Mechanical Design: Theory and

Applications T. H. C. Childs
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/mechanical-design-theory-and-applications-t-h-c-child
s/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements 7th

Edition Richard S. Figliola

https://ebookmass.com/product/theory-and-design-for-mechanical-
measurements-7th-edition-richard-s-figliola/

Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements, 6th

Edition 6th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/theory-and-design-for-mechanical-
measurements-6th-edition-6th-edition-ebook-pdf/

Transition-Metal-Catalyzed C-H Functionalization of

Heterocycles Punniyamurthy T.

https://ebookmass.com/product/transition-metal-catalyzed-c-h-
functionalization-of-heterocycles-punniyamurthy-t/

Reference Frame Theory : Development and Applications

1st Edition Paul C. Krause

https://ebookmass.com/product/reference-frame-theory-development-
and-applications-1st-edition-paul-c-krause/
RF and Microwave Circuit Design: Theory and
Applications Charles E. Free

https://ebookmass.com/product/rf-and-microwave-circuit-design-
theory-and-applications-charles-e-free/

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing for Mechanical

Design 2/E 2nd Edition

https://ebookmass.com/product/geometric-dimensioning-and-
tolerancing-for-mechanical-design-2-e-2nd-edition/

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing for Mechanical

Design, 3E Gene R. Cogorno

https://ebookmass.com/product/geometric-dimensioning-and-
tolerancing-for-mechanical-design-3e-gene-r-cogorno/

Machine Elements in Mechanical Design (6th Edition )

(What’s New Trades &

https://ebookmass.com/product/machine-elements-in-mechanical-
design-6th-edition-whats-new-trades/

Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design (11th Ed.) 11th

Edition Richard Budynas

https://ebookmass.com/product/shigleys-mechanical-engineering-
design-11th-ed-11th-edition-richard-budynas/
Mechanical Design
This page intentionally left blank
Mechanical Design
Theory and Applications

Third Edition

P.R.N. Childs
Dyson School of Design Engineering
Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on
how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher's permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as
the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted
herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in
research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods,
compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the
safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or
damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-12-821102-1

For Information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisitions Editor: Brian Guerin
Editorial Project Manager: Gabriela D. Capille
Production Project Manager: Prasanna Kalyanaraman
Cover Designer: Victoria Pearson
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
CONTENTS

About the Author ix

Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

1 Design 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Design Process 3
1.3 Design Models 8
1.4 Design Optimization 21
1.5 Design Reviews 24
1.6 The Technology Base 24
1.7 Conclusion 26
References 26
Standards 27
Nomenclature 28
Worksheet 28

2 Journal Bearings 29
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Sliding Bearings 29
2.3 Design of Boundary-Lubricated Bearings 36
2.4 Design of Full-Film Hydrodynamic Bearings 39
2.5 Conclusion 61
References 62
Standards 62
Nomenclature 63
Worksheet 64
Answers 67

3 Rolling Element Bearings 69

3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 Bearing Life and Selection 69
 Contents
vi

3.3 Bearing Installation 99

3.4 Conclusion 107
References 107
Standards 108
Nomenclature 108
Worksheet 109
Answers 111

4 Shafts 113
4.1 Introduction 113
4.2 Shaft
Hub Connection 117
4.3 Shaft
Shaft Connection—Couplings 118
4.4 Critical Speeds and Shaft Deflection 119
4.5 Analysis of Transmission Shafting 131
4.6 Detailed Design Case Study 150
4.7 Conclusion 157
References 158
Standards 158
Nomenclature 159
Worksheet 160
Answers 164

5 Gears 165
5.1 Introduction 165
5.2 Construction of Gear Tooth Profiles 173
5.3 Gear Trains 176
5.4 Tooth Systems 186
5.5 Force Analysis 187
5.6 Simple Gear Selection Procedure 190
5.7 Condition Monitoring 203
5.8 Conclusion 204
References 204
Standards 205
Nomenclature 205
Worksheet 206
Answers 208

6 Spur and Helical Gear Stressing 209

6.1 Introduction 209
6.2 Failure Due to Contact Stresses 209
6.3 AGMA Equations for Bending and Contact Stress 211
6.4 Gear Selection Procedure 228
6.5 Conclusion 230
References 230
Contents
vii

Standards 231
Nomenclature 231
Worksheet 233
Answers 236

7 Belt and Chain Drives 237

7.1 Introduction 237
7.2 Belt Drives 238
7.3 Chain drives 271
7.4 Conclusion 284
References 284
Standards 285
Nomenclature 286
Worksheet 286
Answers 288

8 Clutches and Brakes 289

8.1 Introduction 289
8.2 Clutches 291
8.3 Brakes 307
8.4 Conclusion 330
References 331
Standards 332
Nomenclature 332
Worksheet 333
Answers 336

9 Springs 337
9.1 Introduction 337
9.2 Helical Compression Springs 339
9.3 Helical Extension Springs 354
9.4 Helical Torsion Springs 357
9.5 Leaf Springs 358
9.6 Belleville Spring Washers 361
9.7 Conclusion 366
References 366
Standards 366
Nomenclature 367
Worksheet 368
Answers 369

10 Fastening and Power Screws 371

10.1 Introduction to Permanent and Nonpermanent Fastening 371
10.2 Threaded Fasteners 372
 Contents
viii

10.3 Power Screws 386

10.4 Rivets 391
10.5 Adhesives 395
10.6 Welding 402
10.7 Snap Fasteners 403
10.8 Conclusion 408
References 408
Standards 408
Nomenclature 409
Worksheet 410
Answers 412

11 Tolerancing and Precision Engineering 413

11.1 Introduction 413
11.2 Component Tolerances 414
11.3 Statistical Tolerancing 428
11.4 Precision Engineering and Case Studies 439
11.5 Conclusion 445
References 445
Standards 446
Nomenclature 447
Worksheet 447
Answers 449

Index 451
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
P.R.N. Childs is the Professorial Lead in
Engineering Design at Imperial College
London. He is a fellow of the Royal Academy of
Engineering, the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, and the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. His general interests
include creativity tools and innovation, design
processes, fluid flow and heat transfer, sustainable
energy, and robotics. Prior to his current post at
Imperial, he was Director of the Rolls-Royce
supported University Technology Centre for
Aero-Thermal Systems, Director of InQbate,
and a Professor at the University of Sussex.
He has contributed to over 200 refereed jour-
nal and conference papers, and several books
including the Handbook on Mechanical Design
Engineering (Elsevier, 2013, 2019) as well as
monographs on rotating flow and temperature
measurement. He has been principal or coinves-
tigator on contracts totaling over d100 million.
His roles at Imperial include Professor at
Large for the Innovation Design Engineering
double master degree run jointly by Imperial
and the Royal College of Art and Enterprise
Champion in the Dyson School of Design
Engineering. He was the founding head of the
Dyson School of Design Engineering at
Imperial. He is Editor of the Journal of Power
and Energy, Professor of Excellence at MD-H,
Berlin, and Founder Director and former
Chairman at Q-Bot Ltd. He is Chairman of
BladeBUG Ltd.
He is very passionate about responsible busi-
ness, and the what, how, and why of education.
This page intentionally left blank
PREFACE
Engineering involves the application of technical
and mathematical principles in combination
with professional and domain knowledge to
deliver products, service, and systems to realize a
requirement or opportunity. This book aims to
present an overview of the design process and to
introduce the technology and selection of a
number of specific machine elements that are
fundamental to a wide range of mechanical engi-
neering design applications.
The first edition of this book was produced in
1998, with the second edition in 2004. The text
was expanded to the mechanical design engi-
neering handbook with editions in 2013 and
2018. This edition, which draws on the content
of the handbook, focuses on a series of key
machine elements relevant to students, including
bearings, shafts, gears, belts and chains, springs,
and fasteners. These technology elements serve
as building blocks for a significant quantity of
machine design and provide an excellent basis in
mechanical engineering education. Experience
from the previous editions has been used to pre-
serve features such as detailed worked examples
and flow charts illustrating step-by-step strategies
for developing a design for a specific machine
element.
The book includes 200 worksheet questions
and over 350 images, with line drawings com-
plemented by solid model illustrations to aid
understanding of the machine elements and
assemblies concerned. The context for engineer-
ing and mechanical design is introduced in the
first chapter, which also presents a blended
design process incorporating principles from sys-
tematic and holistic design as well as practical
project management. This chapter is followed by
nine chapters focusing on specific machine ele-
ments, and the book concludes with a chapter
on tolerancing relevant to combining machine
elements in practical designs.
This page intentionally left blank
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my special thanks to on the rolling element bearings and gear-stressing
Dr. Kamyar Hazeri for his assistance in the gen- chapters. Particularly, I would like to thank
eration of some of the images for this revised Caroline Childs for her patience and regular
edition and to Dr. Marc Masen for his guidance input on proofreading.
This page intentionally left blank

1
DESIGN
1.1 Introduction
The aims of this book are to present an overview
of the design process, and to introduce the technol-
ogy and selection of a number of specific machine
elements that are fundamental to a wide range of
mechanical engineering design applications. This
chapter introduces the design process from an
inventor’s perspective, the double diamond model,
and more formal approaches such as systematic,
total, and blended design. The chapter also presents
an overview of technologies, which serves as build-
ing blocks for machinery and mechanical design.
The term ‘‘design’’ is popularly used to refer to an
object’s esthetic appearance with specific reference to
its form or outward appearance as well as its func-
tion. For example, we often refer to designer clothes,
design icons, and beautiful cars. Examples of some
classically acclaimed vehicles are given in Figs. 1.1
and 1.2. In these examples, it is both visual impact,
appealing to our visual perception, and the concept
of function, that the product will fulfill a range of
requirements, which are important in defining the
so-called good design. In this section, we will con-
sider a number of definitions and explanations rele-
vant to design and engineering. Such definitions can
be helpful in understanding the context for the activ-
ities associated with design and engineering.
The word ‘‘design’’ is used as both a noun and
a verb and carries a wide range of context-
sensitive meanings and associations. We can, for
example, refer to a product or machine and say
that we like or rate the design. Alternatively, we
Mechanical Design
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821102-1.00001-9
1
might refer to an activity and talk about designing
a product or machine.
Cox (2005) in his review on creativity in business
stated ‘‘Design is what links creativity and innova-
tion. It shapes ideas to become practical and attrac-
tive propositions for users or customers. Design
may be described as creativity deployed to a specific
end.’’ The word design has its roots in the Latin
‘‘designare,’’ which means to designate or mark out,
and such notions will be familiar to an engineer
developing a technical drawing or an architect pro-
ducing a plan for a building. Design can be taken
to mean all the processes of conception, invention,
visualization, calculation, refinement, and specifica-
tion of details that determine the form of a product,
service, or system. The design generally begins with
either a need or requirement or, alternatively, an
idea. It can end with a set of drawings or computer
representations and other information that enables a
product to be manufactured, or a service or system
to be realized and utilized. Generically, design can
be defined as the transformation of an existing state
to a preferred state. While recognizing that there is
no widely accepted single definition, to clarify what
the term design means, the following statement can
provide a basis:
Design is the process of conceiving, developing
and realising products, artefacts, processes, systems,
services, platforms and experiences with the aim of
fulfilling identified or perceived needs or desires
typically working within defined or negotiated
constraints.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

