Diffusion: Movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration
m
/
(down concentration gradient). It doesn’t need energy or carriers.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:

1- Temperature: Increasing temperature increases kinetic energy leading to a higher rate
of diffusion.
2- Concentration gradient: Increasing concentration gradient increases the rate of
diffusion.
3- Surface area to volume ratio: Increasing surface area to volume ratio increases the
rate of diffusion.
N.B. Smaller organisms have higher surface area to volume ratio & vice versa.
Exam tip: Whenever the size is mentioned, think of surface area to volume ratio
4- Diffusion distance: Increasing the diffusion distance decreases the rate of diffusion.
Active transport: Movement of molecules from lower concentration to higher concentration

(against concentration gradient). It needs energy and carriers.
Factors affecting the rate of active transport:

1- Number of mitochondria.
2- Number of carriers.
Diffusion Active transport
Down concentration gradient Against concentration gradient
Doesn’t need energy Needs energy
Doesn’t need carriers Needs carriers
Dr. Mohab Megahed 8

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Osmosis: Movement of water molecules from higher water potential to lower water
stu
de
nt
potential through a partially permeable membrane. (from a more dilute to a more
ro
om
concentrated solution)
.co
m
/
Factors affecting the rate of osmosis:
1- Temperature: Increasing temperature increases kinetic energy leading to a higher rate
of osmosis.
2- Water potential gradient: Increasing concentration gradient increases the rate of
osmosis.
3- Surface area to volume ratio: Increasing surface area to volume ratio increases the
rate of osmosis.
4- Thickness of membranes: Increasing membrane thickness decreases the rate of
osmosis.
N.B. Types of solutions:

1- Hypotonic: Higher water potential than cells (more dilute)
2- Isotonic: Same water potential as cells.
3- Hypertonic: lower water potential than cells (more concentrated)
Dr. Mohab Megahed 9

ht
tp
s:/
/b
Effect of osmosis on plant cells:
rit
ish
In a dilute solution, water enters cells down water
stu
de
nt
potential gradient. The cells become turgid but never
ro
om
.co
burst as they are protected by cell walls.
m
/
In an isotonic solution, water potential inside the cell is
equivalent to water potential of the solution so there is
no net movement of water. The cells don’t change.
In a concentrated solution, water exits cells down water

potential. The cells become flaccid then plasmolyzed.
Plasmolysis is irreversible separation of the cell
membrane from cell wall due to shrinkage of the
cytoplasm.
Effect of osmosis on animal cells (RBCs):

In a dilute solution, water enters cells down water potential gradient. The cells burst as they
are not protected by cell walls.
In an isotonic solution, water potential inside the cell is equivalent to water potential of the
solution so there is no net movement of water. The cells don’t change.
In a concentrated solution, water exits cells down water potential. The cells become
shrunken.
Dr. Mohab Megahed 10

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Chapter 3: Biological molecules & Nutrition
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Biological molecules include Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, Water &
m
/
Fibers.
Carbohydrates:
Basic elements: Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen. The ratio of H:O is 2:1
Building units: Monosaccharides such as Glucose, Galactose & Fructose.
Complex forms: Disaccharides such as Maltose, Lactose & Sucrose.
Polysaccharides such as Starch, Glycogen & Cellulose.
Functions:
- Source of Energy (17kj/g)
- Starch: Storage form of food in plants
- Glycogen: Storage form of food in animals.
- Cellulose: Formation of plant cell wall.
Fats/Lipids:
Basic elements: Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen. The ratio of H:O is > 2:1
Building units: Fatty acids & Glycerol
Complex forms: No complex forms
Functions:
- Source of energy (39kj/g)
- Formation of cell membrane.
- Act as electric insulator around nerves.
- Act as cushions around internal organs.
- Act as heat insulator around the body.
Proteins:
Basic elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen.
Building units: Amino acids
Complex forms: Polypeptides
Functions:
- Source of energy (17kj/g)
- Formation of enzymes, hormones, antibodies & hemoglobin. (This explains why proteins
are directly linked to growth)

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Vitamins:
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Importance Deficiency Sources
.co
m
/
A Formation of visual pigment Night blindness Carrots
in the rods of the eye.
C Formation of healthy Scurvy: Poor Citrus fruits and fresh
connective tissue healing of wounds vegetables
and bleeding gums
D Absorption of Calcium from Weak bones in -Butter, eggs.
the intestine and its children (Rickets)
deposition in bones and weak bones in
adults
(Osteomalacia)
N.B. Exposure to sunlight increases formation of active Vitamin D. However, over exposure
to sunlight may lead to heat strokes & risk of skin cancer.
Minerals:
Importance Deficiency Sources

Calcium Necessary for the Brittle / weak bones Milk and its
formation of bones and products.
teeth Brittle teeth
Many fruits and
Necessary for lactation Slow dentition in vegetables
children
Iron Necessary for formation of Anaemia due to Red meat.
hemoglobin in Red Blood Reduced Hemoglobin
Cells. leading to: Liver.
- Pallor
- Shortness of breath Egg yolk
- Rapid tiredness
Fibers/Roughages:
Indigestible foods as they mainly contain cellulose and the human digestive system has no
cellulase enzyme. Examples include lettuce, Cereals & Barley.
Importance: 1- Stimulate peristalsis so prevent constipation.
2- Reduce the risk of cancer colon.
3- Help in weight reduction as they give a sense of fullness.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
Child with rickets
Bleeding Gums & teeth (Scurvy)

Adult with Osteomalacia

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Practical Investigations
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Starch test using Iodine:
m
/
Add few drops of iodine solution to the food sample.
If iodine color changes from yellow brown into blue black, then starch is present.
Testing for reducing sugars (glucose) using Benedict solution:
- Add a small spatula of the food sample to

water and shake well.
- Add Benedict’s solution.
- Heat in water bath. (to avoid fluid splashes)
- If color changes from pale blue into brick red,
then glucose is present.
N.B. The color change occurs gradually:

Blue ® Green ® Yellow ® Orange ® Brick red
The final color reflects glucose content. The deeper the color, the higher the glucose
concentration.
Testing for Proteins (Biuret test):
- Add a small spatula of the food sample to water and shake well.
- Add Biuret solution.
- If color changes from pale blue into purple, then proteins are present.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Testing for Lipids
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Lipids (for example oil) are soluble in ethanol but insoluble in water.
.co
m
/
-Place the food sample in a test tube.
-Add 2 cm3 of ethanol.
-Shake well to dissolve in ethanol.
-Transfer the solution into another test tube containing cold water. If an
emulsion is formed, then it contains lipids.
Measuring Dry mass
- Place the organism in an oven at 80ºC.

- Remove and weigh at regular intervals of time.
- Continue until you get three similar successive
readings. This is the dry mass.
N.B. Water content is variable. Dry mass excludes water, so it

allows for a more valid comparison than fresh mass.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Nutrition
de
nt
Balanced Diet
ro
om
.co
A balanced diet is the daily intake of appropriate amounts of each type of nutrients.
m
/
Malnutrition means eating an unbalanced diet which could be either too much or too little
of any type of nutrient. Malnutrition causes various problems such as:
- Starvation: a massive lack of nutrition in all forms to a degree that is not enough for
survival, this occurs in cases of famine.
- Constipation: Diet which is low in fibers may lead to constipation.
- Obesity: Too much nutrients in food are stored as fats.
- Coronary heart disease: eating too many fats including cholesterol may lead to heart
attack.
Body Mass Index (BMI)

Obesity (being extremely overweight) is an increasing problem in the Western world. You can
calculate whether or not you are obese by using a formula called the BMI (body mass index).
The formula is shown below.
BMI = Body mass in kg
(height in m)2
The table shows how BMI values are used to describe the weight of people.
BMI value Description of weight
less than 18.5 Underweight

18.5 to 24.9 Normal weight
25.0 to 29.9 Overweight
30.0 or above Obese
N.B. BMI takes both weight & height into consideration so it allows for a more valid
comparison than just measuring body mass.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
Energy Budget
rit
ish
Energy budget is a term referring to the relationship between energy input & energy output.
stu
de
nt
Energy input refers mainly to the intake of food & Energy output refers mainly to exercise.
ro
om
.co
m
- If Energy input > Energy output ® Weight gain occurs.
/
- If Energy output > Energy input ® Weight loss occurs.
Energy requirements
Energy requirements vary according to level of activity, Age & pregnancy.
• high levels of activity = more muscle contraction, so more aerobic respiration to

release enough energy and consequently higher energy requirements. An example is
manual workers (laborers).
• Age affects energy requirements as younger ages have higher level of activity and thus
higher energy requirements as explained above.
• Pregnant women need more energy as:
- They carry extra weight.
- This excess energy is needed for the growth & development of the fetus.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
Practical Investigation: Measuring the energy content of a food sample
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
• Find the mass of the food sample.
ro
om
• Place 20 cm3 of water into a test tube.
.co
m
/
• Measure the initial temperature of water using a thermometer.
• Mount the food sample on the
tip of a needle and light it using
a Bunsen burner.
• Hold under the boiling tube
until it puts off.
• Then Measure the final
temperature of water.
• The greater the change in
temperature, the higher the
energy content of the food
sample.
N.B
• To calculate the energy content of a certain food sample, you may use the following
formula:
(Final temperature – temperature at start) x 20 x 4.2
Mass of food (g)
• If you are comparing two different food samples, the greater the increase in
temperature the higher the energy content of the sample.
• In this case make sure that both samples are in solid or liquid form.
Sources of Error:
1- heat loss to the surroundings. This could be reduced by:
- Burning the food sample nearer to the test tube.
- Covering the test tube by rubber bung.
- Using insulating shield around the whole apparatus.
- Increasing volume of water used (this reduces surface area to volume ratio and thus
reduces heat loss)
2- Uneven distribution of heat. This could be reduced through stirring by the thermometer.
3- Incomplete combustion. This could be reduced by proper aeration of the lab to provide
oxygen for complete combustion.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
Chapter 4: Enzymes
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
- Enzymes are Biological catalysts that speed up the rate of reaction without thimself
ro
om
.co
being involved.
m
/
- Enzymes are proteins in nature.
- The enzyme molecule consists of body & active site.
- The molecule on which the enzyme acts is called a substrate.
- Enzymes are specific, the sape of the substrate is complementary to the shape of the
active site. (Key & lock mechanism)
The entry of the substrate in the active site is called a successful collision.
Successful collisions produce enzyme substrate complexes
- Examples: Protease acts on proteins, Lipase acts on lipids & Amylase acts on starch.
Factors affecting enzyme activity:
1. Temperature:
- Increasing temperature until the optimum increases the rate of reaction: Kinetic
energy frequency of successful collisions enzyme substrate complexes.
- Optimum temperature: The temperature at which the highest rate of reaction takes
place.
- Increasing temperature above the optimum temperature decreases the rate of
reaction: The enzymes are denatured. Denaturing means permanent loss of the shape
of the active site that no more fits its substrate.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
2. pH:
rit
ish
stu
- Optimum pH is the pH at which the highest rate
de
nt
ro
of reaction takes place.
om
.co
- Minor changes in pH reduce the rate of
m
/
reaction.
- Major changes in pH denature the enzyme.
3. Enzyme concentration/Substrate concentration:

- Increasing Enzyme concentration increases the rate of reaction:
chances of successful collisions so enzyme substrate complexes.
- Increasing enzyme concentration above a certain level has
no effect on the rate of reaction as there are no more substrate
molecules available. (The reaction levels off)
N.B. The same occurs in case of increasing substrate concentration.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Practical Investigation
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Investigating the effect of temperature on amylase activity:
m
/
- Spots of iodine are added into the wells of a spotting tile.
- In a test tube, add 5 cm3 of starch suspension
and 5 cm3 of amylase. Then shake well and
place in a water bath at 30 0C.
- Use a pipette to transfer a sample of the
mixture to one well of the spotting tile every
minute for ten minutes.
- Record the time it takes for iodine to remain
yellow. This shows that all starch has been
digested by amylase.
- Repeat the whole process but with water baths
at temperatures of 100C, 200C, 400C & 500C.
- Compare the time taken for iodine to remain
yellow for each temperature. The shorter the
time, The higher the rate of reaction.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 5: Cellular Respiration
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Aerobic Respiration:
.co
m
/
Aerobic respiration is the process of energy production in the presence of Oxygen. It is highly
important in supplying energy to all body tissues, especially contracting muscles during
strenuous muscular exercise.
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + energy
C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP
Anaerobic respiration:
Anaerobic respiration is the process of energy production in the absence of Oxygen. It is not
as efficient as Aerobic respiration as it produces only 2 ATP unlike aerobic respiration which
produces 36 ATP.
Examples of anaerobic respiration include yeast and muscles:
Ø Yeast: Anerobic respiration produces ethyl alcohol. This is commercially used in baking
and wine industries.
Glucose→ ethanol + Carbon dioxide + energy (2 ATP)
Ø Skeletal Muscles: Anerobic respiration occurs in muscles when Oxygen supply fails to
meet Oxygen demand of the muscles during exercise. This leads to the formation of
lactic acid. The accumulation of lactic acid in the musle interferes with muscle
contraction causing muscle fatigue and cramps. When the person takes some rest,
Oxygen supply becaomes higher than Oxygen demand. The excess Oxygen
breaksdown Lactic acid in a process known as “repaying the oxygen debt”.
Glucose→ lactic acid + energy (2 ATP)
N.B. Respiration is an exothermic reaction that releases heat.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Practical investigation
de
nt
Investigating respiration of seeds or a yeast culture:
ro
om
.co
• Viable Seeds are placed in a
m
/
vacuum flask (prevents heat
loss)
• The vacuum flask is closed using
cotton wool. This allows entry of
oxygen for respiration of the
seeds and reduces entry of
pathogens.
• A thermometer is inserted in the
vacuum flask. Temperature is
recorded at the start of the
investigation and after 30
minutes.
• In another vacuum flask the same set up is repeated but with using dead seeds or glass
beads. (This is a control for comparison)
Expected outcome: In the vacuum flask containing viable seeds, temperature is expected to
rise as viable seeds undergo respiration which is an exothermic reaction releasing heat. While
no change in temperature occurs in the control experiment.
Another alternative investigation can depend

on detecting the evolving CO2 from seed
respiration not the the released heat. In this
case limewater is used. Limewater will turn
milky in presence of CO2 or stay clear in its
absence.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 6: Classification of living organisms
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Living organisms are classified into 5 kingdoms:
m
/
- Animal Kingdom.
- Plant Kingdom.
- Bacterial Kingdom.
- Fungal Kingdom.
- Protista Kingdom.
N.B. Viruses are non-living so they are not considered as a kingdom.
Importance of classification:
1. To facilitate the identification of living organisms.
2. To facilitate the study of living organisms.
The key points to understand about each kingdom include:
- Cellular nature
- Cell structure
- Nutrition
- Respiration
- Reproduction
- Examples

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Kingdom Bacteria
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Cellular nature: Unicellular
.co
m
Cell structure:
/
A bacterial cell is also known as Prokaryotic cell as it has no nucleus or membrane bound
organelles.
Nutrition: Bacteria secrete extracellular enzymes to breakdown nutrients then they absorb
products of digestion back into the cell by diffusion. (External digestion). Types of nutrition
in bacteria include:
- Saprophytic: feeding on dead bodies (decomposition).

- Parasitic: feeding on living organisms causing harm.
Respiration: Bacteria maybe aerobic or anaerobic.

Reproduction: Asexual reproduction (Binary fission).
Examples: Lactobacillus, which is used in yoghurt formation.
Pneumococcus, which causes pneumonia.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Kingdom Fungi
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Cellular nature: Multicellular except Yeast which is unicellular.
.co
m
Cell structure:

ht
tp
s:/
/b
Nutrition: same as bacteria
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Respiration: Anaerobic respiration (Fermentation of yeast)
ro
om
.co
m
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction (Budding in yeast)
/
Examples: Yeast & Mucor
Kingdom Protista
This Kingdom includes living organisms that don’t match the classification criteria of any
other kingdom.
All Protista are:

- Unicellular
- Nucleated.
- Having cell membrane & cytoplasm.
N.B. Anything else maybe present or absent such as cell wall, chloroplasts, etc.
Examples:
- Amoeba: similar to animal cells.
- Algae: similar to plant cells.
- Plasmodium malaria: pathogenic causing malaria.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Viruses
stu
de
nt
ro
om
They are non-living so not considered as a kingdom.
.co
m
/
Cellular nature: Non cellular
Evidences that viruses are non-living:

- They don’t move
- They don’t respire
- They don’t grow
- They don’t reproduce except inside host cells.
- They don’t have cell membrane or cytoplasm.
Viral structure:
All viruses are pathogenic.

Examples:
HIV ® it affects the human immune system causing AIDS disease.
Influenza ® it affects the human respiratory system causing common cold.
Tobacco mosaic virus® it decolorizes the plant leaves.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Comparison between Viruses, Bacteria & Fungi
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Viruses Bacteria Fungi
.co
m
/
Cellular Nature Non cellular Unicellular Multicellular except
yeast which is
unicellular
Protein coat Present Absent Absent
Cell wall Absent Present and made of Present and made of
Murein/Peptidoglycan chitin.
Cell membrane Absent Present Present
Cytoplasm Absent Present Present
Nucleus No nucleus, but a No nucleus, but a Have nucleus and
free strand of circular loop of DNA maybe multinucleated
DNA or RNA (nucleoid)
Pathogenicity Always Maybe pathogenic Maybe pathogenic
pathogenic

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
Section II
Plant Systems

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Chapter 7: Nutrition in plants
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Adaptations of a plant leaf for the process of Photosynthesis
m
/
External structure:
- Broad: to increase surface area for better absorption of sunlight & diffusion of Carbon
dioxide.
- Thin lamina: for easy penetration of sunlight & shorter diffusion distance of Carbon
dioxide.
- Leaf stalk: to increase exposure to sunlight.
Internal structure (Cut section):
- Upper epidermis:
Tranparent with no chloroplasts to
allow easy penetration of sunlight (It is
also covered by waxy cuticle to reduce
water loss).
- Palisade mesophyll layer:
Tightly packed layer of cells with many
Chloroplasts that trap sunlight so it is
the main site of photosynthesis.
- Spongy mesophyll layer:
Loosely packed cells with many air spaces for diffusion of oxygen outside & carbon
dioxide inside the leaf (gas exchange).
This layer also has the vascular bundle that contains xylem and phloem.
This layer contains fewer chloroplasts than the palisade cell layer.
- Lower epidermis:
Contains stomata that allow entry of Carbon dioxide and exit of Oxygen. These stomata
are surronded by guard cells which control opening and closing of stomata.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Equation of Photosynthesis
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
From the equation above, we can simply deduct raw materials, conditions & products.
Raw materials:
- Carbon dioxide: Diffuses from air into the leaves through stomata then to air spaces
between spongy cells and then it reaches chloroplasts in palisade cells.
- Water: is absorbed from the soil by osmosis then up to the leaves through xylem
vessels.
Conditions:
- Sunlight
- Chlorophyll pigment
Products:
- Oxygen: Diffuses from palisad cells into air spaces then through stomata to the
atmosphere.
- Glucose: Used by the plant in respiration, stored as starch or translocated as sucrose
to other parts of the plant.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Factors affecting photosynthesis
stu
de
nt
ro
om
External factors:
.co
m
/
- Temperature: Increasing temperature increases kinetic energy so higher rate of
enzyme activity & higher rate of diffusion ® higher rate of photosynthesis.
- Light intensity: Increasing light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis.
- CO2 concentration: Increasing CO2 concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis.
Internal factors:
- Leaf surface area:
- Number of chloroplasts:
Limiting factors
- A limiting factor is the factor that restricts the effect of other factors.
- Example: Increasing light intensity initially increases photosynthesis. But beyond a
certain limit it would have no effect if there is no more CO2 available. In this case, CO2
is a limiting factor.
Plant mineral nutrion
- Nitrate ions: Important for the formation of aminoacids that build up proteins such as
enzymes & hormones needed for plant growth.
- Magnesium ions: Important for the formation of chorophyll pigment in chloroplasts,
Chlorophyll traps sunlight needed for photosynthesis.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Practical Investigation:
de
nt
ro
Comparing the rate of Photosynthesis at different light intensities
om
.co
m
/
- Select leaves of the same species and surface area.
- De-starching: this is done by placing all the leaves in complete darkness for 48 hours
before the investigation. The leaves will not be able to undergo photosynthesis so they
will breakdown all the starch present into glucose to be used in respiration. This
ensures that all the used leaves are initially starch free.
- Place one leaf in bright light, one in dim light & the third is left in darkness (control for
comparison)
- After 24 hours, test the three leaves for starch presence. The higher the starch content,
the higher the rate of photosynthesis.
How to test a plant leaf for starch?
We can’t test leaves for starch by directly adding iodine because the waxy layer will not
absorb iodine & also the green color will not allow you to observe color changes. So, to test
a leaf for starch, you should remove the leaf from the plant then:
1- Place in boiling water. This kills the leaf by denaturing its enzymes & dissolves waxy cuticle.
2- Place in boiling ethanol. This decolorizes the leaf.
Important precaution: Ethanol is highly flammable, so keep away from naked flame by
heating in a water bath.
3- Wash in cold water.
4- Then finally add iodine solution and observe for color changes. The color change from
yellow brown into blue back indicates presence of starch.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Effect of light intensity on CO2 concentration
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Practical investigation: Using Hydrogen Carbonate to detect CO2 changes
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Hydrogen carbonate indicator is a solution that equilibrates with atmospheric air, which has
.co
m
/
CO2 concentration of 0.04%. The color of hydrogen Carbonate indicator changes as follows:
- Orange in normal air (0.04% CO2)

- Yellow in high CO2 concentration (˃ 0.04%)
- Purple in low CO2 concentration (˂ 0.04%)
Steps:
1- Place 10 cm3 of the indicator in the bottom of 4
test tubes.
2- Remove three leaves from the same plant and
place one of them in each test tube. Leave the
fourth test tube with no leaf (Control for
comparison).
3- Seal all the test tubes using rubber bungs.
4- Place one tube in bright light (without covering), the second in dark (covered with silver
foil), the third in dim light (covered with translucent material as cellophane).
5- The four tubes are left for few hours then the indicator color is recorded.
Expected outcome:
Tube Indicator color Explanation

Tube in bright light Purple Rate of Photosynthesis ˃ Respiration so net
decrease in CO2
Tube in darkness Yellow Rate of Photosynthesis < Respiration so net
increase in CO2
Tube in dim light Orange Rate of photosynthesis = Respiration so no net
change in CO2
Tube with no leaf Orange No change in CO2 as there is no leaf
(control)

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 8: Coordination in Plants
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
- Tropism is the response of plants to directional stimuli.
m
/
- If the growth is towards the stimulus, this is called Positive tropism.
- If the growth is away from the stimulus, this is called negative tropism.
- Plants mainly respond to two stimuli, Light & Gravity.
- Response to loght is called Phototropism.
- Response to gravity is called Geotropism.
Part of the plant Response Value

Positive Phototropism Upward growth allows for
Shoot better absorption of sunlight
Negative Geotropism by chlorophyll pigment so
higher rate of photosynthesis
Positive Geotropism Downward growth in the soil
Root leads to better absorption of
Negative Phototropism water & mineral ions as well as
better fixation & anchorage in
the soil.
N.B. Tropism is regulated by plant growth hormones known as Auxins.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Simple Investigation ideas
stu
de
nt
ro
om
1. Phototropism:
.co
m
/
2. Geotropism:

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 9: Transport in Plants
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Transport in plants takes place in the Vascular bundle (Xylem & phloem). In order to
m
/
clarify the process of transport in plants we need first to compare between Xylem and
phloem.
Xylem Phloem
(Transpiration) (Translocation)
Structure Hollow tube with no end Sieve tubes with perforated
plates end plates
Non living; with ligninfied cell Living; with non lignfied cell
walls, walls
Transported materials Water and dissolved minerals Sucrose & amino acids
Direction of transport Unidirectional: from roots to Bidirectional: Substances move
the leaves. upwards and downwards.
Mechanism of transport Passive transport Active ransport

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Traspiration
de
nt
ro
om
Transpiration is defined as the loss of water vapour through stomata by diffusion.
.co
m
/
Mecahnism
- Transpiration leads to loss of water from the
leaves so water potential in the leaves
decreases.
- The roots absorb water from the soil, so water
potential in the roots increases.
- This creates water potential gradient between
the roots & leaves leading to suction of water
up through xylem vessels in a process known
as tranpiration pull / Transpiration stream.
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration
External:
1- Temperature: Increases teanspiration as it increases Kinetic energy leading to higher
rate of diffusion.
2- Light intensity: Increases transpiration as it opens more stomata.
3- Wind: Increases transpiration as it removes water vapour from the atmosphere
around the leaves which increases concentration gradient leading to a higher rate of
diffusion.
4- Humidity: Increases transpiration as it adds water vapour to the atmosphere around
the leaves which decreases concentration gradient leading to a lower rate of diffusion.
Internal:
1- Leaf surface area.
2- Number of stomata.
Importance of Transpiration
- Pulls water from the roots to leaves.
- Provides mineral salts found in the soil to the leaves.
- Cooling of the leaves during intense sunlight.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
N.B. A very high rate of transpiration may lead to Wilting.
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Wilting occurs When the amount of water lost through the leaves is higher than the amount
.co
m
/
absorbed from the soil. The leaf cells loose turgidity and wilt. So plants may cut down the
rate of transpiration in order to avoid wilting by any of the following mechanisms:
- Closing stomata: especially at very hot weather.