2
Figure 1.1 Piaggio’s Vespa launched in 1946. The Vespa
was an early example of monocoque construction where
the skin and frame are combined as a single construction
to provide appropriate rigidity and mounting for the
vehicle’s components and riders.
Figure 1.2 The Audi TT, originally launched in 1998. Courtesy Audi.
Design
This process may draw upon and synthesize
principles, knowledge, and method skills and tools
from a broad spectrum of disciplines depending on
the nature of the design initiative and activity.
Design can also be regarded as ‘‘the total activity
necessary to provide a product or process to meet
a market need.’’ This latter definition comes from
the SEED (Sharing Experience in Engineering
Design, now DESIG the Design Education Special
Interest Group of the Design Society) model, see
Pugh (1990).
According to a Royal Academy of Engineering
document, engineering can be defined as
The discipline, art and profession of acquiring
and applying scientific, mathematical, economic,
social and practical knowledge to design and build
structures, machines, devices, systems, materials
and processes that safely realise solutions to the
needs of society.
This definition is not attributed to a single
source and ABET (2011), the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers and the National
Academy of Engineering (2004) all have
similar definitions for engineering involving
the application of scientific and mathematic
principles to design. The following statement
 Chapter 1
provides an indication of the scope of
engineering:
Engineering is the application of technical and
mathematic principles in combination with pro-
fessional and domain knowledge, in order to
deliver products, service and systems to realise a
requirement or opportunity.
The terms ‘‘engineering design’’ and
‘‘design engineering’’ are often used inter-
changeably. The inclusion of the word engi-
neering in both suggests that they involve the
application of scientific, technical, and mathe-
matical knowledge and principles. It may be
useful to think of ‘‘engineering design’’ sitting
alongside ‘‘engineering science’’ as the strand
of engineering that is concerned with applica-
tion, designing, manufacture, and building.
Design engineering suggests a process in
which engineering (scientific and mathemati-
cal) approaches are applied in the realization
of activities that began with a design concept
or proposal (Childs and Pennington, 2015).
However, such distinctions remain subtle and
subject to context. In launching the Dyson
School of Design Engineering at Imperial
Figure 1.3 A seven-speed sports transmission incorporating a wide range of machine elements considered in this book.
Courtesy Daimler AG, release date November 17, 2014.
3
College London, Childs defined design engi-
neering as follows (see Childs, 2019):
Design engineering is the fusion of design thinking,
engineering thinking and practice within a culture of
innovation and enterprise.
This book is principally concerned with
mechanical engineering design within the context
of applications of a mechanical engineering nature,
particularly those using a range of machine ele-
ments such as bearings, gears, shafts, belts and
chains, clutches and brakes, springs, and fasteners.
An example of an application showing the use of a
range of these machine elements for an automotive
transmission is given in Fig. 1.3.
1.2 The Design Process
Having a defined approach to undertaking design
can aid the activity, helping to ensure the process is
undertaken to a professional and high standard,
with, for example, thorough consideration of
what is required and ensuring that due consider-
ation is given to technical, esthetic, social, and eco-
nomic function. Many design processes have been
 Design
4

proposed over the years with consultancies, engi-

neering corporations, and industry bodies as well as
academic groups developing their own brand of
approaches (e.g., see Clarkson and Eckert, 2005).
Commonly cited methods include the educational
approach CDIO (conceive, develop, implement,
operate), total design, double diamond, concurrent
engineering, six sigma, multidisciplinary design
optimization (MDO), and gated reviews. Design
processes can be broadly categorized as activity-
based, involving generation, analysis, and evaluation,
and stage-based, involving distinct phases of, for
example, task clarification and conceptual design.
It is also widely recognized that experienced practi-
tioners approach design in a different manner to
novice designers (e.g., see Björklund, 2013), and
this has resulted in the use of some approaches
in education that are distinct from commercial
engineering practice.
Probably from your own experience you will
know that design can consist of examining a need
or opportunity and working on the problem by
means of sketches, models, brainstorming, calcula-
Figure 1.4 The traditional and familiar ‘‘inventor’s’’
tions as necessary, and development of styling as approach to design.
appropriate; making sure the product fits together
and can be manufactured; and considering costs.
The process of design can be represented schemati- Although Figs. 1.4 and 1.6 at first sight suggest
cally to levels of increasing formality and complex- design occurring in a sequential fashion, with one
ity. Fig. 1.4 represents the traditional approach task following another, the design process may
associated with lone inventors. This model com- actually occur in a step forward, step back fashion.
prises the generation of the ‘‘bright idea,’’ drawings, For instance, you may propose a solution to the
and calculations giving form or shape to the idea design need and then perform some calculations or
and judgment of the design and reevaluation if judgments, which indicate that the proposal is inap-
necessary, resulting in the generation of the end propriate. A new solution will need to be put for-
product. The process of evaluation and reworking ward and further assessments made. This is known
an idea is common in design and is represented in as the iterative process of design and forms an
the model by the iteration arrow taking the design essential part of refining and improving the product
activity back a step so that the design can be proposal. The nonlinear nature of design is consid-
improved. Fig. 1.5 illustrates the possible results ered by Hall and Childs (2009).
from this process for a bicycle lock. Note that the flow charts shown in Figs. 1.4
Fig. 1.6 shows a more prescribed description and 1.6 do not represent a method of design
of a design process that might be associated with but rather a description of what actually occurs
engineers operating within a formal company within the process of design. The method of
management structure. The various terms used design used is often unique to the engineering
in Fig. 1.6 are described in Table 1.1. or design team. Design methodology is not an
 Chapter 1
5

Figure 1.5 The LiteLok bicycle lock. Courtesy (A) Neil Barron, (B) and (C) LiteLok Ltd.

exact science, and there are indeed no guaran- aspects simultaneously. An example of design
teed methods of design. Some designers work following the process identified in Fig. 1.6 is
in a progressive fashion, others work on several given in the following example in order to

6
Figure 1.6 The design process illustrating principal phases and some of the iterative steps involved in the process.
introduce some of the typical activities that
might occur.
Example 1.1
Following some initial market assessments,
the board of a plant machinery company
has decided to proceed with the design of
Design
a new product for transporting pallets
around factories and warehouses. The
board has in mind a forklift truck but does
not wish to constrain the design team to
this concept alone. The process of the
design can be viewed in terms of the labels
used in Fig. 1.6.
 Chapter 1
7

Table 1.1 Design phases.

Phase Description
Recognition of Often design begins when an individual or company recognizes a need or identifies a potential market, for a
need product, device, or process. Alternatively, ‘‘need’’ can be defined as when a company decides to reengineer
one of its existing products (e.g., producing a new car model). The statement of need is sometimes
referred to as the brief or market brief.
Definition of This involves all the specification of the product or process to be designed. For example, this could include
problem inputs and outputs, characteristics, dimensions, and limitations on quantities.
Synthesis This is the process of combining the ideas developed into a form or concept, which offers a potential
solution to the design requirement. The term synthesis may be familiar from its use in chemistry where it is
used to describe the process of producing a compound by a series of reactions of other substances.
Analysis This can involve the application of engineering science using subjects explored extensively in traditional
engineering courses such as statics and dynamics, mechanics of materials, fluid flow, and heat transfer. These
engineering ‘‘tools’’ and techniques can be used to examine the design to give quantitative information such
as whether it is strong enough or will operate at an acceptable temperature. Analysis and synthesis
invariably go together. Synthesis means putting something together and analysis means resolving something
into its constituent parts or taking it to pieces. Designers have to synthesize something before it can be
analyzed. The famous chicken and the egg scenario! When a product is analyzed some kind of deficiency or
inadequacy may be identified requiring the synthesis of a new solution prior to reanalysis and repetition of
the process until an adequate solution is obtained.
Optimization This is the process of repetitively refining a set of often-conflicting criteria to achieve the best compromise.
Evaluation This is the process of identifying whether the design satisfies the original requirements. It may involve
assessment of the analysis, prototype testing, and market research.

Solution Is a particular energy source/fuel to be used?

Recognition of need (or market brief)—The com-
pany has identified a potential market for a
new pallet-moving device.
Definition of problem—A full specification of
the product desired by the company should be
written. This allows the design team to identify
whether their design proposals meet the original
request. Here a list of information needs to be
developed and clarified before design can pro-
ceed. For example, for the pallet-moving device
being explored here, this would likely include
aspects for consideration such as
What sizes of pallet are to be moved?
What is the maximum mass on the pallet?
What is the maximum size of the load on the pallet?
What range of materials are to be moved and are
they packaged?
What is the maximum height the pallet needs to be
lifted?
What terrain must the pallet-moving device operate on?
What range is required for the pallet-moving device?
What lifetime is required?
Are there manufacturing constraints to be
considered?
What is the target sales price?
How many units can the market sustain?
Is the device to be automatic or manned?
What legal constraints need to be considered?
This list is not exhaustive and would require
further consideration. The next step is to quantify
each of the criteria. For instance, the specification
may yield that standard size pallets, see Fig. 1.7,
are involved, the maximum load to be moved is
1000 kg, the maximum volume of load is 2 m3,
the reach must be up to 3 m, use is on factory
floor and asphalt surfaces, the device must be
capable of moving a single pallet 100 m and must
be able to repeat this task at least 100 times before
refueling or recharging as necessary, the design life
for the product is 7 years, production is in a
European country, the target selling price is
20,000 Euros, the production run is 3000 units

8
Figure 1.7 Pallet dimensions and terminology (see BS ISO 509).
per year, the device is to be operated by a person,
and the design must be compliant to ISO
(International Organization for Standardization)
and target country national standards (e.g., see BS
ISO 509, BS ISO 6780, BS EN ISO 445, BS EN
13545, BS ISO 18334, BS 5639-1, and BS ISO
2330).
Synthesis—This is often identified as the for-
mative and creative stage of design. Some initial
ideas must be proposed or generated in order for
them to be assessed and improved. Concepts can
be generated by imagination, experience, or by
the use of design techniques such as morphologi-
cal charts. Some evaluation should be made at
this stage to reduce the number of concepts
requiring further work. Various techniques are
available for this, including merit and adequacy
assessments.
Analysis—Once a concept has been proposed,
it can then be analyzed to determine whether
constituent components can meet the demands
placed on them in terms of performance, manu-
facture, cost, and any other specified criteria.
Alternatively, analysis techniques can be used to
determine what size components need to be to
meet the required functions.
Optimization—Inevitably, there are conflicts
between requirements. In the case of the forklift
truck, size, maneuverability, cost, esthetic appeal,
Design
ease of use, stability, and speed are not necessarily
all in accordance with each other. Cost minimiza-
tion may call for compromises on material usage
and manufacturing methods. These considerations
form part of the optimization of the product pro-
ducing the best or most acceptable compromise
between the desired criteria. Optimization is con-
sidered further in Section 1.4.
Evaluation—Once a concept has been proposed
and selected, and the details of component sizes,
materials, manufacture, costs and performance
worked out, it is then necessary to evaluate it.
Does the proposed design fulfill the specification?
If it appears to, then further evaluation by potential
customers and use of prototype demonstrators
may be appropriate to confirm the functionality of
the design, judge customer reaction, and provide
information of whether any aspects of the design
need to be reworked or refined.
1.3 Design Models
The process of design has been the focus of
research and development for many years, and a
number of design models and methodologies have
been formalized. Design methodology is a frame-
work within which the designer can practice with
thoroughness. Taking a standard approach to
undertaking design can be useful in helping to
 Chapter 1
9