- Sunken stomata: found below epidermal level to reduce transpiration.
- Stomata on the under side of the leaf: the lower surface is cooler so less evaporation.
- Waxy cuticle: The wax waterproofs the leaf.
- Hairy leaves: Hairs trap a layer of moist air next to the leaf.
- Rolling leaves: Some plants can roll their leaves when water is in short supply so as to
hide stomata.
- Leaf fall: Trees shed their leaves in autumn as water supply is usually limited.
Practical investigations
Calculating the surface area of a plant leaf
- Lay the leaf to be measured over a 1 cm grid and trace its outline.
- Count the number of squares covered.
(Only count a square if it’s more than 50% covered & don’t count the petiole)
- Multiply by 2 to get the area of both surfaces.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Investigating Transpiration using a potometer
stu
de
nt
ro
om
A potometer is a device that measures the rate of transpiration.
.co
m
/
1- Cut the plant shoot using a sharp knife.
Precautions: Cut the shoot under water, to prevent air

bubbles from blocking xylem vessels. Make a diagonal
cut to increase surface area.
2- Insert the plant shoot in a clear plastic tubing.
Precaution: Use adhesive substance such as Vaseline or

rubber to make the junction air tight.
3- Insert the tube in a water filled beaker. This

introduces an air bubble in the clear tube.
Precaution: Dry the leaves carefully to maintain

concentration gradient.
4- Measure the distance moved by the bubble in a

known time. The longer the distance the higher the
rate of transpiration.
Translocation
Translocation is the transport of sucrose and amino acids in phloem vessels from the site of
formation (source) to the site of utilization (sink). It is a bidirectional active process.
The importance of translocation is that all parts of the pant need food but not all parts of the
plant can sythesize food all the time, so glucose synthesized by some of the leaves is
converted into sucrose and amino acids and translocated via phloem vessels to the needy
parts of the pant.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 10: Reproduction in plants
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
- Reproduction in plants could either be Sexual reproduction or Asexual reproduction.
m
/
Let us start by Sexual reproduction.
- The flower is the plant’s sexual organ. Most flowers are bisexual, i.e. they have both
the male and female sexual organs.
- Sexual Reproduction in flowereing plants takes place in 3 phases:

1- Pollination
2- Fertilization
3- Fruit formation

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Pollination
stu
de
nt
Definition: Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma.
ro
om
.co
m
/
Types of pollination
Self pollination The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
the same flower OR another flower of the same plant.
Cross pollination The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
another plant of the same species.
Agents of Pollination: (Insects OR Wind)
Insect pollination The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma by
insects.
Wind pollination The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma by
wind.
Adaptations of flowers to pollination
P.O.C. Insect pollinated flowers Wind pollinated flowers
Diagram
Petals Large Small

Colourful Green
Scented & full of nectar No scent & no nectar
Anthers Found within the petals, Hanging outside petals to be
where insects usually land. exposed to wind.
Stigma Found within the petals and Hanging outside petals to be
sticky exposed to wind and feathery
Pollen Large size, small quantities & Small size, Large quantities & light
grains spiky or sticky weight
N.B. If the anther is lower than the stigma, then the flower is mostly cross pollinated.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Fertilization & Fruit formation
ro
om
.co
m
/
Steps of Fertilization:
- When the pollen grain falls on a stigma of the same species, it secretes enzymes to
digest the style forming a pollen tube.
- The pollen tube grows towards the ovule until it reaches a tiny hole in the wall of the
ovule known as micropyle.
- The male gamete enters the ovule through the micropyle.
- Inside the ovule, fusion of the male and female gametes takes place forming a zygote.
After fertilization: (Fruit formation)

- The petals, stamens and sepals fall off as they have already done their job.
- The zygote divides by mitosis forming an embryo.
- The ovule forms the seed ad its cover forms testa.
- The ovary forms the fruit and its cover forms pericarp.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Seed germination
ro
om
.co
m
/
Mechanism:
- Splitting of the Testa releasing plant embryo. The embryo consists of plumule that
forms the shoot and radicle that forms the root.
- The seed under the soil cannot undergo photosynthesis, so it depends on utilizing its
food stores until the plumule emerges from the soil and develops leaves.
Factors affecting seed germination:

- Water: activates seed enzymes.
- Temperature: increases enzyme activity.
- Oxygen: for aerobic respiration needed to release energy for embryo growth.
Asexual reproduction in plants
Some types of plants can undergo Asexual

reproduction, for example runners in mint
plant or tubers in potato plants.
In mint plants, a runner arises from the parent

plant. The runner grows on the soil and it
forms roots. Then the runner separates into a
new plant.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Section III
m
/
Animal Systems

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
Chapter 11: Respiratory system
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
Nose & mouth
• Air enters either through the nose or mouth.
• It is better to breathe through the nose because it is lined by:
• Mucus: traps bacteria.
• Cilia: removes mucus & dust.
• Rich in blood capillaries which warms the entering air.
Ciliated epithelium which lines all air passages.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Pharynx:
ro
om
.co
• A wide space behind the nose and mouth which leads to the larynx and oesophagus.
m
/
Larynx:
• It is the organ of voice (contains vocal
cords) beside being an air passage.
• Covered by a piece of cartilage called
epiglottis which closes the trachea during
swallowing.
Trachea:
• A hollow muscular tube.
• Its wall contains incomplete C-Shaped
rings of cartilage to keep it open all the
time.
• Lined by respiratory epithelium which
secretes mucus to trap bacteria & has cilia
to remove mucus.
Bronchi:
• Each bronchus enters a lung and then branches into bronchioles.
• Also covered by incomplete C-shaped rings of cartilage.
Lungs:
• Lungs are the organs of gas exchange.
• The right lung is formed of three lobes while the left lung is formed of only two lobes.
• Each lung contains millions of alveoli.
• Covered by pleural membrane wich produces a pleural fluid to protect the lung from
friction with the moving ribs.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Alveoli:
stu
de
nt
They are the tiny air sacs where gas exchange takes place. Gas exchange is a term referring
ro
om
to diffusion of oxygen from alveoli into blood and diffusion of Carbon dioxide from blood into
.co
m
/
alveoli.
Adaptaion of alveoli to their function:

1. Large surface area: about 80-90 m2 for better gas exchange.
2. Good blood supply: to maintain the concentration gradient.
3. Very thin permeable membranes: to shorten diffusion distance for gases.
4. Moist surface: to prevent drying out of cells as they are in contact with dry air.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Ventilation (Breathing)
ro
om
It is the movement of air in (inspiration) and out of the lungs (expiration).
.co
m
/
Ventilation is controlled by two groups of muscles: The Diaphragm and Intercostal muscles.
Inspiration Expiration
Diaphragm: contracts and flattens. Diaphragm: relaxes & domes.

Intercostal muscles: contract Intercostal muscles: relax
Rib cage: moves upwards & outwards. Rib cage: moves downwards & inwards
Volume of thorax: increases Volume of thorax: decreases
Pressure inside the thorax: Decreases below Pressure inside the thorax: increases
atmospheric pressure above atmospheric pressure
So air enters lungs. So air exits lungs.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Comparison between inspired and expired air
ro
om
Atmospheric Inspired air Expired air Cause of difference
.co
m
/
air
Oxygen 21% 16% Used in respiration
Carbon 0.03% 4% Produced from respiration
dioxide
Nitrogen 79% 79% Not used by the cells
Water content Variable Always high Water is produced from
respiration
Temperature Variable Always high Air is warmed as it passes
through the warm respiratory
passages.
Hazards of smoking
Tobacco smoking is a major risk factor for heart and lung diseases. It contains three main
ingredients: Nicotine, Carbon monoxide and Tar.
Nicotine • A highly addictive substance that acts as a brain stimulant

• Increases heart rate and blood pressure
• Increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases
Carbon monoxide • Combines with Hemoglobin forming Carboxyhemoglobin which

reduces oxygen delivery to all the body tissues including the heart.
• Damages endothelium of blood vessels which stimulates deposition
of cholesterol blocking coronary arteries. This stops blood supply to
cardiac muscles so no oxygen is delivered & no aerobic respiration
occurs. Anaerobic respiration occurs which produces lactic acid.
Lactic acid lowers pH which denatures enzymes. This leads to death
of cardiac muscles (Myocardial Infarction).
Tar • Tar is highly carcinogenic. It increases the risk of lung cancer.

• Increases mucus secretion & damages cilia. Accumulation of mucus
traps more bacteria causing bronchitis.
• Mucus is removed by coughing. Severe coughing ruptures the
alveoli which reduces the surface area for gas exchange
(emphysema).

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 12: Digestive system
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Before starting to discuss the human digestive system, we have to elaborate the differences
.co
m
/
between some important terms:
• Ingestion: Intake of food by the mouth.

• Digestion: breakdown of food into small soluble molecules.
• Absorption: transport of small soluble food molecules from the small intestine into
blood.
• Assimilation: making use of digested food.
• Egestion: getting rid of the ndigested food in the form of feces from the anus.
The process of Digestion could be divided into:

Ø Mechanical digestion: Breaking down large pieces of food into smaller ones.
Ø Chemical digestion: Breaking down Large food molecules into small soluble ones by
enzymes.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
The digestive system is divided into:
rit
ish
Alimentary canal Associated organs
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Mouth Salivary glands
.co
m
/
Pharynx Liver
Oesophagus Gall bladder
Stomach Pancreas
Small intestine
Large intestine
Anus
DIGESTION
The process of digestion takes place in the following four sites:
1. Mouth
2. Oesophagus
3. Stomach
4. Small intestine
Digestion in the mouth

• Mechanical digestion (chewing): Teeth breakdown food into smaller pieces to increase
surface area for enzyme activity and to make swallowing easier.
• Chemical digestion: There are three pairs of salivary glands that produce saliva
containing water, salivary amylase & sodium bicarbonate.
Salivary amylase breaks down starch into maltose & Sodium bicarbonate provides
optimum pH for the action of salivary amylase.
Digestion in the Oesophagus
• Mechanical digestion only by

(Peristalsis):
Peristalsis is the Alternative

contraction & relaxation of the
circular & longitudinal muscles in
the wall of the Oesophagus
breaking down food and pushing
food downwards.
N.B. Peristalsis is the name of the process that moves food down the alimentary canal.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Digestion in the Stomach
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
• Mechanical digestion (churning movement): a form of peristalsis.
m
/
• Chemical digestion: The stomach secretes gastric juice which contains pepsin enzyme and
HCL.
Functions of HCL: 1. Activates pepsinogen into pepsin

2. Provides an optimum pH for the action of pepsin
3. Kills bacteria in food
Functions of pepsin: Digests proteins into polypeptides.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Digestion in the small intestine
stu
de
nt
ro
om
The small intestine consists of three parts. The duodenum is the
.co
m
/
first part of the small intestine. It is the site of digestion; it
receives bile juice & pancreatic juice & it produces the intestinal
juice. The Jejunum is the middle part while the Ileum is the last
part. The ileum is the site of absorption and it leads to the large
intestine.
The Small intestine has three digestive juices: Bile juice, Pancreatic Juice & Intestinal juice:
• Bile juice: made by the liver & stored in the gall bladder.
It contains no enzymes but,
1. Sodium bicarbonate: to neutralize the acidity of food coming from the stomach.
2. Bile pigments: produced from the breakdown of RBCs in the liver.
3. Bile salts: Breakdown large fat globules into smaller ones to increase their surface
area. This is known as emulsification of fats which is considered as a form of
mechanical digestion.
• Pancreatic juice: secreted from the pancreas and it contains:

1. Sodium bicarbonate: same as above.
2. Enzymes:
Amylase breaks down starch into maltose.
Trypsin breaks down polypeptides into amino acids.
Lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
• Intestinal juice: secreted from the small intestine & contains enzymes:
1. Maltase breaks down maltose into two glucose molecules
2. Sucrase breaks down sucrose into glucose & fructose
3. Lactase breaks down lactose into glucose & galactose

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
ABSORPTION
de
nt
ro
om
After digestion, most of the carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharaides, proteins
.co
m
/
into amino acids, fats into fatty acids and glycerol and they are now ready to be absorbed.
minerals, vitamins & water are directly absorbed as they are already simple and require no
digestion.
Adaptation of the small intestine for absorption:
1. It is very long (about 5 metres in length): this increases surface area for diffusion.
2. Villi are covered by microvilli: to increase surface area for diffusion.
3. Villi have very thin permeable walls (one cell thick): to shorten diffusion distance.
4. Villi contain blood capillaries: To absorb all food elements except fats.
5. Villi contain lacteals: to absorb fatty acids & glycerol.
EGESTION
• Not all the food we eat can be digested.

• The undigested food travels to the large intestine (colon) which absorbs an average
amount of water producing semi-solid feces.
• Under-absorption of water leads to watery stool “diarrhea”
• Over-absorption of waters leads to hard lumps of stool causing “constipation”
N.B. The large intestine (colon) forms feces, the rectum stores feces & the anus expels feces.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 13: Circulatory system
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
The human circulatory system consists of three elements:
m
/
1- Heart 2-Blood vessels 3- Blood
The Heart
The heart is a muscular pump which pumps blood to all body parts.
Structure of the heart:
• Four chambers: Right atrium.

Right ventricle
Left atrium
Left ventricle
• Four valves: Right AV Valve (Tricuspid)
Left AV Valve (Bicuspid)
Pulmonary Semilunar Valve
Aortic Semilunar Valve
N.B. The function of valves is to ensure blood flow in one direction and prevent
backflow in the opposite direction.
• Four main vessels: Vena cava ® entering the right atrium
Pulmonary artery ® exiting the Right ventricle
Pulmonary veins ® entering the left atrium
Aorta ® exiting the left ventricle.
• Septum: separating the right side of the heart (conatining deoxygenated blood) from
the left side (containing oxygenated blood).

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Circulation through the heart:
stu
de
nt
ro
om
1- Deoxygenated blood from the whole body enters the right atrium carried by the
.co
m
/
vena cava.
2- Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the right atrium into the right ventricle.
3- Deoxygenated blood is then pumped from the right ventricle to the lungs carried
by the pulmonary artery. In the lungs, oxygenation takes place. (Gas exchange)
4- Oxygenated blood is returned to the left atrium carried by the pulmonary veins.
5- Oxygenated blood is pumped from the left atrium into the left ventricle.
6- The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to all the tissues of the body carried by
the aorta.
N.B. The left ventricle is the chamber with the thickest wall & the aorta is the vessel with
highest pressure.
N.B. Double circulation means that blood
passes by the heart twice per cycle.
N.B. Single circulation means that blood
passes by the heart only once per cycle. This
occurs for example in fish where the heart
pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills that
oxygenate blood and pump it directly to the
tissues without being returned to the heart.
N.B. For Pulmonary circulation describe 3 & 4
while for Systemic circulation describe 1 & 6.
Single Circulation

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Blood supply of the heart
stu
de
nt
The heart is supplied by blood vessels known as coronary arteries. These coronary arteries
ro
om
carry oxygen and nutrients to the continuously contracting heart muscles. Partial or
.co
m
/
complete blockage of the coronary arteries leads to coronary heart diseases.
Abnormalities of the heart/Fetal heart

The fetal heart is different from the heart of a
born child as it is still being formed. This fetal
heart may have:
- A connection between both atria.

- A connection between both ventricles.
- A connection between the pulmonary
artery and the aorta.
If a child is born with any of these

abnormalities, the child will suffer from
mixing of oxygenated blood with
deoxygenated blood leading to reduced
oxygen delivery to all tissues.
Assessment of heart functioning:

- Heart rate: Number of heart beats per minute.
- Stroke volume: Volume of blood pumped by the heart in one beat.
- Cardiac output: Volume of blood pumped by the heart in one minute.
Effect of exercise on the heart

During exercise, there is more adrenaline released in the body. Adrenaline increases heart
rate leading to a higher cardiac output ® more oxygenated blood reaches muscles ® more
aerobic respiration ® more energy released ® better muscle contraction ® less
anaerobic respiration needed ® less lactic acid ® less fatigue.
Benefits of regular exercise

Regular exercise strengthens cardiac muscles so they have a more forceful contraction. This
increases stroke volume leading to a higher cardiac output.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Cardiovascular diseases:
stu
de
nt
- Injury to the endothelium lining coronary arteries due to many factors such as
ro
om
hypertension & smoking.
.co
m
/
- This leads to accumulation of
cholesterol blocking the lumen of the
coronary artery.
- Blockage reduces oxygen supply to the
cardiac muscles which stops aerobic
respiration.
- Anaerobic respiration occurs which
produces lactic acid.
- Lactic acid lowers pH denaturing enzymes which causes death of the cardiac muscles.
This condition is known as (Myocardial infarction)
Risk factors of Coronary heart diseases Preventive measures of coronary heart

diseases
1. Diet: rich is saturated animal fats 1. Diet with low saturated animal fats and
which contains high levels of unsaturated plant oils instead.
cholesterol.
2. Smoking: Tobacco smoke contains 2. Avoid smoking.
nicotine which raises blood
pressure and heart rate.
3. Stress: Increases blood pressure. 3. Avoid stress.
4. Lack of exercise: slow blood flow 4. Do regular exercise.
increases the chances of atheroma
and thrombus formation.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
The Blood Vessels
stu
de
nt
Arteries Veins Capillaries
ro
om
.co
m
Direction Exiting the heart Entering the heart Connecting arteries to
/
of blood veins
flow
Function Carry oxygenated Carry deoxygenated Deliver Oxygen &
blood from the heart blood from all the body nutrients then collect
to all the body tissues tissues to the heart. carbon dioxide and waste
products from the tissues.
Except the pulmonary
Except the pulmonary vein (the only vein
artery (the only artery carrying oxygenated
carrying blood) & umbilical vein
deoxygenated blood) in fetal life
& umbilical artery in
fetal life
Wall Thick wall: to Thin wall as blood Very thin permeable wall
withstand high blood passes at low pressure. (one cell thick) to shorten
pressure. diffusion distance.
Contains many elastic Contains fewer elastic The wall has capillary
fibres and smooth fibers and smooth pores to facilitate
muscles. muscles. exchange of substances.
Lumen Narrow lumen Wide lumen Very small lumen
Valves No valves as blood Valves are present to No valves

flow is forced by high prevent backflow of
blood pressure blood
Pressure Highest lowest Lower than arteries but
higher than veins
Pulsations They pulsate No pulsations No pulsations

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
N.B. To measure The heart rate: Allow the candidate to sit down and have rest. Then place
your fingers lightly over the wrist to count the number of pulses. Use a stopwatch to record
the number of pulses in 20 seconds then multiply by 3. Repeat & take average.
N.B. Injections are preferred in veins not arteries, why?

- Veins are closer to the skin surface.
- Veins have lower pressure.
N.B. We can’t make injections in capillaries as capillaries may rupture.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
The Blood
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
Immunity
There are two main types of WBCs: Phagocytes & Lymphocytes
Phagocytes:
- They are responsible for phagocytosis.
- They engulf bacteria, then secrete enzymes to
digest bacteria.
Lymphocytes:
- They are responsible for antibody production.
- They secrete antibodies complementary to the
foreign antigen. Antibodies bind to antigens
forming Antigen-Antibody complex. This makes
phagocytosis easier.
Memory cells: They store information about any pathogen. If the same pathogen reattacks
the body, they produce larger quantities of antibodies in a shorter period of time.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Vaccination: Is the process of giving live attenuated or killed pathogens (viruses or
de
nt
ro
bacteria) to stimulate the formation of memory cells. So if the same pathogen rettacks the
om
.co
body, the memory cells destroy it by producing larger quantities of antibodies in a shorter
m
/
period of time..
Tissue rejection: When an organ is transplanted into a person, lymphocytes recognize the
foreign antigens carried by the cells of that organ and start producing antibodies destroying
them.
How to overcome tissue rejection?
The donor must have similar antigens to those of the recipient.
The recipient is given immuno-suppressive drugs.
Blood Clotting
They are non nucleated fragments of cells responsible for blood clotting.
Importance of blood clotting:

- Prevents blood loss.
- Prevents entry of pathogens causing diseases.
How does blood clotting occur?

- Platelets produce thromboplastin that activates prothrombin into thrombin.
- Thrombin is an active enzyme than converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin.
- Fibrin forms a mesh that traps blood cells forming blood clot.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Chapter 14: Excretion
de
nt
ro
om
The table below shows the main excretory substances and excretory organs:
.co
m
/
Excretory substances Excretory organs
Carbon dioxide Lungs through exhalation
Urea Kidneys through urine

Excess water & salts Skin through sweat
Bile piment produced by breakdown of Liver through bile

RBCs
Urinary system
Formed of two kidneys, two ureters (carry urine to bladder), urinary bladder (stores urine),
sphincter muscle (controls urination) & urethra (passes urine to outside) .

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
Microscopic structure of the kidneys
nt
ro
om
Nephron: is the building unit of the kidney. Each kidney is formed of millions of nephrons.
.co
m
/
Each nephron is formed of:
• Glomerulus
• Bowman’s capsule
• Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
• Loop of Henle Renal Tubules
• Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
• Collecting duct
The glomerulus has higher pressure than

other capillaries as:
- The blood vessels entering is wider
than the blood vessels leaving it.
- The glomerulus has narrow capillary
pores.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Formation of urine
de
nt
ro
om
.co
This occurs through 2 phases:
m
/
1. Ultrafiltration:
§ Definition: The separation of very small molecules from larger ones under high
pressure.
§ Site: Bowman’s capsule membrane
§ Filtered substances: All components of blood except blood cells & plasma
proteins.
§ Mechanism: Passive transport.
2. Selective reabsorption:
§ Definition: The reabsorption of useful substances back into blood.
§ Site: Renal tubules.
§ Reabsorbed substances: All glucose, Most of the Water and Some amino acids
& salts. Reabsorption of glucose occurs at The Proximal convoluted tubules
while reabsorption of water occurs at the Collecting ducts.
§ Mechanism: Active transport.
Comparison between the Renal artery & Renal vein
Renal artery Renal vein
Oxygenated blood Deoxygenated blood
High levels of urea Traces of urea

Excretory function
Water level imbalanced Water level balanced
Osmoregulatory
function Salt level imbalanced Salt level balanced

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Kidney failure
stu
de
nt
It is a very common problem that may result from different causes like high blood
ro
om
pressure or chronic infections. It can be treated by Kidney transplantation or dialysis.
.co
m
/
Kidney transplantation: The transplanted kidney is
usually placed in the pelvis to be closer to the urinary
bladder, while the diseased kidney is left in place to reduce
surgical complications.
Dialysis:
• Blood flows from an artery in the patients
arm into the dialysis machine.
• The dialysis machine has dialysis fluid
containing optimum concentration of all
substances but no urea
• The patient’s blood is separated from the
dialysis fluid by a partially permeable
membrane dialysis membrane.
• Small molecules as urea and excess salts
are removed from the blood by diffusion
down concentration gradient.
• Larger molecules as proteins and blood
cells cannot pass from the dialysis
membrane and remain in blood.
• Now blood has a regulated water, salt & glucose levels.
• Blood is returned back to a vein in the patient’s arm.
Dialysis vs. Kidney transplantation