ensure important aspects are addressed and leverage 2. conceptual design

prior experience. Following a formalized approach
or model is not necessarily going to mean that
a high-quality design outcome is guaranteed.
Nevertheless, a model or formal approach can aid
management of the activity. Various approaches to
the design process are introduced here, including
systematic design, double diamond, CDIO, and
total design. In the section on ‘‘Total and blended
design’’ an updated model is presented. blending
aspects of project management such as contempo-
rary topics of need and opportunity analysis, virtual
realization, sustainability, and responsible business.
Systematic design
A systematic approach to design has been devel-
oped and proposed by Pahl and Beitz (1996)
who divide their model into four phases:
1. product planning and clarifying the task
3. embodiment design
4. detail design
The activities associated with systematic design are
outlined in Table 1.2. Although the activities take
place in phases, iteration does occur between each of
the activities. For example, information arising from
work on the requirements list can serve to help clar-
ify the task and opportunity defined in the original
requirement that gave the initial impetus for the proj-
ect concerned. Similarly, work toward a concept will
result in new information that can help clarify the
requirement list. Similar iterations with an activity
informing and resulting in flows of information and
clarification of what actually needs to be done, can
occur between each of the activities defined in
Table 1.2. The intended outcome is for the arising
insights and information to enable optimization of
the requirement, layout, and production.

Table 1.2 Systematic design stages, activities, and phases.

Stage Activity Systematic design phase
Requirement Plan and clarify the task Product planning and clarifying the
Analyze the market opportunity task
Requirements list Formulate a product proposal Product planning and clarifying the
Elaborate a requirements list task
Concept Identify essential problems Conceptual design
Establish function structures
Search for working principles
Combine and firm up in concept variants
Evaluate against technical and economic criteria

Preliminary layout Develop the construction structure for the solution Embodiment design
Preliminary form design, material selection, and calculations
Select the best preliminary layouts
Refine and improve layouts
Evaluate against technical and economic criteria

Definitive layout Define the construction structure for the solution Embodiment design
Eliminate weak spots
Check for errors
Prepare preliminary part lists and product documents

Product Prepare production and operating documents Detail design

documentation Elaborate detail drawings and part lists
Complete production-ready component, assembly, transport, and operating
instructions

Solution/product Production Production


10
The approach taken in systematic design
acknowledges that due to the complex nature of
modern technology, it is now rarely possible for a
single person to undertake the design and devel-
opment of a major project on their own. Instead,
a large team will be involved in the activity, and
this introduces the challenges of organization and
communication within a larger network. The
aim is to provide a comprehensive, consistent,
and clear approach to systematic design.
Design models and methodologies encourage
us to undertake careful marketing and specifica-
tion. Because of their sequential presentation,
‘‘design starts with a need’’ or ‘‘design starts with
an idea,’’ they inherently encourage us to under-
take tasks sequentially. This is not necessarily the
intention of the models, and indeed this approach
is countered within the descriptions and instruc-
tions given by the proponents of the model, who
instead encourage an iterative feedback working
methodology.
A criticism of the systematic and other design
models is that they tend to be encyclopedic with
consideration of everything possible. As such, their
use can be viewed as a checklist against which a
personal model can be verified. A further criticism
of design models is that they are overly serialistic as
opposed to holistic and that because of the serious
manner in which the models are portrayed and
documented, they can have a tendency to put the
intuitive and impulsive designer off!
Double diamond
The Design Council (2007, 2019) reported a
study of the design process in 11 leading compa-
nies and identified a four-step design process
called the ‘‘double diamond’’ design process
model, involving phases of discovery, definition,
development, and delivery. The process involves
progression from identification of an initial prob-
lem toward concepts and solutions via two phases
of divergent and convergent activity as illustrated
in Fig. 1.8.
Design
In the discovery divergent phase, many differ-
ent ideas and aspects can be encouraged to
emerge and be considered, for example, using
various types of brainstorming. In a divergent
phase, the emphasis is sometimes on the quantity
of ideas in order to have many items from which
to make a selection and to enable consideration
of what the competition might consider. In a
convergent phase, the emphasis is on selection
and refinement of an idea and its embodiment
and definition with consideration of details. The
development phase also involves divergent activ-
ity with simultaneous consideration of different
options to fulfill the functional requirements of
the product, service, or system concerned, be it
technical, esthetic, social, or economic or some
combination. In the divergent development
phase, use can be made of modeling and analysis
of different options. In the final delivery conver-
gent phase, the emphasis is on refinement and
detailing of each aspect in order to provide the
final outcome for the product, service, or system
concerned.
Conceive, design, implement, operate
The conceive, design, implement, operate
(CDIO) framework is widely used in design and
engineering education and was developed in
recognition of a divergence between academic
culture and practical engineering requirements.
The framework explicitly recognizes the impor-
tance of holistic considerations for effective
design outcomes with the application of both
engineering practice skills such as design, manu-
facture, personal, professional, interpersonnel,
and business in combination with disciplinary
knowledge from the sciences and mathematics as
well as the humanities (see Crawley, 2001).
In the CDIO framework, attention is given to
each of the principal phases and the develop-
ment of skills needed in order to address the
holistic requirements for the product, service, or
system concerned. Each of the phases relates and
 Chapter 1
11

Figure 1.8 Schematic illustrating the double diamond design process. Courtesy the Design Council. (2019). What is the
framework for innovation? Design Council’s evolved Double Diamond ,https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/news-opinion/what-
framework-innovation-design-councils-evolved-double-diamond. (last accessed October 13, 2020).

feeds into each other. In the conceive stage,
consideration is given to customer’s needs, tech-
nology availability, regulations, and the business
requirements in order to develop an outline
concept. In the design phase, attention is given
to the production of detailed plans, technical
drawings, and algorithms as appropriate to the
specific challenge. In the implement phase, pro-
duction issues are addressed with attention given
to manufacturing practicalities and planning,
coding and testing, and validation. In the operate
phase, attention is given to delivery of the prod-
uct, service, or system and the realization of the
expected value from the investment, along with
consideration of maintenance and servicing, and
future evolutions for the product and associated
business.
Total and blended design
The ‘‘total design’’ model was originally proposed
by the SEED program (1985) and Pugh (1990),
comprising core activities of design: marketing,
specification, conceptual design, detailed design,
and marketing/selling. This model was developed
from extensive industrial consultation and experi-
ence, and the phases associated with total design
 Design
12

Table 1.3 Original phases associated with total design.

Phase Description
Market Assessment of sales opportunity. Produce a brief. A brief is a short statement that serves to define the overall
need or opportunity and general requirements for the product, service, or system. Terms widely used for
such a short statement include brief, design brief, market brief, and statement of need.
Specification Specification involves the formal statement of the required functions, features, and performance of the
product or process to be designed. Recommended practice from the outset of design work is to produce a
product design specification that should be formulated from the brief. The product design specification is the
formal specification of the product to be designed. It acts as the control for the total design activity because it
sets the boundaries for the subsequent design.
Conceptual The early stages of design where the major decisions are to be made is sometimes called conceptual design.
design During this phase, a rough idea is developed as to how a product will function and what it will look like. The
process of conceptual design can also be described as the definition of the product’s morphology, how it is
made up, and its layout.
Detailed design The detailed design phase consists of the determination of the specific shape and size of individual
components, what materials should be used, how they fit together, and the method of manufacture.
Manufacture The manufacture phase, although identified as distinct within the structure, is typical of other phases in which
it influences all the others. The design of any item must be such that it is feasible to manufacture it! The
materials selected must be compatible with the manufacturing facilities and skills available and at
acceptable costs to match marketing requirements.
Market roll-out Market roll-out can be expected to match the expectations of the initial market assessment. This phase too
has an impact on other phases within the design core. Information such as customer reaction to the product,
any component failures or wear, and damage during packaging and transportation should be fed back to
influence the design of product revisions and future designs.

are presented in Table 1.3. Since its inception, the
importance of various aspects not explicit in the
original formulation has emerged such as opportu-
nity and need analysis, virtual modeling, and digital
twins as well as sustainability.
An important aspect in the development
of any product, service, system, or indeed almost
any activity is project management. One of the
major tools used in modern project management
is the V model, enabling consideration and defi-
nition of who has to do what and when in a
project. The V model along with other project
management tools such as PRINCE2 (Projects
IN Controlled Environments) places emphasis
on verification of what you are doing in one
activity against the relevant related activity or
activities. A version of the V model is illustrated
in Fig. 1.9 illustrating principal phases and how
they progress as a function of time. Further
information on the V model can be found in the
General Directive 250, Software Development
Standard for the German Federal Armed Forces,
V-Model (Software Life Cycle Process Model),
1992, and Bröhl (1993). Tasks in the V model
are linked to a relevant activity to help ensure
that the project delivers against the intent. For
example, system specification is linked with
acceptance testing. The form of the V model
provides an impression that activities progress
and flow neatly from one phase to another. It
should be noted that practical project manage-
ment frequently diverts from this apparent ideal
with major differences in timescales and atten-
tion to multiple aspects of a project in order to
address issues that arise.
As indicated in the discussion in this chapter,
there are issues associated with models for design
be it their encyclopedic nature, variations
according to the context, or the need for sub-
stantial experience and expertise in order to ade-
quately address the various activities. In order to
address a mismatch between models for design
and the practical management of design, princi-
ples associated with total design have been
 Chapter 1
Figure 1.9 The V model.
Figure 1.10 Blended design process model.
blended with aspects of project management
along with consideration of opportunity and
needs analysis, virtual modeling, sustainability,
and responsible business, in a blended design
process model as shown in Figs. 1.10 and 1.11.
The blended design process model functions
with phases of opportunity or need and require-
ments analyses, specification, concept, compo-
nent and system design, virtual realization and
design verification, prototyping, acceptance test-
ing, production release planning, and opportu-
nity realization. The skewed V is symbolic of the
progress of time associated with an activity, with
13
typically more time associated with the imple-
mentation activities on the right-hand side of
the V. Allocation of additional resources can alter
the gradient of the V or indeed the time associated
with individual activity. The horizontal arrows are
symbolic of a validation check between the corre-
sponding activities.
As shown in Figs. 1.4 and 1.6, the iterative
nature of design is accounted for, where work
on a design results in the need to go back and
redo previous work in order to produce a better
overall design to meet the requirements. Indeed,
it is sometimes necessary to go back a few or