Advantages of Kidney transplantation Advantages of dialysis:
- A permanent solution - No need for a donor
- No need to go to hospital three times per - No risk of surgical complications
week so it gives freedom to work. - No risk of tissue rejection.
- Better quality of life. - No need for immuno suppressive drugs.
Disadvantages of transplantation: Disadvantages of dialysis:
- Shortage of donors - Risk of infection
- Risk of surgical complications - Time wasting as it needs to be repeated 3
- Risk of tissue rejection times weekly
- Need for immunosupressive drugs - No freedom to work.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Chapter 15: Homeostasis
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Homeostasis is keeping the internal environment constant.
m
/
Negative feedback: It is an action that corrects any deviation from normal.
Examples:
• Keeping glucose concentration constant.
• Keeping blood concentration constant.
• Keeping body temperature constant.
Keeping blood glucose level constant
Ø When the blood glucose level increases, the pancreas receptors detect the increase so
the pancreas secretes more insulin. This insulin travels in blood to ac on the liver
converting glucose into glycogen thus glucose level returns normal.
Ø When the blood glucose level falls down, The pancreas receptors detect the decrease
and the pancreas secretes more glucagon. This glucagon travels in blood to act on the
liver converting glycogen into glucose thus glucose level returns normal.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Keeping blood concentration constant
stu
de
nt
ro
(Osmoregulation)
om
.co
m
/
Concentrated blood Dilute blood
• When blood passes by the hypothalamus • When blood passes by the hypothalamus
too concentrated too dilute
• The hypothalamus responds by sending • The hypothalamus responds by sending
impulses to the pituitary gland impulses to the pituitary gland
• The pituitary gland secretes more ADH. • The pituitary gland secretes less ADH.
• ADH travels in blood to act on the kidneys • ADH travels in blood to act on the kidneys
(collecting ducts). (collecting ducts).
• This increases permeability of the • This decreases permeability of the
collecting ducts. collecting ducts.
• More reabsorption of water back into • Less reabsorption of water back into
blood. blood.
(Concentrated urine) (Dilute urine)
N.B. Factors contributing to concentrated blood include: Exercising on a hot day with
excessive sweating as well as excessive proteins, salts or glucose in diet.
On the contrary drinking a lot of water leads to dilute blood.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Keeping body temperature constant
stu
de
nt
ro
(Thermoregulation)
om
.co
m
/
In case of overheating:
When the body temperature tends to rise above 37°C , the hypothalamus detects the change
& sends nerve impulses leading to:
• Vasodilation of skin arterioles, this increases blood flow in the capillaries under the
skin leading to more heat loss by radiation.
• Increased sweating from sweat glands leading to more heat loss by evaporation.
• Relaxation of erector muscles so hair becomes parallel to the skin surface, no air
trapped above the skin so no insulation.
• Decreased metabolic rate in the liver: so, less heat released in the body.
• Panting: Rapid deep breathing to increase heat loss.
In case of overcooling:
When the body temperature tends to fall below 37°C, the hypothalamus sends nerve
impulses leading to:
• Vasoconstriction of skin arterioles, this decreases blood flow in the capillaries under
the skin leading to less heat loss by radiation.
• Decreased sweating from sweat glands leading to less heat loss by evaporation.
• Contraction of erector muscles so hair becomes
perpendicular to the skin surface, air is trapped above the
skin acting as an insulator.
• Increased metabolic rate in the liver: so, more heat
released in the body.
• Shivering: repeated contraction and relaxation of muscles so more respiration and
more heat released in the body.
N.B. Functions of the skin:
1. Protection from entry of microorganisms
causing infection.
2. Waterproof barrier preventing loss of
water
3. Thermoregulation
4. Sensory organ for touch and temperature
changes.
N.B. Small organisms have large surface area to volume ratio so more heat loss.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 16: Reproduction in animals
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Male reproductive system
.co
m
/
The Testis produces sperm & secretes testosterone hormone, Seminal vesicles produces
semen, a fluid in which sperms swim & a source of nutrients for sperms, Prostate gland
secretions activate sperms, Epididymis stores sperms, Sperm duct transports sperms from
the testis to urethra, Urethra passes semen/urine outside the body.
Female reproductive system
Ovaries:
• Produce ova once per month
• Secrete Oestrogen and Progesterone
Fallopian tubes (oviducts):
• Site of fertilization
• Transport ova from ovaries to the uterus
Uterus:
• Site of embryo development
• Inner wall develops placenta
• Outer wall is formed of muscles to expel
the baby at birth
Cervix:
• Opening of the uterus
• Widens at birth
Vagina:
• Site of sperm deposition
• Delivery of the baby.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Puberty (10-14 years)
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Definition: It is the age at which secondary sex characters appear and gametes start to be
.co
m
/
produced (ova in females & sperms in males)
Secondary sex characters appear due to the great increase in the levels of sex hormones after
puberty (Oestrogen in females & testosterone in males)
Secondary sex characters in females Secondary sex characters in males

Growth of axillary & pubic hair Growth of axillary & pubic hair
Enlargement of sex organs. Enlargement of sex organs.
Breast growth, Muscle growth
Widening of the hips Widening of the shoulder
High pitched voice Low pitched voice
Menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle is a repeated cycle of events occurring every month from puberty till
menopause
Events of the Menstrual cycles

- Day 1 to 4: Shedding of the uterus lining leading to bleeding for 4 days.
- Day 4 to 14: Repair of the uterus lining.
- Day 14: Ovulation occurs (egg is produced and released in the oviduct)
- Day 14-28: Maintenance of the Uterus lining.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
Hormones controlling the menstrual cycle
rit
ish
stu
- The Pituitary gland produces Follicular stimulating hormone (FSH)
de
nt
ro
- FSH causes growth of the ovarian follicles (balls of cells)
om
.co
- Follicles produce Oestrogen which repairs the uterus lining.
m
/
- At day 14, the pituitary gland secretes Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Luteinizing hormone (LH) causes rupture of the mature ovarian follicle releasing an egg
in the oviduct and producing corpus luteum (Ovulation)
- Corpus luteum secretes progesterone.
- Progesterone maintains the Uterus lining till day 28.
- After day 28, the Corpus luteum is broken down, so no progesterone or Oestrogen
leading to shedding of the Uterus lining again.

/
m
.co
76
om
ro
nt
de
stu
ish
rit
/b
s:/
tp
ht
Dr. Mohab Megahed

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Graphs of the menstrual cycle
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
N.B. In case of pregnancy the corpus luteum is not broken down in 14 days as usual, it
survives for 90 days and keeps secreting Progesterone. This maintains the Uterus lining until
the Placenta is formed which secretes Progesterone for the rest of the pregnancy period.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Sexual intercourse
stu
de
nt
ro
- The penis contains erectile tissue which is filled with blood when the male is sexually
om
.co
stimulated.
m
/
- The penis becomes erect and firm to be ready for insertion into the vagina.
- The penis ejaculates semen in the top of the vagina.
- Then sperms travel as follows:
Vagina→ cervix→ uterus→ fallopian tube→ ovum
Pregnancy
Pregnancy is the period of development between fertilization of an ovum and the birth of a
baby. Pregnancy is about 36 weeks. It is maintained by progesterone secreted by the Corpus
luteum for the first 3 months then by the placenta for the rest of pregnancy. This keeps the
uterus lining intact preventing abortion.
Phases of Pregnancy
1- Fertilization: Fusion of the sperm and ovum producing a zygote. This occurs in the
outer 1/3 of the oviduct.
N.B. Sperms are many, mini and motile.

Many to increase chances of fertilization
Mini to swim easily consuming less energy
Motile to be able to swim and reach the egg in the oviduct
Unlike the ovum which is large to increase surface area for better
chances of fertilization and to store enough food for growth.
2- Embryo formation: the produced zygote divides by mitosis producing an embryo.

3- Implantation: sinking of the developing embryo into the uterus lining.
4- Placenta formation: the placenta is a disc
shaped organ attached to the uterus lining
by finger like projections called chorionic
villi and to the fetus by the umbilical cord.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
Functions of the placenta:
rit
ish
• Respiration: Provides the fetus with Oxygen.
stu
de
nt
• Nutrition: Provides the fetus with nutrients (Nutrients diffuse from higher
ro
om
.co
concentration in the maternal blood to lower concentration in the fetal blood through
m
/
the umbilical cord). This allows for fetal growth.
• Excretion: Removes fetal waste products such as CO2 & urea.
• Endocrine: Secretes Progesterone after the 3rd month of pregnancy
• Protection: The placenta separates maternal blood from fetal blood so it protects the
fetus from high blood pressure, pathogens and toxins in maternal blood.
5- Amnion formation
Amniotic sac: secretes the amniotic fluid.

Amniotic fluid: contains water, glucose and inorganic salts.
Functions of the amniotic fluid:

• Acts as a shock absorber protecting the fetus from external injury
• Allows easy movement of the fetus.
• Prevents adhesions of different parts of the fetal body.
• Keeps constant temperature for the fetus.
Stem Cells
Differentiation: The process by which non specialized cells become specialized to have a
specific structure which is adapted to a certain function.
Example: Cells in an embryo are originally non specialized. However, by time they
undergo differentiation. One cell might form a neuron while another cell might form a
blood cell. Embryonic cells are examples of non-specialized cells while Neurons & blood
cells are examples of specialized cells.
Stem cells: are undifferentiated cells that can give rise to any other type of cells. Stem cells
maybe embryonic stem cells or adult stem cells (Bone marrow sample).
• Advantages of stem cells: They can differentiate into any other type of cell, so they
can be used in medicine to:
1. Repair damaged tissues by replacement of damaged cells.
2. Produce organs for transplantation.
• Disadvantages of stem cells: There use in medicine carries the risk of:
1. Cancer
2. Tissue rejection (If taken from another person)
3. Infection
ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 17: Coordination in animals
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Coordination is the process by which all the organs of the human body work efficiently
m
/
together. This could be either achieved by the nervous system or the hormonal system.
Nervous system Hormonal system
Nature of the message Electric Cehmical
Transporter Neurons Blood

Speed Fast Slow
Duration Short Long
Effect Localized Effect. Widespread effect

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Hormonal system
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Hormone Source Action Additional
m
/
points
Adrenaline Adrenal gland Prepares the body for
fight & flight. It dilates the
eye pupils, increases
breathing rate, heart rate
and blood pressure.
Thyroxin Thyroid gland Controls metabolic rate
Growth hormone Pituitary gland Speeds up growth and
development in children
Insulin Pancreas Converts glucose into Insulin
( Islets of glycogen in the liver dfeiciency
Langerhans) causes Diabetes
mellitus
Glucagon Pancreas Converts glycogen into
glucose in the liver
Anti- Diuretic hormone Pituitary gland Increases permeability of ADH deficiency
(ADH) the collecting ducts of the causes Diabetes
kidney leading to more insipidus
reabsorption of water
back into blood.
Testosterone Testes Development of male
secondary sex characters
& formation of sperms
Luteinizing Hormone Pituitary gland Responsible for ovulation
(LH) & formation of Corpus
Luteum
Follicular Stimulating Pituitary gland Growth of ovarian
Hormone (FSH) follicules
Oestrogen Ovaries Development of female
sex organs and secondary
sex characters
Progesterone Corpus luteum Maintaining uterus lining If placenta
then Placenta doesnot secrete
enough Prog.→
Abortion

ht
tp
s:/
/b
Nervous system
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
The nervous system consists of central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
ro
om
.co
m
/
Central nervous system (CNS)
The central nervous system is formed of Brain & Spinal

cord.
The Brain consists of Cerebrum, cerebellum & medulla

oblongata.
The spinal cord consists of gery matter and white matter.
The spinal cord is responsible for delivering ascending sensation from the lower body to the
brain and also delivering descending motor commands from the brain to the lower body.
However, some actions may totally occur at the level of the spinal cord. They are known as
Reflex actions.
Reflex Action
- It’s an immediate involuntary protective response to a painful stimulus. For example,

pin prick or touching a hot object.
- The pathway of reflex action is known as the reflex arc which occurs as follows:
1- Sensory receptor: detects the painful

stimulus.
2- Sensory Neuron: carries nerve impulses
from the sensory receptor to the spinal
cord.
3- Relay Neuron: carries impulses from the
sensory neuron to the motor neuron.
4- Motor neuron: carries impulses from the
spinal cord to the effector.
5- Effector: a muscle that contracts
withdrawing the arm away from the
painful stimulus.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Peripheral Nervous System
stu
de
nt
ro
om
There are three types of neurons: Motor, Sensory & Relay Neurons
.co
m
/
Motor Neuron
Function: It carries electric impulses from the CNS to effectors (Exiting the CNS)
Structure:
- Terminal cell body
- Single long axon
- Mostly myelinated
- Multiple short dendrites
N.B. Electric impulses flow in dendrites

towards the cell body and in the axon
away from the cell body.
Sensory Neuron
Function: It carries electric impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS (Entering the CNS)
Structure:
- Central cell body
- Single long dendron
- Single short axon
- Mostly non myelinated.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Relay Neuron
stu
de
nt
Function: carries electric impulses from the sensory to the motor neuron (Inside the CNS)
ro
om
Structure: similar to the motor neuron (or the sensory) but much shorter.
.co
m
/
Synapse
It is the microscopic gap between two neurons. Electric impulses cannot flow in space, so the
electric impulse in the presynaptic neuron is converted into a chemical neurotransmitter that
crosses the synaptic gap to reach the post synaptic neuron where it is converted into electric
impulse again.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 18: The Eye
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
The human eye is formed of:
1- Eye lid: Protects the eye by blinking which is a reflex action.
2- Sclera: The outermost tough white layer. It protects the eye and maintains its shape.
3- Cornea: Transparent extension of the sclera. It is the main site of refraction of light.
4- Conjunctiva: Transparent sheet covering the exposed part of the eye ball. It protects
the cornea from dust and pathogens.
5- Choroid: A red layer between the retina and sclera.
It contains blood vessels supplying the retina with Oxygen and nutrients. It also
prevents internal reflection of light in the eye.
6- Iris: colored muscles with a hole in the center called the Eye
pupil. It controls the amount of light entering the eye by
adjusting the size of the eye pupil (this mechanism is known as
pupillary reflex)
7- Ciliary muscles
8- Suspensory Ligaments. Responsible for the Accommodation reflex.
9- Eye Lens
10- Retina: Inner layer of the eye. It contains light sensitive rods & cones that convert light
into electric impulses.
11- Optic nerve: Carries electric impulses from the retina to the brain.
12- Fovea (yellow spot): Found in the middle of the retina and contains cones only.
13- Blind spot: It is the point of exit of the optic nerve. Has no rods or cones.
14- Aqueous humour: Clear fluid between the lens and cornea.
15- Vitreous humour: Viscous fluid between the lens and retina.
Both fluids supply nutrition and play a minimal role in refraction
ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Reflexes of the eye
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Pupillary reflex
.co
m
/
Definition: Changing the size of the eye pupil to control the amount of light entering the
eye in different light intensities.
Bright light Dim light
What Happens? Pupil constricts Pupil dilates
How it happens? Circular muscles contract Circular muscles relax

Radial muscles relax Radial muscles contract
Why it happens? To Protect the retina To collect more light rays

From high light intensity on the retina

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Accommodation reflex
de
nt
ro
om
Definition: Changing the shape of the eye lens in response to the distance of an object.
.co
m
/
Far object Near object
What happens? Flat lens Rounded lens

How it happens? Ciliary muscles relax Ciliary muscles contract
Suspensory ligaments tighten Suspensory ligaments loosen
Why it happens? To adjust light rays on the retina To adjust light rays on the retina

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Section IV
.co
m
/
Genetics

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
Chapter 19: Inheritance
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
Inheritance: It is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation
leading to continuity and variation within the species.
Chromosomes: Thread like structures. We have 46 chromosomes in human cells, 44 coding

for all body characteristics (autosomes) & 2 coding for gender (sex chromosomes)
Genes: A gene is a short length of DNA coding for a certain characteristic through protein
synthesis. A gene consists of 2 alleles; one from the father & one from the mother.
Alleles: Alternative forms of a gene. An allele maybe either dominant or recessive.
Dominant allele: An allele that can show itself on the phenotype in presence or absence of
the recessive allele. It is expressed if the individual is homozygous dominant or
heterozygous.
Homozygous: Individual having two identical alleles for a certain characteristic. If both are
dominant, we call the person Homozygous dominant (BB). If both are recessive, we call the
person Homozygous recessive (bb).
Heterozygous: Individual having two different alleles for the same characteristic (Bb).
Genotype: The genes of an individual. (BB, Bb or bb)
Phenotype: The external appearance of an individual as a result of interaction between his

genotype and environment. (tall, short, average)

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Genetic diagrams
de
nt
ro
The genetic diagram should include the following:
om
.co
m
/
- Parents genotype
- Gametes
- Offspring genotype
- Offspring phenotype
- Ratio or percentage
Solved Example:
The allele for Black fur is B and brown fur is b. Draw a genetic diagram showing the
offspring of a heterozygous father and a homozygous recessive mother.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
Practice Example 1:
nt
ro
om
.co
m
Two parents with black fur mated, they produced a child with brown fur. Draw a genetic
/
diagram.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Practice Example 2:
stu
de
nt
ro
om
a- Gregor Mendel crossed a pure breed of Red flowers with a pure breed of white
.co
m
/
flowers. All the offspring produced was red. Draw a genetic diagram using “R” for
red colour allele and “r” for white colour allele.
In a second cross, Mendel ensured self-pollination of the offspring.
b- Suggest how did Mendel ensure self-pollination.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
c- Draw a genetic diagram showing the offspring probabilities of the second cross.
ro
om
.co
m
/
d- In the actual mating, 10 white flowers and ten red flowers were produced. Suggest
reasons for the difference between the actual ratio and the expected ratio.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Sex determination
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
- Out of the 23 pairs there is only 1 pair that determines sex and is known as the sex
m
/
chromosomes.
- In females this pair is XX while in males this pair is XY.
- So, in the ovaries all ova produced will have an X chromosome while in the testis half
sperms will have X and half will have Y chromosome.
- If a sperm with X chromosome fertilizes the ovum, this will produce a zygote with XX
(female).
- If a sperm with Y chromosome fertilizes the ovum, this will produce a zygote with XY
(male)
- This explains why the expected ratio of males to females is 1:1

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Genetic diseases
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Genetic disease is a disease caused by a faulty allele. A genetic disease maybe either
m
/
Recessive inherited or Dominant inherited.
Recessive inherited Dominant inherited

Definition The faulty allele is a recessive The faulty allele is a dominant
allele (e.g. Cystic fibrosis) allele (e.g. Achondroplasia)
Alleles F: normal A: Below average height
f: diseased a: Average height
Genotype FF: normal AA: diseased
options Ff: normal (carrier) Aa: diseased
ff: diseased aa: normal
Practice Question: Two normal parents gave rise to a child with cystic fibrosis. Draw a
genetic diagram.
N.B.
Carrier: Normal phenotype and heterozygous genotype. Carriers only exist in recessive
inherited genetic disorders.
If two normal parents gave rise to a diseased child, the following conclusions are made:
1) The disease is recessive inherited.
2) The parents are heterozygous (carriers).
3) The diseased child is homozygous recessive as this child must have inherited two
recessive alleles, one from each parent.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Family Pedigree
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
A family pedigree is a diagram showing the inheritance of a certain disease in a certain
m
/
family.
The pedigree shows inheritance of cystic fibrosis in a certain family.
a- Give the genotypes of H, D & L.
b- Identify the family members who must be heterozygous and explain your answer.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Karyotype
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
A diagram showing all the chromosomes found in the nucleus of a human cell.
m
/
- They are arranged in 23 pairs.
- The last pair in the diagram (position 23) is the sex chromosomes.
- X chromosome is taller than Y.
- Y is dominant over X.
Practice Question:
Comment on the given Karyotype and state the gender of this person.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Types of Inheritance
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Complete dominance: The effect of the recessive allele is completely masked by the
m
/
dominant allele.
Codominance: Both alleles can show themselves equally on the phenotype of the offspring.
Example: Blood group AB.
A & B are dominant over O. While, they show codominance to each other.
Blood group (phenotype) Genotype

Blood group A AA AO
I I or I I
Blood group B IBIB or IBIO
Blood group AB AB
I I (Co-dominance)
Blood group O OO
I I
Example: CR is the allele for red color while CW is the allele for white color.
Draw a genetic diagram for the mating of a red flower with a white flower.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Comparison between the two types of inheritance:
ro
om
.co
m
/
- In complete dominance, the effect of the recessive allele is completely masked by the
dominant allele. While in codominance both alleles can show themselves equally on
the phenotype of the offspring.
- In complete dominance, there are two possible phenotype options for a certain
individual, while in codominance there are three possible phenotype options.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 20: Cell division & Variation
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Cell division
m
/
Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in somatic cells during growth Occurs in reproductive organs during
and repair formation of gametes
Forms 2 daughter cells with diploid Forms 4 daughter cells with haploid
number of chromosomes number of chromosomes
The daughter cells are identical Daughter cells are not identical due to
random distribution of chromosomes
No variation Variation occurs

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Variation
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Definition: Variation means the observable changes within a species
m
/
Types of variation:
Continuous Variation Discontinuous Variation

› Ex. Height and weight. › Ex. Tongue rolling, Gender and Blood
› Range of different phenotypes. group.
› Affected by the environment. › Distinct phenotype.
› Carried by many genes on different › Not affected by environment.
loci (polygenic). › Carried by 1 gene only.
› Graph form is a Histogram or Bell- › Graph form is a Bar chart.
shaped curve.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Causes of Variation:
stu
de
nt
1. Meiosis: which produces non identical haploid cells (gametes).
ro
om
2. Random fertilization: Any sperm may fertilize any ovum.
.co
m
/
3. Mutation:
Ø A sudden unexpected change in the nitrogenous base sequence on DNA leading
to the synthesis of a different protein.
Ø Most mutations are harmful: for example, a mutation causing cancer.
Ø Some mutations are neutral: This happens if the change in DNA is small and
trivial. Ex. Mutation in the gene affecting tongue rolling.
Ø Some mutations are beneficial: Some mutations allow living organisms to
survive. Beneficial mutations play an important role in Natural selection.
N.B. Factors increasing the risk of mutation include exposure to ionizing radiations (X ray, UV
rays & gamma rays) as well as chemical mutagens (chemicals in tobacco).
Types of Reproduction
Sexual Asexual
Advantage Gives rise to genetic Produces genetically
variation so it increases identical organisms so it
adaptation to the conserves desirable
environment characteristics.
Disadvantage May lead to loss of desirable No variation so less
characteristics adaptation to the
environment

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Chapter 21: Natural Selection & Selective breeding
ro
om
.co
m
/
Natural selection
Natural selection is the process that allows different species to survive in different areas
“survival of the fittest”. Examples include:
1. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria:

Penicillin is one of the most commonly used antibiotics to kill bacteria. It was extracted from
a fungus known as Penicillium fungus. By time, a mutation occurred in the bacterial genes
leading to formation of penicillinase enzyme which destroys penicillin.
2. Changing the wing color of peppered moth:

The original moths used to have pale wings which allow them to
camouflage on clean tree trunks so that they are not spotted by
birds. After the industrial revolution in the UK, soot covered most of
the tree trunks which became dark. A mutation occurred in the genes
of moths leading to formation of dark wings (peppered) in order to
camouflage on dark tree trunks.
General scheme to apply on exam questions:
Mutations occur introducing favourable alleles coding for desirable characteristics such as
(apply on the question). Organisms with the desirable characteristic survive more /
reproduce more as (explanation from the question).
When they reproduce, they pass the favourable alleles to their offspring. This increases allele
frequency. By time, evolution of new species having the desirable characteristic takes place.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Practice Question:
stu
de
nt
ro
om
Two varieties of Lizards were detected in the Western desert. A variety with brown dotted
.co
m
/
coat & another variety with yellow dotted coat. In a study on lizard density, the following
results were produced:
Lizard variety Density (number/m2)

Brown variety 1
Yellow variety 6
Use your knowledge and understanding to explain the difference in density between the two
varieties.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Selective breeding (Artificial Selection)
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Selective breeding is a process carried out by humans in order to obtain animals or plants
m
/
with desirable characteristics.
There are five main steps in selective breeding:

1. Select organisms having the desirable characteristics.
2. Breed them together.
3. Select offspring having the desirable characteristics.
4. Breed them together.
5. Repeat for several generations.
Comparison between natural selection & selective breeding:
- Natural selection is a call of nature while selective breeding is done by humans.