14
Figure 1.11 Blended design process model showing iteration between the various activities.
several levels. An example might be the discov-
ery at manufacture that an item cannot be made
as envisaged and a new concept altogether is
required. Ideally, such a discovery should not
occur, as every other level of the design process
illustrated in Fig. 1.10 should be considered at
each stage. Iteration between activities is illus-
trated symbolically in Fig. 1.11. Each of the design
activities illustrated in Fig. 1.10 is described in
more detail in the remainder of this section. As it
is the same fundamental process being described,
these descriptions are similar to those dealt with in
Fig. 1.6.
The need/opportunity analysis or marketing
phase refers to the assessment of sales opportu-
nities or perceived need to update an existing
product, service, system, or platform resulting in
a statement sometimes called the market brief,
design brief, brief, or statement of need. Any
realization of a need or opportunity warrants
scrutiny in order to establish whether there is a
market opportunity. The potential to undertake
a detailed requirements analysis will depend on
the nature of the market. In an established mar-
ket, information can be gathered on the total
market size and potential addressable and realiz-
able market. For a brand new or virgin market,
it may be much more difficult to establish the
Design
potential realizable market in the absence of hav-
ing refined prototypes for potential customers to
react to. Nevertheless, it is important to under-
take an analysis of what the product, service, or
system needs to address.
Specification involves the formal statement of
the required functions, features, and perfor-
mance of the product or process to be designed.
Recommended practice from the outset of
design work is to produce a product design spec-
ification (PDS) that should be formulated from
the brief and requirements analysis or statement
of need. The PDS is the formal specification of
the product to be designed. Typically, a PDS will
include, where relevant, consideration of various
aspects of performance, ergonomics, esthetics,
costs, timescale, market, materials, size, weight,
transportation, packaging, production, sustain-
ability and recycling, maintenance, intellectual
property, standards, legal constraints, health and
safety, and documentation. The specification acts
as the control for the total design activity
because it sets the boundaries for the subsequent
design. The use can be made of a proforma
table to aid in defining each aspect of the specifi-
cation. Examples of such proforma tables are
given in Tables 1.4 and 1.5 where a series of
prompts are given to help ensure a rationale is
 Chapter 1
Table 1.4 Example specification proforma.
Item Intent Quantified aim
Table 1.5 Example specification proforma.
Aspect Objective Criteria Test conditions
considered for each aspect. An example of a
specification using the proforma of Table 1.5 is
given in Table 1.6.
The early stages of design where the major deci-
sions are to be made is sometimes called conceptual
design or just concept design. During this phase, a
rough idea is developed as to how a product will
function technically and what it will look like. The
process of conceptual design can also be described
as the definition of the product’s morphology, how
it is made up, and its layout. It involves the genera-
tion of solutions to meet specified requirements.
Conceptual design can represent the sum of all sub-
systems and component parts that go on to make
up the whole system. Ion and Smith (1996)
describe conceptual design as an iterative process
comprising a series of generative and evaluative
stages that converge to the preferred solution. At
each stage of iteration, the concepts are defined in
greater detail, allowing more thorough evaluation.
It is important to generate as many concepts and
ideas as possible or economically expedient and
then undertake a selection process to identify pre-
ferred concepts. There is a temptation to accept the
first promising concept and proceed toward detailed
design and the final product. This should be resisted
as such results can invariably be bettered. It is worth
noting that sooner or later your design will have to
compete against those from other manufacturers,
so the generation of developed concepts is prudent.
Some methods such as brainstorming, morphologi-
cal analysis, and SCAMPER (substitute, combine,
adapt, modify, put to use, erase, rearrange), used to
aid the generation of concepts, are described by
Childs (2018).
15
Competition best Evaluation method
The ‘‘component and system design’’ and
‘‘virtual realization and design verification’’
phases consist of the determination of the spe-
cific details for each component and subsystem
and their modeling in order to validate that the
design fulfills and matches the requirement. In
the case of a physical component or subsystem,
this may involve determination of the shape and
size of individual components, what materials
should be used, how the materials and subsys-
tems are going to be recycled, how they fit
together, and the method of manufacture. These
activities are sometimes viewed under the
umbrella of detailed design. Component and
system design and their verification make use of
the many skills acquired and developed by engi-
neers in the areas of analysis. It is these phases
that can take up the bulk of the time spent on a
design. However, as implied earlier, it is wise to
only spend time on details once a sensible con-
cept has been selected.
Prototyping covers a broad range of activities.
Some prototypes are physical in form, some non-
physical. Prototypes can also involve increasing
levels of refinement. A prototype, be it physical or
nonphysical, provides an opportunity for the
design team to assess and consider the various fea-
tures of a design. There are many approaches to
prototyping. Some prototypes can be form only,
providing an indication of the shape and size of
components and an overall assembly; others can
focus on providing functioning features. Form-
only prototypes are often referred to as looks-like
prototypes, while functional prototypes are some-
times called works-like prototypes. Looks-like pro-
totyping approaches include the use of blue foam
and other soft materials to form the shape by filing,
sanding and molding, use and adaptation of found
objects including technical construction toys, and
Table 1.6 Initial product design specification for a snow sports activity vehicle.
Aspect Objective Criteria Test conditions
Performance Operation at low Assume arctic conditions. Operation at temperatures Test components at extreme temperatures.
temperature between 240 C and 25 C.
High speed 60 mph maximum. Rolling road test or dynamometer test.
High acceleration Limit to the ability of an average person to hold on to and Test existing products and identify maximum acceleration
control vehicle. suitable. Test prototype on rolling road or dynamometer.
High Less than 5 m turning circle. Test model.
maneuverability
Easy steering Steering must be responsive to driver intent and provide Use a focus group to evaluate steering on a prototype model.
adequate feedback on driving conditions.
Easy starting Push button start. Expose CAD model to a focus group for assessment. Expose a
prototype model of starting a focus group.
High range 2 h operation or 120 miles. Dynamometer or rolling road test.
Good braking Must be capable of braking from 30 kph in 30 m on fresh Rolling road test.
snow.
Accommodation Two people Driver plus one passenger. Test accommodation of two people in the product using digital
manikins in the CAD model. Use a focus group to evaluate the
layout and accommodation using a prototype mock-up of the
design.
Cost Acceptable cost The works cost price must not exceed d3000. Obtain quotations for constituent components from OEMs
for market sector (Original Equipment Manufacturers) and estimates for in-house
manufactured components and assembly costs.
Size Small Must be able to transport device on a small trailer. Determine the size of concept from the CAD model. Test
concept on a CAD trailer model.
Noise Low Noise levels must not exceed national standard limits. Test to national standards.
Materials Appropriate to Compatible with low temperatures and fuel (fire Test to national standards.
design retardant, see standards).
Weight Low One person must be able to move the device. Two Determine the weight during design from the CAD model.
people must be able to lift the device. Mass not to exceed Weigh prototype components.
200 kg.
Safety High Power plant must cut out when the driver loses control. Bench test.
To national and Materials must be fire retardant to national standards. Bench test.
international
standards
Fuel Readily available Any readily available fuel such as petrol, diesel, kerosene, Must comply with BS/ISO standards. Check fuel readily available
or electricity. from retailers and check no legal changes to fuel legislation are
imminent.
Chapter 1
17

3D printing and fabrication. Other forms of pro-

from suppliers and check no legal changes to power plants are

Use standard project management methods to track progress

Dynamometer test. Check ready availability of power plant totyping include wireframing, commonly used in

Expose concept design ideas to focus groups for appraisal.

software and app development to give a visual
model of a user’s experience, and role-playing,
Expose prototypes to focus groups for appraisal. with actors exploring different scenarios in the use

Identify components in stock supply inventories.

The warranty life of the machine should exceed 500 h use. Test design under accelerated stress conditions. of a product or service, often using crude props for
the product or service concerned. Prototyping can
be an important part of the design process, enabling

and rectify excursions from the plan.

features to be trialed and explored, and the physical
and visual form of a prototype tends to provoke
comment and feedback as well as additional ideas
Use established suppliers.

that either confirm an original intent or inform on

the need for further development.
Acceptance testing involves testing the prod-
uct, system, or service in the user environment
imminent.

against the defined requirements. Acceptance

testing is intended to reveal any issues with the
design, such as any compatibility, interfacing,
and performance issues.
The production and release planning phase,
Design using manufacturing techniques that are readily

Detailed design must take less than a maximum of 6

although identified as distinct within the struc-

ture, is typical of other phases in which it influ-
Use components-off-the-shelf where possible.

ences all the others. The design of any item

must be such that it is feasible to produce or
available from a number of local plants.
Any available technology power plant.

manufacture the product, service, system, or

Current trend/modern sports style.

platform concerned within the constraints of

time, costs, and quality. In the case of a physical
product, the materials selected must be compat-
ible with the manufacturing facilities and skills
available and at acceptable costs to match
elapsed months.

marketing requirements. Manufacturing is so

important that design strategies to reinforce its
importance have been developed such as design
for assembly and design for manufacture
(see, for instance, Boothroyd, 1997). The con-
current engineering model provides a system-
Attractive styling

atic approach that encourages the developer

Ensure ready

components
Supply chain
technology

Maximize

from the outset to consider all the elements of a

supply of
Available

Minimize

CAD, Computer aided design.

options

product life cycle or process from concept

through disposal, including quality control,
scheduling, and user requirements. This is
illustrated in Fig. 1.12.
Manufacture

Design time
Propulsion

Market drivers such as a need for shorter inno-

Esthetics

vation cycles, more complicated products, and

Life

greater data volumes combined with requirements


18
Figure 1.12 Concurrent engineering.
Figure 1.13 Schematic indicating the Industry 4.0 opportunity for manufacturing.
for individualization, high productivity and
energy, and resource efficiency have led to the
emergence of Industry 4.0. Industry 4.0 involves
organization and control of all design, engineer-
ing, and business activities across the entire prod-
uct life cycle and value chain, leveraging insights
from data flows in order to provide, in theory,
seamless delivery of value to all stakeholders.
Central to Industry 4.0 principles are data flows
and a digital model, which needs to be up to
date and complete across all activities associated
with product design, production planning, engi-
neering and execution, and services. A sche-
matic showing the opportunity Industry 4.0
offers to manufacturing is given in Fig. 1.13.
Sensors, computing power, data analytics, and
Design
networking are all key enablers for the Industry
4.0 vision.
Industry 4.0 first emerged as a concept at the
Hannover fair in 2011 with aims including
assisting in the long-term sustainability of
national industry enabled by leverage of infor-
mation for quality and bespoke provision. Since
then, the confluence of increasing data connec-
tivity, digitization, and opportunities associated
with this (see Fig. 1.14) have led to widespread
consideration and adoption of Industry 4.0 prin-
ciples. Many reports on this topic are available
concerning the opportunity and challenges for
industry (e.g., see McKinsey, 2015; IMechE,
2016; PWC, 2016). Industry 4.0 enables many
new paradigms ranging from seamless product
 Chapter 1
Figure 1.14 Industry 4.0 principles.
design to realization and product design for mass
individualization (see Sikhwal and Childs, 2017).
The last phase, opportunity, and need reali-
zation and the associated aspects of imple-
menting a responsible and sustainable business
is of course essential for the success of any
business. Sales should match the expectations
of the initial marketing analysis; otherwise,
there may be a need to reconsider production
runs. Business factors have a fundamental
impact on other phases within the design
core. Information such as customer reaction
to the product, any component failures or
wear, damage during packaging, and transpor-
tation should be fed back to influence the
design of product revisions and future designs.
If sales revenues exceed design and production
costs, it will be possible to invest in design
updates for the product, service, system or
platform concerned, as well as the develop-
ment of brand-new designs. Sustainability and
responsible business can be intertwined with
all activities of the enterprise and design activ-
ity with consideration given to local and
wider impacts. Service models or incentives
can be considered, for example, by encourag-
ing customers to return devices for recycling
in return for an updated model, thereby
enabling control of the end of life dismantling
19
and recycling of components and retention of
customers.
The iteration loops shown in Fig. 1.11 repre-
sent the flow of information and control from
one activity to another as well as the iterative
nature of the process (see Baxter, 1995 regard-
ing the iterative nature of design). For instance,
detailed design activity may indicate that an
aspect of the conceptual design is not feasible
and must be reconsidered. Alternatively, con-
ceptual work may yield features that have
potential for additional marketing opportu-
nities. In other words, the activity on one level
can and does interact dynamically with activities
on other levels. Fig. 1.15 illustrates the possible
flow of this process during the development of
a product.
Almost any product, such as a vacuum cleaner,
kettle, automobile, or cordless hand-tool, requires
input from people of many disciplines, including
engineering, legal, and marketing, and this requires
considerable coordination. In industrial terms, the
integration comes about as a result of the partial
design inputs from each relevant discipline, such as
market analysis, material selection, mechanics, fluid
flow and heat transfer, and optimization. The
effective and efficient design of any product invari-
ably requires the use of different techniques and
skills. The disciplines indicated are the designer’s

20
Figure 1.15 Design activities at different stages in product development.
toolkit and indicate the multidisciplinary nature of
design. The forklift truck example mentioned in
Section 1.2 will require engine management and
control systems as well as the design of mechanical
components. Although this text concentrates on
mechanical design, this is just one, albeit impor-
tant, interesting and necessary aspect of the holistic
or total design activity.
A number of circumferential inputs have been
shown as arrows in Figs. 1.4 and 1.6. These rep-
resent elements of the specification listed in
order of importance for each phase of design.
The priority order of these specifications may
Design
alter for different phases of the design activity.
The exact number will depend on the actual
case under consideration.
Industry is usually concerned with holistic
design and this is embodied in the blended
design process model. The phases and associated
steps represent the systematic activity necessary
from the identification of a market need to the
commercialization of the product to satisfy
the market need. The phases associated with the
blended design process model are summarized in
Table 1.7, and the generic design activities typi-
cal in design are illustrated in Fig. 1.16 against
 Chapter 1
21

Table 1.7 Blended design process model phases.

Phase
Opportunity/need analysis
Requirements analysis
Specification
Concept design
Component and system
design
Virtual realization and design
verification
Prototyping
Acceptance testing
Production release planning
Opportunity/need realization
Description
This phase refers to the assessment of sales opportunities or perceived need to update an
existing product, service, system, or platform resulting in a statement sometimes called the
market brief, design brief, brief, or statement of need.
The market opportunity needs to be scrutinized and any assumptions tested in order to
establish the potential for the initiative. Critical to requirements analysis is the establishment of
what the product, service, or system actually needs to address.
Specification involves the formal statement of the required functions, features, and performance
of the product or process to be designed. Recommended practice from the outset of design
work is to produce a product design specification (PDS) that should be formulated from the
brief and requirements analysis or statement of need.
During this phase, a rough idea is developed as to how a product will function and what it will
look like. The process of conceptual design can also be described as the definition of the
product’s morphology, how it is made up and its layout. Conceptual design is the generation of
solutions to meet specified requirements.
The component and system design phase consists of the determination of the specific details
for each component and subsystem.
Virtual realization and design verification involves modeling each component and subsystem in
order to validate that the design fulfills and matches the requirement.
Prototypes can be physical or nonphysical in form and can involve increasing levels of
refinement. Prototyping provides an opportunity for the design team to assess and consider the
various features of a design.
Acceptance testing involves testing the product, system, or service in the user environment
against the defined requirements. Acceptance testing is designed to reveal any issues with the
design such as any compatibility, interfacing, and performance issues.
The design of any item must be such that it is feasible to produce the product, service, system,
or platform concerned within the constraints of time, cost, and quality.
Throughout the design process, attention needs to be given to the final release of the product,
service, or system.

Figure 1.16 Blended design process model and generic phases.

the specific phases. An indication of the increas- 1.4 Design Optimization

ing resource that needs to be allocated as a proj-
ect progresses is illustrated by the shading in Inevitably, there are conflicts between the diver-
Fig. 1.17. sity of requirements driven by the stakeholders.

22
Figure 1.17 Blended design process model illustrating the typical requirement for increased resource as a project progresses.
Optimization can be viewed as the process of
repetitively refining a set of often-conflicting cri-
teria to achieve the best compromise. In the case
of a transportation system, size, maneuverability,
cost, esthetic appeal, ease of use, stability, safety,
and speed are not necessarily all in accordance
with each other (see Hall et al., 2012). Priorities
can change within the lifetime of a product and
vary within markets and cultures. Cost minimiza-
tion may call for compromises on material usage
and manufacturing methods. These considera-
tions form part of the optimization of the product
producing the best or most acceptable compro-
mise between the desired criteria.
A traditional engineering design process often
comprises a series of sequential steps, beginning
with defined requirements or an opportunity and
proceeding through ideation, synthesis, analysis,
and optimization to production. This process can
be controlled by a series of gate reviews in coordi-
nation with the stakeholders, and the process can
be iterative with phases being revisited when
rework is recognized as necessary. This type of
process can lead to bottlenecks in activity and a
tendency to stick to a particular suboptimal solu-
tion as so much time and effort has already been
allocated to it.
Design
A range of optimization tools used in design are
reviewed by Roy et al. (2008). MDO, for example,
combines tools and approaches from a number of
disciplines in order to tackle the refinement of a set
of parameters for a given problem area in order to
deliver the best compromise between those para-
meters. This approach has been widely applied in
aerospace applications. A key characteristic of
MDO is that the solution is better than that
obtained by optimizing each of the parameters
sequentially. The approach is resource intensive in
terms of computational power. However, Moore’s
law enhancement of processing means that this is
not a hindrance to application of the approach.
Optimization approaches and numerical strategies
typically employed have included decomposition,
approximation, evolutionary and mimetic algo-
rithms, response surface methodologies, reliability,
and multiobjective. The METUS methodology
(METUS, 2012), for example, has been used in
Airbus development programs to help provide a
holistic approach to product development, covering
the phases of conception and optimization of prod-
uct architecture, and visualization and integration
of partners in the supply chain. A topological opti-
mized cantilever is illustrated in Fig. 1.18 (Zhu
et al., 2018).
 Chapter 1
23

Figure 1.18 Cantilever beam optimization case study: (A) loading and boundary conditions, (B) von Mises Stress field on
initial model, and (C) topological optimized model (Zhu et al., 2018).

MDO can be considered to be a methodology trade-off between different disciplines inherent in

for the design of an engineering system that exploits design. Proponents of MDO suggest that this pro-
the synergies between interacting parameters. The vides the justification for its application at an early
principle of MDO is that it provides the collection stage in a product-development program (e.g., see
of tools and methods that enables and permits the Sobieszczanski-Sobieski et al., 1984).

24
Ideally, an MDO environment should permit
the definition of the brief and specification
constraints for all the various stakeholders (e.g.,
see Kroll et al., 2009). This is typically achieved
using a single parametric model for the whole
system facilitating effective communication between
the different stakeholders. MDO offers the
potential for the interactions between subsystems
and systems to be explored from an early stage
in the design process by a number of stake-
holders, the purpose being to find the minima
for the cost functions and reach an optimal solu-
tion for the holistic system.
1.5 Design Reviews
Design reviews can be an important method of
auditing a design and may be a formal part of a
quality management system (e.g., ISO 9000 and
associated standards). A design review brings
together representatives of all the people who
have an interest in the new product. It should be
a critical examination of the design. It will,
because it takes time, increase the cost of design
but will also increase the cost-effectiveness if
the recommendations are put into practice.
Participants should therefore include, in addition
to the design team, representatives of produc-
tion, quality, safety, purchasing, and of course
marketing. The number of reviews will depend
on the complexity of the product, but an initial
review at the proposal stage and another as the
design approaches maturity represents the mini-
mum needed. A design review is an opportunity
for chief engineers, project managers, supervisors
and associate supervisors, quality managers, and
engineers for interfacing components and sys-
tems to challenge and scrutinize your designs
and the hard data that proves that requirements
have been properly met.
The use of design reviews is standard practice
in industry and an important stage particularly
where complex systems are being developed
(Huang, 2002) in order to establish detailed
Design
requirements and solutions that are fit for pur-
pose and practically realizable within the emer-
gent constraints and limitations that are exposed
during the detailed exploration of a design chal-
lenge. The management of design is a complex
activity, as it needs to encourage creativity and
ensure motivated staff while at the same time
allowing work to be controlled and completed,
especially when defined timescales and fixed
costs are involved. Design reviews are a funda-
mental part of project management. The follow-
ing three types of review are typical within a
waterfall project:
• SDR—system design reviews.
• PDR—preliminary design reviews.
• CDR—critical design reviews.
1.6 The Technology Base
The range of existing and well-tried technology
is extensive. In the context of mechanical engi-
neering and machine design, examples of well-
developed technology and machine elements
include bearings, gears, belts and chains, seals,
clutches and brakes, and fasteners. Many such
items are available as standard components and
can be purchased from specialist suppliers.
Sometimes, such components are referred to as
components off the shelf (COTS). In addition,
standard practice and design methodology have
been specified for many others. The designer is
able to exploit available technology as it is or by
combination and adaptation. The scope of
mechanical machine elements available to the
designer is outlined in Table 1.8. This list is not
exhaustive but does give an idea of some of the
‘‘building blocks’’ available. Many of these
machine elements are considered within this
book and are identified by an asterisk in the table.
Developing an overview of the available tech-
nology base is useful to the designer as it avoids
time spent on repeating the design process on a
technology that has already been developed. In
Table 1.8 An overview of the scope of machine elements.
Energy Energy Friction Miscellaneous
Energy conversion transmission storage Locating reduction Switching Sealing Sensors mechanisms
Turbomachinery Gears* Flywheel Threaded Rolling element Clutches* Dynamic seals Motion Hinges, pivots
Gas turbine engines Spur* Springs* fasteners* bearings* Square jaw* Mechanical Dimensional Linkages
Rotodynamic pumps Helical* Helical* Bolts* Deep groove* Multiple face Mass Levers
and compressors Bevel* Leaf* Nuts and Cylindrical serration* Lip ring Force Tools
Fans Worm* Belleville* lock nuts* roller* Sprag* Bush Torque Cutters
Propellers Conformal Rubber Grub Needle roller* Roller* Labyrinth Power Shears
Turbines Belts* Spiral screws* Taper roller* Disk* Brush Pressure Drills
Internal combustion Flat* Garter Studs Angular Drum* Ferrofluidic Pitot tubes Formers
engines Vee* Fluid Screws* contact* Cone* Rim seals Static tappings Grips
Rotary Wedge* accumulator Washers* Self-aligning* Magnetic* Rings Manometers Guides
Reciprocating Round* Gas spring Nails Thrust* Synchromesh* Packings Piezoelectric Followers
Boilers and combustors Synchronous* Reservoir Pins* Recirculating Ratchet and Piston rings Sound Housings,
Electric motors Chains* Pressure vessel Cylindrical* ball* pawl* Static seals Flow Frames
Alternators and Roller* Solid mass Taper* Sliding bearings* Geneva Gaskets Laser Doppler Casings
generators Leaf* Chemical Spring Plain rubbing* Mechanisms Rings Hot wire Enclosures
Solenoids Conveyor* Charge Rivets* Hydrodynamic* Valves Sealants Ultrasonic Sprayers
Pneumatic and hydraulic Silent* Torsion bar Tolerance rings Hydrostatic Latches Level Shutters
actuators Cables and ropes Expanding bolts Hydrodynamic Triggers Humidity Hooks
Brakes* Couplings* Keys* slideway Bimetallic strips Temperature Pulleys
Disk* Rigid* Flat, round* Wheels and rollers Thermocouples Handles
Drum* Flexible* Profiled* Brushes Resistance Rollers and drums
Band* Universal* Gib head* thermometers Centrifuges
Pumps Cranks Woodruff* Pyrometers Filters
Rockets Cams Splines* Heat flux
Heat exchangers Power screws and Circlips* Thermopile
Guns threads* Snap rings* Gardon gauges
Dampers and shock Levers and Clamps Strain and stress
absorbers linkages Retaining rings Time
Fuel cells Pipes, hoses, and Shoulders* Chemical
ducts Spacers* composition
Ball screws* Grooves*
Fits*
Clearance*
Transition*
Interference*
Adhesives*
Welds*

*Considered in this book (After private communication: McMahon, 1997).