- Selective breeding is a faster process.
- Selective breeding shows no competition between organisms.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 22: Cloning
stu
de
nt
Cloning is the process of producing large numbers of genetically identical individuals. It may
ro
om
be carried either in plants or animals.
.co
m
/
Cloning in plants
Cloning in plants depends on the process of tissue culture / micropropagation.
Tissue culture (micropropagation):
- Remove a side shoot from the plant. Cut into small pieces using a scalpel. Those are your
explants.
- Transfer the explants to agar medium using forceps. Add nitrates and magnesium to
improve growth. Explants will grow on agar forming calluses.
- Place the calluses in hormone rooting powder to form roots.
- Plant in pots containing compost.
- Transfer the pots to a greenhouse with optimum growth condition such as Temperature,
light intensity & humidity until they form adult plants.
- The whole process should be done under complete aseptic conditions to prevent growth
of pathogenic bacteria causing diseases to the plants.
Advantages of tissue culture:

1. Produces large number of genetically identical plants in a short period of time.
2. Plants can be grown throughout the year.
3. Protects plant species which are at risk of extinction.
4. New plants are disease free.
Disadvantage of tissue culture: Reduced variation which reduces adaptation to the

environment and increases risk of diseases.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Cloning in animals
de
nt
ro
om
.co
- Take a somatic cell from the animal to be cloned & extract its nucleus.
m
/
- Take an ovum from another female & remove its nucleus (enucleation).
- Fuse the extracted nucleus with the empty ovum.
- Use electric shock to allow the fused cell to divide by mitosis forming an embryo.
- Implant the embryo in the uterus of a foster/surrogate mother.
- The embryo develops normally into a genetically identical animal.
Advantage: Produces a large number of genetically identical animals in a short period of

time.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 23: Nucleic acids and protein synthesis
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
There are two types of nucleic acids; DNA & RNA.
m
/
DNA structure
Nucleotides are the building units of DNA. Each nucleotide is made of:
• Simple sugar: Deoxyribose.
• Nitrogenous base: Adenine (A), Thymine

(T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Uracil (U)
• Phosphate group.
DNA molecule:
- The DNA molecule is formed of two strands (double stranded)

- Each strand consists of many nucleotides.
- The two strands are linked together by H bonds between nitrogenous bases according
to complementary base pairing rules (Adenine with Thymine & Cytosine with Guanine).
- The two strands are coiled around each other forming a double helix.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
RNA Structure
stu
de
nt
ro
om
RNA is similar to DNA but with 3 main differences:
.co
m
/
1. The sugar is Ribose not deoxyribose.
2. RNA has Uracil instead of Thymine.
3. A molecule of RNA is single stranded while a molecule of DNA is double stranded.
Protein Synthesis
DNA is located in the nucleus. It carries the orders of protein synthesis. Every 3 successive
nitrogenous bases in a DNA molecule code for a certain amino acid. This is known as a Genetic
code.
However, the protein synthesis itself occurs in ribosomes which are found in the cytoplasm.
This explains why the process should have 2 successive steps:
1. Transcription:
- This process occurs inside the nucleus.
- In this process, part of the DNA coding for a certain protein (gene) is used as a template
to form messenger RNA (mRNA). This process is catalyzed by the enzyme RNA
Polymerase.
N.B. Every three successive nitrogenous bases on mRNA are known as a codon.
2. Translation:
- This process occurs in the ribosome (cytoplasm).
- In this process, mRNA is translated into a protein.
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to the ribosome and the ribosome forms
peptide bonds between these amino acids.
N.B. Every three successive nitrogenous bases on tRNA are known as anticodon.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 24: Genetic modification
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
1- Cut the gene of desired characteristic (e.g. insulin producing gene) from the human
m
/
chromosomes using restriction enzyme.
2- Cut a bacterial plasmid using the same restriction enzyme.
3- Add the gene to the cut plasmid using DNA ligase enzyme.
(The Plasmid is called a vector while its DNA is called recombinant DNA)
4- The plasmid with recombinant DNA is introduced into a bacterium.
5- The bacterium will start producing human insulin.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Fermenter
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
Aseptic conditions should be maintained: to prevent any microbes from competing with the
cultured bacteria for nutrients.
Disinfectants should be avoided: because they contaminate the products of the fermenter
& might kill the cultured microorganism. Steam is used as an alternative method of
sterilization before adding the GM microorganism. Steam has the advantages of condensing
into water without any chemical contamination of the products.
Air inlet: this supplies oxygen for aerobic respiration of the cultured microorganism.
Air filter: Prevents the entrance of other harmful microorganisms.
Nutrients: Provide energy for the growth of microorganisms.
Paddles/impeller: for continuous mixing of fermenter contents. This ensures rapid uptake
of the nutrients by microorganisms & distributes heat.
Optimum temperature: is maintained by a temperature recorder that measures

temperature & a cooling jacket to adjust temperature.
Optimum pH: is maintained by a pH recorder to measure pH and buffer solution to keep

constant pH
N.B. Optimum temperature & pH are important for proper enzyme activity. Fluctuations of
temperature/pH might denature the enzymes of the microorganism.
N.B. This device can be modified to culture anaerobic microorganisms by closing the air inlet
and opening the exhaust outlet.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Transgenic animals
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Transgenic means the transfer of genetic information from one species to another by genetic
m
/
modification.
Advantages of transgenic animals:
- Production of organs for transplantation

- Production of large quantities of human proteins such as monoclonal antibodies,
enzymes and hormones to be used by humans.
- Products have human antigens so they are not rejected by the immune system when
transferred to humans.
N.B. Transgenic animals can be then cloned so that we can have larger numbers of
genetically identical transgenic animals & consequently larger quantities of their products
with no need to repeat the genetic modification process.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
Chapter 25: Uses of microorganisms
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Making Bread
m
/
Anaerobic respiration of yeast produces Carbon dioxide.
During bread making the carbon dioxide produced by

yeast in the dough causes this dough to rise.
The rise is more significant after baking.
Making yoghurt
1- Milk is pasteurized at 85-95ºC for 15-30 minutes. (This high temperature kills any
pathogenic microorganisms in milk by denaturing their enzymes).
2- Milk is cooled to 45ºC and mixed with culture of lactobacillus bacilli (cooling prevents
denaturing the enzymes of Lactobacillus & this temperature is the optimum
temperature for Lactobacillus enzymes)
3- Mixture is kept at this temperature for several hours (Enough time for lactobacillus
enzymes to convert lactose into lactic acid & coagulate milk proteins at optimum
temperature)
4- Thickened yoghurt is cooled to 5ºC. (This reduces enzyme activity of decomposers
and pathogenic microorganisms)
5- Flavors and fruits are added to yoghurt before packaging.
N.B. Yoghurt has low pH due to the presence of lactic acid. This denatures enzymes of
decomposers and pathogenic microorganisms which makes yoghurt easy to preserve.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
Section V
Ecology & the environment

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
Chapter 26: Ecosystems
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
To understand ecosystems; we should differentiate between the following terms:
• Habitat: The place where living organisms live seeking food, shelter & reproduction
• Population: Number of members of a certain species in a certain habitat.
• Community: All the living organisms found in a certain habitat.
• Ecosystem: All living organisms in a habitat (community) plus the non-living part of
the environment (water, soil, air & light).
Living organisms in an ecosystem are either:
• Producers: Organisms that can produce their own food by photosynthesis “Plants”
• Consumers: Organism that depend on other organisms for nutrition. Herbivores eat
plants while carnivores eat animals. Omnivores eat both.
• Decomposers: Organisms that feed on dead organisms by secreting extracellular
enzymes to digest their bodies externally producing nutrients which are absorbed back
by decomposers (saprophytic nutrition).
Food chains
The food chain is a feeding relationship between organisms.

Grass → Grasshopper → Small bird → Large bird
(Producer) (1ry consumer) (2ry consumer) (3ry consumer)
Each stage in the food chain above is called a trophic level.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Food webs
ro
om
.co
m
/
Food web is a series of interconnected food chains. This is because a certain living organism
may feed on more than one prey and maybe eaten by more than one predator.
Factors affecting a food web:

1- Shortage of food
2- Pollution
3- Predators
4- Diseases
Q. Use the food web drawn above to extract five different food chains and highlight the
trophic levels in each of them.
N.B. The factors affecting a food web are the same factors affecting the size of any
population as feeding affects survival which consequently determines the population size.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Energy flow in Ecosystems
de
nt
ro
om
.co
The Sun is the main source of energy in any ecosystem. Plants use energy from the sun to
m
/
undergo photosynthesis that is why they are called producers. Then primary consumers feed
on plants and the chain continues.
However, it was found that there is a great energy loss between different trophic levels,
example:
Causes of energy loss between trophic levels:
1. Some parts of the organism are not eaten. e.g. roots or bones
2. Some parts of the eaten organism are not digested and pass out as feces
3. Some energy is lost in the form of heat energy in respiration.
4. Some energy is used in activities such as movement, reproduction or active transport.
5. After death, some energy is still found in the organism and known as “locked up
energy”. This energy is transferred to decomposers.
N.B. This energy loss explains why we have a maximum of 4 trophic levels in a food chain as
there is no energy available for other organisms.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Biological pyramids
ro
om
.co
A biological pyramid is a diagram showing a measure of different organisms in a food chain.
m
/
This could be either a pyramid of number, a pyramid of biomass or a pyramid of energy.
• The pyramid of number is the easiest to prepare as counting is easier than calculating
the energy or biomass. However, it is inaccurate & maybe inverted (one tree maybe
providing food for thousands of primary consumers)
• The pyramids of biomass & energy are more difficult to prepare but they are more
accurate and never inverted. Why? Because energy is always lost between trophic
levels which maintains the pyramidal shape.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Decomposition
de
nt
Decomposition is the decay of dead organisms. Decomposers are either bacteria or fungi.
ro
om
.co
m
/
Importance of decomposition:
• Recycles nutrients back into the soil

• Cleans the environment by removing dead materials
Factors affecting the rate of decomposition:
• Temperature: increasing temperature increases decomposition

• Humidity: increasing humidity increases decomposition.
• Oxygen: increasing Oxygen increases decomposition.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Nutrient cycles
de
nt
Carbon cycle
ro
om
.co
m
/
CO2 is removed from atmosphere through
photosynthesis.
CO2 is returned through:
1. respiration of animals & plants

2. decay of animals and plants
3. Combustion of Carbon containing fuels.
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrate level in the soil is increased by:

• Nitrogen fixing bacteria: convert
atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates in the
soil.
• Decomposers: decay dead bodies
forming ammonia.
• Nitrifying bacteria: convert ammonia
produced by decomposers into nitrites
and nitrites into nitrates.
Nitrate level in the soil is decreased by:

• Denitrifying bacteria: Convert nitrates
back into nitrogen gas.
Water cycle
Water vapor is removed from air by condensation. While it is added by:
1- Evaporation from the surface of seas and oceans.