26
addition, knowledge of science and engineering
enables a designer to judge what is technically
and scientifically feasible so that ‘‘far-fetched’’
ideas can be objectively ruled out.
1.7 Conclusion
Design can be considered to be the process of con-
ceiving, developing, and realizing products, arti-
facts, processes, systems, services, and experiences
with the aim of fulfilling identified or perceived
needs or desires typically working within defined
or negotiated constraints. Engineering involves the
application of scientific, technical, and mathematic
principles in combination with professional and
domain knowledge to design, develop, and deliver
artifacts, products, and systems to realize a societal,
commercial, or organizational requirement or
opportunity. This chapter has briefly reviewed a
range of design processes relevant to both engi-
neering and design domains, including a blended
design process model that addresses holistic design
as well as project management considerations. The
models presented provide an indication of process,
although a given individual or organization is likely
to develop their own bespoke approach relevant to
their specific requirements or context.
References
Books and Papers
ABET. (2011). Criteria for accrediting engineering
programs. Effective evaluations during the
2010
2011 accreditation cycle. ,www.abet.
org. (last accessed November 12, 2020).
Björklund, T.A. (2013). Initial mental representations
of design problems: Differences between experts
and novices. Design Studies 34, 135
160.
Baxter, M. (1995). Product Design. Chapman and Hall.
Boothroyd, G. (1997). Design for manufacture and
assembly. In ASM Handbook. Vol. 20. Material Selection
and Design. ASM International, pp. 676
686.
Design
Bröhl, A.P. (ed.). (1993). Das V-Modell: Der Standard für
die Softwareentwicklung mit Praxisleitfaden. Oldenbourg.
Childs, P.R.N. (2019). Interplays of humanism, cog-
nitivism and behaviourism in design engineering.
In P.A. Rodgers and C. Bremner (eds), Vernon
Press. Design School: After Boundaries and
Disciplines. pp. 67-73.
Childs, P.R.N. (2018). Mechanical Design Engineering
Handbook, 2nd edn. Elsevier.
Childs, P.R.N. and Pennington, M. (2015). Industrial,
and innovation design engineering. In A. Chakrabarti
and U. Lindemann (eds), Impact of Design Research on
Industrial Practice. Springer, pp. 133
149.
Clarkson, J. and Eckert, C. (2005). Design Process
Improvement: A Review of Current Practice. Springer.
Cox, G. (2005). Cox Review of Creativity in Business:
Building on the UK’s Strengths. HM Treasury.
Crawley, E.F. (2001). The CDIO Syllabus. A Statement
of Goals for Undergraduate Engineering Education.
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. January,
MIT CDIO Report #1.
Design Council. (2007). Eleven lessons: Managing design
in eleven global brands. A study of the design process.
,https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/sites/default/
files/asset/document/ElevenLessons_Design_Council
%20%282%29.pdf. (last accessed November 2020).
Design Council. (2019). What is the framework for inno-
vation? Design Council’s evolved Double Diamond.
,https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/news-opinion/
what-framework-innovation-design-councils-evolved-
double-diamond. (last accessed October 13, 2020).
General Directive 250. (1992). Software Development
Standard for the German Federal Armed Forces,
V-Model (Software Life Cycle Process Model).
Hall, A. and Childs, P.R.N. (2009). Innovation
design engineering: Non-linear progressive educa-
tion for diverse intakes. In A. Clarke, B. Ion, C.
McMahon, and P. Hogarth (eds) Proceedings of the
11th EPDE International Conference, Design
Society, pp. 312
317.
Hall, A., Wuggetzer, I., Mayer, T. and Childs, P.R.N.
(2012). Future aircraft cabins and design thinking:
Optimisation vs. win-win scenarios. Paper ISJPPE-
2012-F0077, 4th ISJPPE Conference, Xi’An, China.
Huang, G.Q. (2002). Web-based support for collaborative
product design review. Computers in Industry 48(1),
71
88.
 Chapter 1
IMechE. (2016). Industry 4.0 Report. ,https://www.
imeche.org/docs/default-source/1-oscar/reports-
policy-statements-and-documents/bdo-industry-4-
0-report5bdaad8d54216d0c8310ff0100d05193.pdf?
sfvrsn 5 0. (last accessed April 2, 2018).
Ion, B. and Smith, D. (1996). The Conceptual Design
Phase. SEED.
Kroll, N., Schwamborn, D., Becker, K., Rieger, H. and
Thiele, F. (eds). (2009). MEGADESIGN and
MegaOpt—German Initiatives for Aerodynamic Simulation
and Optimization in Aircraft Design: Results of the Closing
Symposium of the MEGADESIGN and MegaOpt
Projects. Springer.
McKinsey. (2015). Industry 4.0: How to navigate digiti-
zation of the manufacturing sector. ,https://www.
mckinsey.de/files/mck_industry_40_report.pdf. (last
accessed April 2, 2018).
McMahon, C. (1997). Private communication.
University of Bristol.
METUS. ,http://www.id-consult.com/en/metus-
software/. (last accessed June 23, 2012).
National Academy of Engineering. (2004). The
Engineer of 2020: Visions of Engineering in the New
Century. National Academies Press.
Pahl, G. and Beitz, W. (1996). Engineering Design: A
Systematic Approach, 2nd edn. Springer.
Pugh, S. (1990). Total Design. Addison Wesley.
PWC. (2016). Industry 4.0: Building the digital enterprise.
,https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/industries/indus-
tries-4.0/landing-page/industry-4.0-building-your-
digital-enterprise-april-2016.pdf. (last accessed
April 2, 2018).
Roy, R., Hinduja, S. and Teti, R. (2008). Recent
advances in engineering design optimisation:
Challenges and future trends. CIRP Annals -
Manufacturing Technology 57, 697
715.
SEED. (1985). Sharing Experience in Engineering Design.
Curriculum for Design. Engineering Undergraduate
Courses. SEED.
Sikhwal, R.K. and Childs, P.R.N. (2017). Product
design for mass individualisation for industrial appli-
cation. In International Conference on Industrial
Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM2017),
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
Sobieszczanski-Sobieski, J., Barthelemy, J.-F.M. and
Giles, G.L. (1984). Aerospace engineering design
by systematic decomposition and multilevel optimi-
zation. In 14th Congress of the International Council of
27
the Aeronautical Sciences (ICAS), American Institute
of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
Zhu, L., Li, N. and Childs, P.R.N. (2018). Light-
weighting in aerospace component and system
design. Propulsion and Power Research 7, 103
119.
Standards
BS 5639-1:1978, ISO 2331-1974. (1978). Fork arms
for fork lift trucks. Vocabulary for hook-on type form
arms.
BS EN 13545:2002. Pallet superstructures. Pallet collars.
Test methods and performance requirements.
BS EN 13698-1:2003. Pallet product specification.
Construction specification for 800 mm x 1200
mm wooden pallets.
BS EN 13698-2:2009. Pallet product specification.
Construction specification for 1000 mm x 1200
mm wooden pallets.
BS EN ISO 445:2010. Pallets for materials handling.
Vocabulary.
BS ISO 18334:2010. Pallets for materials handling.
Quality of assembly of new wood pallets.
BS ISO 22915-15:2020. Industrial trucks. Verification
of stability. Counterbalanced trucks with articulated
steering.
BS ISO 22915-16:2014. Industrial trucks. Verification
of stability. Pedestrian-propelled trucks.
BS ISO 22915-3:2014, BS ISO 22915-3:2014.
Industrial trucks. Verification of stability. Reach
and straddle trucks.
BS ISO 22915-4:2018. Industrial trucks. Verification of
stability. Pallet stackers, double stackers and order-
picking trucks with operator position elevating up
to and including 1200 mm lift height.
BS ISO 2330:2002. (2002). Fork-lift trucks. Fork
arms. Technical characteristics and testing.
BS ISO 509:1996. Pallet trucks. Principal dimensions.
BS ISO 6780:2003. Flat pallets for intercontinental
materials handling. Principal dimensions and
tolerances.
Web Sites
At the time of going to press the world-wide-web
contained useful information relating to this chap-
ter at the following sites.
www.bsigroup.com
www.iso.org
 Design
28

Nomenclature merits, and demerits of the process to modern

engineering practice.
BS British Standard 1.3 In some of the design process model sche-
CAD computer aided design matics, radial arrows and double headed arrows
CDIO conceive, design, implement, operate are used. Briefly state, in one or two sentences,
CDR critical design review the significance of these arrow types, as used in
COTS components off the shelf
the design schematics.
DESIG Design Education Special Interest
1.4 In the context of design, state in the form of
Group
DFA design for assembly one or two sentences, what is meant by (a) synthe-
IMechE Institution of Mechanical Engineers sis, (b) optimization, (c) embodiment, (d) concept?
ISO International Organization for 1.5 List 10 additional items using the profor-
Standardization ma given in Table 1.5, adding additional rows as
L length (m) necessary, for the specification for a potential
MDO multidisciplinary design optimization new battery-powered scooter aimed at the com-
P load (N) muter market in Europe for use between home,
PDS product design specification rail stations, and place of work.
PDR preliminary design review 1.6 List 10 additional items using the profor-
SCAMPER substitute, combine, adapt, modify,
ma given in Table 1.5, adding additional rows as
put to use, erase, rearrange
necessary, for the specification for a potential
SDR system design review
SEED Sharing Experience in Engineering new tailgate winch design for the SUV (sports
Design utility vehicle) market.
x coordinate (m) 1.7 List 10 items using the proforma given in
δmax maximum deflection (m) Table 1.5, adding additional rows as necessary,
for the specification for a potential new cordless
Worksheet screwdriver design for the domestic market.
1.8 Briefly state, in a few sentences, the pur-
1.1 (a) Provide two definitions of design relevant pose of a design review.
to engineering design and cite the source for 1.9 Iteration is a common feature of design
these. (b) Provide, using your own words, a con- processes relevant to engineering and product
cise definition of mechanical design relevant to design. Describe in a few sentences why itera-
your context. tion is sometimes necessary for engineering
1.2 List four different approaches commonly design.
used for the design process relevant to engineer- 1.10 List (a) Five types of rolling element
ing design practice. For each, provide a brief bearing, (b) three types of sliding bearing, (c)
commentary (a few sentences) of the relevance, four types of gear, (d) three types of chain.