2- Respiration & sweating of animals.
3- Respiration & transpiration of plants.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Practical investigation
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Using Quadrats to sample a certain plant species
m
/
1- Select an area of the field (100m2) to sample.
2- Place grid quadrats at random points in this area.
3- Count the number of plants found in each quadrat.
4- Repeat several times and take average.
5- Multiply by the total field area.
N.B. To estimate the mass of a certain plant, remove the plant and weigh using a sensitive
balance instead of counting in step 2.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Chapter 27: Human influences on the environment
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Pollution is the addition of a pollutant to the ecosystem causing damage to the living
m
/
organisms within the habitat. This includes air pollution, acid rain & water pollution.
Air pollution
Sulphur dioxide: Fossil fuels contain Sulphur. When they are burned, they release Sulphur
dioxide into the air. When Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water, it produces Sulfuric acid leading
to acid rain.
Nitrogen dioxide: Released from the motor vehicle exhausts. When nitrogen dioxide
dissolves in water, it produces nitric acid leading to acid rain.
Carbon monoxide: Vehicle engines undergo incomplete combustion releasing Carbon

monoxide. This CO binds to Hemoglobin forming Carboxyhemoglobin which reduces oxygen
delivery to all tissues.
Acid rain
Causes of acid rain:

• Sulphur dioxide released from chimneys of
large factories.
• Nitrogen dioxide released from car exhausts.
Effects of acid rain:

- Dissolves the limestone of buildings &
statues.
- Harms the human respiratory system causing asthma & bronchitis.
- Kills plants by damaging their leaves and roots.
- Acidifies fresh water which kills aquatic organisms.
Prevention: Using filters for factory chimneys to reduce Sulphur dioxide & Catalytic
converters for car exhausts to reduce Nitrogen dioxide.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Water pollution
de
nt
ro
om
.co
Water pollution maybe caused by sewage or Fertilizers causing eutrophication.
m
/
Eutrophication means enrichment of natural water with nutrients which increases the
growth of plants and algae.
- Leaching of fertilizers to water provides nutrients causing over growth of algae.

- The over growth of algae prevents
penetration of sunlight leading to
death of lower aquatic plants.
- Death of aquatic plants encourages
decomposition.
- Decomposers consume all oxygen
from the water.
- Fish either die or move to other
places.
Over growth of algae

How to prevent Eutrophication (due to over use of fertilizers):
1. Do not apply fertilizers when it is about to rain.

2. Do not apply too much fertilizers.
3. Apply fertilizers only when plants are growing to ensure rapid uptake.
Some factories dispose their sewage in nearby water surfaces. Sewage contains
bacteria that undergo aerobic respiration and consume oxygen. This reduces the
availability of oxygen in water and may cause death of lower aquatic organism,
which stimulates decomposition that consumes more & more oxygen.
The rate of oxygen consumption by bacteria in sewage is known as Biological
oxygen demand (BOD). If the BOD exceeds a certain limit, sewage disposal in
water is prohibited to protect the aquatic organisms.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Pesticides
ro
om
.co
m
/
A pesticide is any chemical that kills pests. They may be either Insecticides that kill insects,
Fungicides that kill Fungi, Herbicides that kill weeds or even Antibiotics that kill bacteria.
Advantages:
• Protect crops from pests so increase food production.
• Control the spread of diseases having insect vectors.
Disadvantages:
• Non-specific: may kill other non-harmful organisms.
• Non-biodegradable: cannot be broken down by enzymes so they accumulate in the
food chain (bioaccumulation).
• Pests may develop resistance so pesticides become useless.
Biological control is a method to get over the disadvantages of pesticides. It depends on

using specific predators to control pests.
For example; Lady birds can be used to control aphids as aphids destroy the leaves of tomato
plants.
Advantages:
• Specific: Only kills the selected harmful pest.
• No bioaccumulation.
• No pest resistance.
Disadvantages:
• Predators are not available for all pests.
• May cause food chain disruption as the organism introduced might lack natural
predators.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
nt
Greenhouse effect
ro
om
.co
m
/
Planet earth is surrounded by a blanket of greenhouse gases that trap sunlight and reradiate
it back towards earth surface. This keeps earth temperature within normal limits. Without
these gases, the temperature on earth would be - 40ºC.
We have 5 main greenhouse gases:
1. Carbon dioxide: Produced from the combustion of fossil fuels.

2. Water vapor: Produced from the combustion of fossil fuels.
3. Nitrous oxide: Produced from the incomplete combustion of fuels in vehicle engines.
4. Methane: released from anaerobic bacteria in guts of cattle and rice fields.
5. Chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFCs): released from refrigerators and ACs.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Global warming
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
It is an increase in earth temperature due to human activities that increase the levels of
greenhouse gases above normal (enhanced greenhouse effect).
Causes of global warming:
1. Deforestation which raises the levels of Carbon dioxide due to reduced Photosynthesis.
2. Increased burning of fossil fuels in motor vehicles.
3. Raising more cattle for meat & milk.
Consequences of global warming:
1. Melting of the polar ice caps leading to rise water levels of seas & oceans causing
flooding.
2. Loss of natural habitat which increases risk of extinction.
3. Migration of animals causing food chain disruption.
4. Change in the global rainfall pattern leading to desertification.
Suggested solutions:
1. Reforestation.
2. Reducing the use of fossil fuels and using alternative sources of energy such as solar
energy, wind energy & nuclear energy.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Deforestation
de
nt
ro
om
.co
It is the cutting down of forests. It is lately taking place intensively to:
m
/
- Clearing the land for agriculture.
- Building new cities & establishing new roads.
- Using wood in furniture industry.
Harmful effects of deforestation:
1. On the soil:
- Soil erosion: which means removal of

the top fertile layer of the soil as plant
roots no more hold soil particles
together. So, water from rainfall
washes soil particles into nearby
waterways.
- leaching of mineral ions.
2. On the life of Animals:
- Loss of the natural habitat which increases risk of extinction.

- Migration of animals leading to food chain disruption.
3. On the water cycle:
- Disturbance of the water cycle as transpiration rates will fall down which leads
to dry air and reduced rainfall. So, deforestation increases the risk of droughts.
4. On the Atmosphere:
- Reduced photosynthesis thus increasing Carbon dioxide level and decreasing

Oxygen (this increases global warming).
- Reduced transpiration so less humidity.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Biological consequences of overfishing and overgrazing
de
nt
ro
om
.co
m
/
Over fishing threatens fish species as it mainly affects younger fish causing their depletion.
So, the breeding stock becomes unable to maintain the population size.
Over grazing: means allowing animals as sheep &

camels to graze excessively. When this occurs in a
fragile ecosystem as areas on the edges of deserts, it
leads to desertification.
Biodiversity: The number of different species in a certain area or habitat. To

measure biodiversity, we can depend on Random sampling using quadrats.
Extinction means the permanent loss of a certain species. When the population size
of a certain species drops below a certain level, this species is at risk of extinction
and we call it endangered species.
Conservation of endangered species protects them from extinction. Conservation

of animals is done in zoos by captive breeding programs and conservation of plants
is done by storing their seeds in seed banks.
Biotic means living and Abiotic mean non-living.
The main Biotic factors affecting animals are food availability, predation &
diseases.
The main Abiotic factors affecting animals are temperature, light intensity & water
availability (humidity)
The main Abiotic factors affecting plants include Temperature, Light intensity &
humidity.
The main Biotic factors affecting plants include competition with other plants for
space, water and minerals in the soil & Sunlight. In addition to numbers of
herbivores and diseases affecting plants.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
Chapter 28: Modern methods of food production
de
nt
ro
om
.co
To meet the increasing demands for food due to increased population sizes, there are
m
/
continuous trials to increase efficiency and quantity of food production by:
1. Using modern machinery.

2. Plowing to aerate the soil.
3. Adding fertilizers to supply the soil with nutrients.
4. Adding pesticides: either chemical pesticides or biological control
5. Adding Calcium Carbonate (liming): neutralizes acidity and improves soil structure.
6. Crop rotation: growing different crops on the same land every season, this reduces the
chances of crop diseases.
7. Greenhouses where factors affecting photosynthesis are controlled
(temperature, CO2 concentration, light intensity, water availability & mineral ion
concentration in soil)
Hydroponics: It is a very recent method of growing plants in glass houses. This involves
removing the soil which is replaced by a solution containing mineral ions. Removing
the soil reduces the risk of diseases caused by organisms living inside the soil.
Glass house Hydroponics

(roots in the soil) (roots in a solution of mineral ions)

ht
tp
s:/
/b
rit
ish
stu
de
Fish farming
nt
ro
om
.co
m
Fish farming is a method to produce large quantities of fish grown in water tanks with
/
optimum conditions. This achieved through:
Improving water Quality:
1- Ensuring proper oxygenation:

- By allowing water to circulate through cages.
- Using paddles under cages for rapid circulation of water.
2- Ensuring proper nutrition:
- By offering small frequent meals to avoid accumulation of wastes causing
eutrophication.
- By offering high protein diet.
3- Removal of wastes using filters.
4- Removal of dead fish to prevent decomposition & spread of diseases.
5- Adding antibiotics to kill bacteria.
Reducing competition:
1- Intraspecific competition means competition with organisms from the same species.
This is achieved by:
- Using large sized tanks to reduce competition for space
- Offering enough food to reduce competition for food.
2- interspecific competition means competition with organisms from different species
which includes predation. This is achieved by:
- Placing only one species of fish per cage.
- Using hanging nets around each cage to prevent entry of other fish.
- Covering cages by nets to prevent birds from attacking fish.

ht
tp
s:/
/b
Advantages of fish farming over wild catching:
rit
ish
stu
de
1- Less risk to fishermen.
nt
ro
om
2- Guaranteed harvest.
.co
m
/
3- Avoid depletion of wild fish due to overfishing.
Disadvantages of fish farming:
1- Antibiotics may cause harm to humans eating fish.

2- Escape of nutrients may lead to Eutrophication.
3- Escape of farmed fish might cause unfair competition with fish from the same species
in the wild, predation of other species or spread of diseases.
Large cages in which fish is grown (fish farms)

Edexcel Bio Notes by Dr. Mohab Megahed

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Edexcel Bio Notes by Dr. Mohab Megahed

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ht

Simplified Lecture Notes

Dr. Mohab Megahed

Life Processes and Variety of living

Dr. Mohab Megahed 1

1. Movement: Change in the position of a living organism or part of a living organism.

N.B. Other important characteristics of some living organisms:

Dr. Mohab Megahed 2

Dr. Mohab Megahed 4

Red Blood Cells: (Transport Oxygen to different body parts)

Dr. Mohab Megahed 5

Anomaly: A result that doesn’t fit the pattern of change. It should be

Practice Question: Comment on the reliability of this investigation.

Dr. Mohab Megahed 6

2- Calculating percentage change: final – initial x 100

3- Calculating the rate: Change in something

- Correct labeling of the X axis & Y axis with units included.

Dr. Mohab Megahed 7

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:

Active transport: Movement of molecules from lower concentration to higher concentration

Factors affecting the rate of active transport:

Diffusion Active transport

Down concentration gradient Against concentration gradient

Doesn’t need energy Needs energy

Doesn’t need carriers Needs carriers

Dr. Mohab Megahed 8

N.B. Types of solutions:

Dr. Mohab Megahed 9

In a concentrated solution, water exits cells down water

Effect of osmosis on animal cells (RBCs):

Dr. Mohab Megahed 10

Dr. Mohab Megahed 11

Importance Deficiency Sources

Dr. Mohab Megahed 12

Bleeding Gums & teeth (Scurvy)

Dr. Mohab Megahed 13

Testing for reducing sugars (glucose) using Benedict solution:

- Add a small spatula of the food sample to

N.B. The color change occurs gradually:

Testing for Proteins (Biuret test):

Dr. Mohab Megahed 14

Measuring Dry mass

- Place the organism in an oven at 80ºC.

N.B. Water content is variable. Dry mass excludes water, so it

Dr. Mohab Megahed 15

Body Mass Index (BMI)

BMI value Description of weight

less than 18.5 Underweight

Dr. Mohab Megahed 16

• high levels of activity = more muscle contraction, so more aerobic respiration to

Dr. Mohab Megahed 17

Dr. Mohab Megahed 18

Factors affecting enzyme activity:

Dr. Mohab Megahed 19

3. Enzyme concentration/Substrate concentration:

N.B. The same occurs in case of increasing substrate concentration.

Dr. Mohab Megahed 20

Dr. Mohab Megahed 21

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + energy

C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP

Examples of anaerobic respiration include yeast and muscles:

Glucose→ ethanol + Carbon dioxide + energy (2 ATP)

Glucose→ lactic acid + energy (2 ATP)