2
JOURNAL BEARINGS
2.1 Introduction
The purpose of a bearing is to support a load, typi-
cally applied to a shaft, whilst allowing relative
motion between two elements of a machine. The
two general classes of bearings are journal bearings,
also known as sliding or plain surface bearings, and
rolling element bearings, sometimes also called ball-
bearings. The aims of this chapter are to describe
the range of bearing technology, to outline the
identification of which type of bearing to use for a
given application, and to introduce journal bearing
design with specific attention to boundary lubri-
cated bearings and full-film hydrodynamic bearings.
The selection and use of rolling element bearings is
considered in Chapter 3.
The term ‘‘bearing’’ typically refers to contacting
surfaces through which a load is transmitted.
Bearings may roll or slide or do both simulta-
neously. The range of bearing types available is
extensive, although they can be broadly split into
two categories: sliding bearings, also known as
journal or plain surface bearings, where the motion
is facilitated by a thin layer or film of lubricant, and
rolling element bearings, where the motion is
aided by a combination of rolling motion and
lubrication. Lubrication is often required in a bear-
ing to reduce friction between surfaces and to
remove heat. Fig. 2.1 illustrates two of the more
commonly known bearings: a journal bearing and
a deep groove ball bearing. A general classification
scheme for the distinction of bearing types is given
in Fig. 2.2, developing on a taxonomy originally
produced by Hindhede et al. (1983).
Mechanical Design
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821102-1.00002-0
29
As can be seen from Fig. 2.2, the scope of
choice for a bearing is extensive. For a given
application, it may be possible to use different
bearing types. In a small gas turbine engine,
rotating at say 50,000 rpm, either rolling bear-
ings or journal bearings could be used although
the optimal choice will depend on a number of
factors such as life, cost, and size. Fig. 2.3 can be
used to give guidance for which kind of bearing
has the maximum load capacity at a given speed
and shaft size, and Table 2.1 gives an indication of
the performance of the various bearing types for
some criteria other than load capacity.
This and the following chapter provide an
introduction to bearings. Lubricant film sliding
bearings are introduced in Section 2.2, the
design of boundary-lubricated bearings that
are typically used for low-speed applications are
considered in Section 2.3, the design of
full-film hydrodynamically lubricated bearings
is described in Section 2.4, and Chapter 3,
Rolling Element Bearings considers rolling ele-
ment bearings. For further reading, the texts by
Khonsari and Booser (2017), Harris (2001), and
Brandlein et al. (1999) provide an extensive
overview of bearing technologies.
2.2 Sliding Bearings
The term sliding bearing refers to bearings
where two surfaces move relative to each other
without the benefit of rolling contact. The two
surfaces slide over each other and this motion
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Journal Bearings
30

Figure 2.1 A journal bearing and a deep groove ball bearing.

Figure 2.2 Bearing classification.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 All this I once detailed to Macaulay, who, as I have said, was much
interested by the argument, and took an eager part in discussing it.
But one circumstance (I said) perplexed me, and seemed to interfere
with the probabilities of the case. How came Junius, whose
excessive fear of detection betrays itself throughout so much of his
correspondence, and led him to employ all manner of shifts and
devices for the sake of concealment, to give the public, as if in mere
bravado, such a key to his identity as this little piece of
autobiography affords?
The answer is plain, replied Macaulay on the instant, with one of
those electric flashes of rapid perception which seemed in him to
pass direct from the brain to the eye. The letter of Bifrons is one of
Junius’s earliest productions—its date, half-a-year before the
formidable signature of Junius was adopted at all. The first letter so
signed is dated in November, 1768. In April, the writer had neither
earned his fame, nor incurred his personal danger. A mere unknown
scatterer of abuse, he could have little or no fear of directing inquiry
towards himself.
But (he added) I much prefer your first supposition to your second.
It is not only the most picturesque, but it is really the most probable.
And unless the contrary can be shown, I shall believe in the actual
presence of the writer at the burning of the books. Remember, this
fact explains what otherwise seems inexplicable, Lady Francis’s
imperfect story, that her husband “was at the court of France when
Madame de Pompadour drove out the Jesuits.” Depend on it, you
have caught Junius in the fact. Francis was there.
 William Hogarth:
PAINTER, ENGRAVER, AND PHILOSOPHER.
Essays on the Man, the Work, and the Time.

II.—Mr. Gamble’s Apprentice.

How often have I envied those who—were not my envy dead and
buried—would now be sixty years old! I mean the persons who were
born at the commencement of the present century, and who saw its
glories evolved each year with a more astonishing grandeur and
brilliance, till they culminated in that universal “transformation scene”
of ’15. For the appreciation of things began to dawn on me only in an
era of internecine frays and feuds:—theological controversies,
reform agitations, corporation squabbles, boroughmongering
debates, and the like: a time of sad seditions and unwholesome
social misunderstandings; Captain Rock shooting tithe-proctors in
Ireland yonder; Captain Swing burning hayricks here; Captains
Ignorance and Starvation wandering up and down, smashing
machinery, demolishing toll-bars, screeching out “Bread or blood!” at
the carriage-windows of the nobility and gentry going to the drawing-
room, and otherwise proceeding the wretchedest of ways for the
redress of their grievances. Surely, I thought, when I began to think
at all, I was born in the worst of times. Could that stern nobleman,
whom the mob hated, and hooted, and pelted—could the detested
“Nosey,” who was beset by a furious crowd in the Minories, and
would have been torn off his horse, perchance slain, but for the
timely aid of Chelsea Pensioners and City Marshalmen,—and who
was compelled to screen his palace windows with iron shutters from
onslaughts of Radical macadamites—could he be that grand Duke
Arthur, Conqueror and Captain, who had lived through so much
glory, and had been so much adored an idol? Oh, to have been born
in 1800! At six, I might just have remembered the mingled exultation
and passionate grief of Trafalgar; have seen the lying in state at
Greenwich, the great procession, and the trophied car that bore the
mighty admiral’s remains to his last home beneath the dome of
Paul’s. I might have heard of the crowning of the great usurper of
Gaul: of his putting away his Creole wife, and taking an emperor’s
daughter; of his congress at Erfurt,—and Talma, his tragedian,
playing to a pit full of kings, of his triumphal march to Moscow, and
dismal melting away—he and his hosts—therefrom; of his last defeat
and spectral appearance among us—a wan, fat, captive man, in a
battered cocked hat, on the poop of an English war-ship in Plymouth
Sound—just before his transportation to the rock appointed to him to
eat his heart upon. I envied the nurse who told upon her fingers the
names of the famous victories of the British army under Wellington
in Spain; Vimieira, Talavera, Vittoria, Salamanca, Ciudad Rodrigo,
Badajos, Fuentes d’Onore,—mille e tre; in fine—at last, Waterloo.
Why had I not lived in that grand time, when the very history itself
was acting? Strong men there were who lived before Agamemnon;
but for the accident of a few years, I might have seen, at least,
Agamemnon in the flesh. ’Tis true, I knew then only about the
rejoicings and fireworks, the bell-ringings, and thanksgiving sermons,
the Extraordinary Gazettes, and peerages and ribbons bestowed in
reward for those deeds of valour. I do not remember that I was told
anything about Walcheren, or about New Orleans; about the trade
driven by the cutters of gravestones, or the furnishers of funeral
urns, broken columns, and extinguished torches; about the sore
taxes, and the swollen national debt. So I envied; and much
disdained the piping times of peace descended to me; and wondered
if the same soldiers I saw or heard about, with scarcely anything
more to do than lounge on Brighton Cliff, hunt up surreptitious
whisky-stills, expectorate over bridges, and now and then be
lapidated at a contested election, could be the descendants of the
heroes who had swarmed into the bloody breach at Badajos, and
died, shoulder to shoulder, on the plateau of Mont St. Jean.
 MR. GAMBLE’S APPRENTICE.

Came 1848, with its revolutions, barricades, states of siege,

movements of vast armies, great battles and victories, with their
multiplied hecatombs of slain even; but they did not belong to us;
victors and vanquished were aliens; and I went on envying the
people who had heard the Tower guns fire, and joybells ring, who
had seen the fireworks, and read the Extraordinary Gazettes during
the first fifteen years of the century! Was I never to live in the history
of England? Then, as you all remember, came the great millennium
or peace year ’51. Did not sages deliberate as to whether it would
not be better to exclude warlike weapons from the congress of
industry in Hyde Park? By the side of Joseph Paxton with his crystal
verge there seemed to stand a more angelic figure, waving wide her
myrtle wand, and striking universal peace through sea and land. It
was to be, we fondly imagined, as the immortal blind man of
Cripplegate sang:—

“No war or battle’s sound

Was heard the world around:
The idle spear and shield were high uphung,
The hookèd chariot stood
Unstain’d with hostile blood,
The trumpet spake not to the armèd throng;
And kings sate still with awful eye,
As if they sorely knew their Sovereign Lord was by.”

O blind man! it was but for an instant. The trodden grass had
scarcely begun to grow again where nave and transept had been,
when the wicked world was all in a blaze; and then the very minstrels
of peace began to sharpen swords and heat shot red-hot about the
Holy Places; and then the Guards went to Gallipoli, and farther on to
Bulgaria, and farther on to Old Fort; and the news of the Alma,
Inkermann, Balaklava, the Redan, the Tchernaya, the Mamelon, the
Malakhoff came to us, hot and hot, and we were all living in the
history of England. And lo! it was very much like the history of any
other day in the year—or in the years that had gone before. The
movements of the allied forces were discussed at breakfast, over the
sipping of coffee, the munching of muffins, and the chipping of eggs.
Newspaper-writers, parliament-men, club-orators took official
bungling or military mismanagement as their cue for the smart leader
of the morrow, the stinging query to Mr. Secretary at the evening
sitting, or the bow-window exordium in the afternoon; and then
everything went on pretty much as usual. We had plenty of time and
interest to spare for the petty police case, the silly scandal, the
sniggering joke of the day. The cut of the coat and the roasting of the
mutton, the non-adhesiveness of the postage-stamp, or the
misdemeanors of the servant-maid, were matters of as relative
importance to us as the great and gloomy news of battle and
pestilence from beyond sea. At least I lived in actual history, and my
envy was cured for ever.
I have often thought that next to Asclepiades, the comic cynic,[1]
Buonaparte Smith was the greatest philosopher that ever existed. B.
Smith was by some thought to have been the original of Jeremy
Diddler. He was an inveterate borrower of small sums. On a certain
Wednesday in 1821, un sien-ami accosted him. Says the friend:
“Smith, have you heard that Buonaparte is dead?” To which retorts
the philosopher: “Buonaparte be ——!” but I disdain to quote his
irreverent expletive—“Buonaparte be somethinged. Can you lend me
ninepence?” What was the history of Europe or its eventualities to
Buonaparte Smith? The immediate possession of three-fourths of a
shilling was of far more importance to him than the death of that
tremendous exile in his eyrie in the Atlantic Ocean, thousands of
miles away. Thus, too, I daresay it was with a certain small
philosopher, who lived through a very exciting epoch of the history of
England: I mean Little Boy Hogarth. It was his fortune to see the
first famous fifteen years of the eighteenth century, when there were
victories as immense as Salamanca or Waterloo; when there was a
magnificent parallel to Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, existent,
in the person of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough. I once knew a
man who had lived in Paris, and throughout the Reign of Terror, in a
second floor of the Rue St. Honoré. “What did you do?” I asked,
almost breathlessly, thinking to hear of tumbrils, Carmagnoles,
gibbet-lanterns, conventions, poissarde-revolts, and the like. “Eh!
parbleu,” he answered, “je m’occupais d’ornithologie.” This
philosopher had been quietly birdstuffing while royalty’s head was
rolling in the gutter, and Carrier was drowning his hundreds at
Nantes. To this young Hogarth of mine, what may Marlborough and
his great victories, Anne and her “silver age” of poets, statesmen,
and essayists, have been? Would the War of the Succession assist
young William in learning his accidence? Would their High
Mightinesses of the States-General of the United Provinces supply
him with that fourpence he required for purchases of marbles or
sweetmeats? What had Marshal Tallard to do with his negotiations
with the old woman who kept the apple-stall at the corner of Ship
Court? What was the Marquis de Guiscard’s murderous penknife
compared with that horn-handled, three-bladed one, which the
Hebrew youth in Duke’s Place offered him at the price of
twentypence, and which he could not purchase, faute de quoi? At
most, the rejoicings consequent on the battles of Blenheim or
Ramillies, or Oudenarde or Malplaquet, might have saved William
from a whipping promised him for the morrow; yet, even under those
circumstances, it is painful to reflect that staying out too late to see
the fireworks, or singeing his clothes at some blazing fagot, might
have brought upon him on that very morrow a castigation more
unmerciful than the one from which he had been prospectively
spared.
Every biographer of Hogarth that I have consulted—and I take this
opportunity to return my warmest thanks to the courteous book
distributor at the British Museum who, so soon as he sees me enter
the Reading Room, proceeds, knowing my errand, to overwhelm me
with folios, and heap up barricades of eighteenth century lore round
me—every one of the biographers, Nichols, Steevens, Ireland,
Trusler, Phillips, Cunningham, the author of the article “Thornhill,” in
the Biographia Britannica—the rest are mainly copyists from one
another, often handing down blunders and perpetuating errors—
every Hogarthian Dryasdust makes a clean leap from the hero’s birth
and little schoolboy noviciate to the period of his apprenticeship to
Ellis Gamble the silversmith. Refined Mr. Walpole, otherwise very
appreciative of Hogarth, flirting over the papers he got from Vertue’s
widow, indites some delicate manuscript for the typographers of his
private press at Strawberry Hill, and tells us that the artist, whom he
condescends to introduce into his Anecdotes of Painting, was bound
apprentice to a “mean engraver of arms upon plate.” I see nothing
mean in the calling which Benvenuto Cellini (they say), and Marc
Antonio Raimondi (it is certain), perhaps Albert Durer, too, followed
for a time. I have heard of great artists who did not disdain to paint
dinner plates, soup tureens, and apothecary’s jars. Not quite
unknown to the world is one Rafaelle Sanzio d’Urbino, who designed
tapestry for the Flemish weavers, or a certain Flaxman, who was of
great service to Mr. Wedgwood, when he began to think that platters
and pipkins might be brought to serve some very noble uses. Horace
Walpole, cleverest and most refined of dilettanti—who could, and did
say the coarsest of things in the most elegant of language—you
were not fit to be an Englishman. Fribble, your place was in France.
Putative son of Orford, there seems sad ground for the scandal that
some of Lord Fanny’s blood flowed in your veins; and that Carr, Lord
Hervey, was your real papa. You might have made a collection of the
great King Louis’s shoes, the heels and soles of which were painted
by Vandermeulen with pictures of Rhenish and Palatinate victories.
Mignon of arts and letters, you should have had a petite maison at
Monçeaux or at the Roule. Surrounded by your abbés au petit collet,
teacups of pâte tendre, fans of chicken-skin painted by Leleux or
Lantara, jewelled snuff-boxes, handsome chocolate girls, gems and
intaglios, the brothers to those in the Museo Borbonico at Naples,
che non si mostrano alle donne, you might have been happy. You
were good enough to admire Hogarth, but you didn’t quite
understand him. He was too vigorous, downright, virile for you; and
upon my word, Horace Walpole, I don’t think you understood
anything belonging to England—nor her customs, nor her character,
nor her constitution, nor her laws. I don’t think that you would have
been anywhere more in your element than in France, to make
epigrams and orange-flower water, and to have your head cut off in
that unsparing harvest of ’93, with many more noble heads of corn
as clever and as worthless for any purpose of human beneficence as
yours, Horace.
For you see, this poor Old Bailey schoolmaster’s son—this scion
of a line of north-country peasants and swineherds, had in him pre-
eminently that which scholiast Warton called the “ἩΘΟΣ,” the strong
sledgehammer force of Morality, not given to Walpole—not given to
you, fribbles of the present as of the past—to understand. He was
scarcely aware of the possession of this quality himself, Hogarth;
and when Warton talked pompously of the Ethos in his works, the
painter went about with a blank, bewildered face, asking his friends
what the doctor meant, and half-inclined to be angry lest the learned
scholiast should be quizzing him. It is in the probabilities, however,
that William had some little Latin. The dominie in Ship Court did
manage to drum some of his grammar disputations into him, and to
the end of his life William Hogarth preserved a seemly reverence for
classical learning. Often has his etching-needle scratched out some
old Roman motto or wise saw upon the gleaming copper. A man
need not flout and sneer at the classics because he knows them not.
He need not declare Parnassus to be a molehill, because he has lost
his alpenstock and cannot pay guides to assist him in that
tremendous ascent. There is no necessity to gird at Pyrrha, and
declare her to be a worthless jade, because she has never braided
her golden hair for you. Of Greek I imagine W. H. to have been
destitute; unless, with that ingenious special pleading, which has
been made use of to prove that Shakspeare was a lawyer,
apothecary, Scotchman, conjuror, poacher, scrivener, courtier—what
you please—we assume that Hogarth was a Hellenist because he
once sent, as a dinner invite to a friend, a card on which he had
sketched a knife, fork, and pasty, and these words, “Come and Eta
Beta Pi.” No wonder the ἩΘΟΣ puzzled him. He was not deeply
learned in anything save human nature, and of this knowledge even
he may have been half unconscious, thinking himself to be more
historical painter than philosopher. He never was a connoisseur. He
was shamefully disrespectful to the darkened daubs which the
picture-quacks palmed on the curious of the period as genuine works
of the old masters. He painted “Time smoking a picture,” and did not
think much of the collection of Sir Luke Schaub. His knowledge of
books was defective; although another scholiast (not Warton)
proved, in a most learned pamphlet, that he had illustrated, sans le
savoir, above five hundred passages in Horace, Virgil, Juvenal, and
Ovid. He had read Swift. He had illustrated and evidently understood
Hudibras. He was afraid of Pope, and only made a timid, bird-like,
solitary dash at him in one of his earliest charges; and, curiously,
Alexander the Great of Twickenham seemed to be afraid of Hogarth,
and shook not the slightest drop of his gall vial over him. What a
quarrel it might have been between the acrimonious little scorpion of
“Twitnam,” and the sturdy bluebottle of Leicester Fields! Imagine
Pope versus Hogarth, pencil against pen; not when the painter was
old and feeble, half but not quite doting indeed, as when he warred
with Wilkes and Churchill, but in the strength and pride of his
swingeing satire. Perhaps William and Alexander respected one
another; but I think there must have been some tacit “hit me and I’ll
hit you” kind of rivalry between them, as between two cocks of two
different schools who meet now and then on the public promenades
—meet with a significant half-smile and a clenching of the fist under
the cuff of the jacket.
To the end of his life Hogarth could not spell; at least, his was not
the orthography expected from educated persons in a polite age. In
almost the last plate he engraved, the famous portrait of Churchill as
a Bear, the “lies,” with which the knots of Bruin’s club are inscribed,
are all “lyes.” This may be passed over, considering how very lax
and vague were our orthographical canons not more than a century
ago, and how many ministers, divines, poets—nay, princes, and
crowned heads, and nabobs—permitted themselves greater liberties
than “lye” for “lie” in the Georgian era. At this I have elsewhere
hinted, and I think the biographers of Hogarth are somewhat harsh in
accusing him of crass ignorance, when he only wrote as My Lord
Keeper, or as Lady Betty, or as his grace the Archbishop was wont to
write. Hogarth, too, was an author. He published a book—to say
nothing of the manuscript notes of his life he left. The whole
structure, soul, and strength of the Analysis of Beauty are
undoubtedly his; although he very probably profited by the
assistance—grammatical as well as critical—of some of the clerical
dignitaries who loved the good man. That he did so has been
positively asserted; but it is forestalling matters to trot out an old
man’s hobby, when our beardless lad is not bound ’prentice yet. I
cannot, however, defend him from the charges of writing “militia,”
“milicia,” “Prussia,” “Prusia”—why didn’t he hazard “Prooshia” at
once?[2]—“knuckles,” “nuckles”—oh, fie!—“Chalcedonians,”
“Calcidonians;” “pity,” “pitty;” and “volumes,” “volumns.” It is
somewhat strange that Hogarth himself tells us that his first graphic
exercise was to “draw the alphabet with great correctness.” I am
afraid that he never succeeded in writing it very correctly. He hated
the French too sincerely to care to learn their language; and it is not
surprising that in the first shop card he engraved for his master there
should be in the French translation of Mr. Gamble’s style and titles a
trifling pleonasm: “bijouxs,” instead of “bijoux.”
No date of the apprenticeship of Hogarth is anywhere given. We
must fix it by internal evidence. He was out of his time in the South
Sea Bubble year, 1720. On the 29th of April[3] in the same year, he
started in business for himself. The neatness and dexterity of the
shop card he executed for his master forbid us to assume that he
was aught but the most industrious of apprentices. The freedom of
handling, the bold sweep of line, the honest incisive play of the
graver manifested in this performance could have been attained by
no Thomas Idle; and we must, therefore, in justice grant him his full
seven years of ’prentice servitude. Say then that William Hogarth
was bound apprentice to Mr. Ellis Gamble,[4] at the Golden Angel, in
Cranbourn Street, Leicester Fields, in the winter of the year of our
Lord, Seventeen hundred and twelve. He began to engrave arms
and cyphers on tankards, salvers, and spoons, at just about the time
that it occurred to a sapient legislature to cause certain heraldic
hieroglyphics surmounted by the Queen’s crown, and encircled by
the words “One halfpenny,” to be engraven on a metal die, the which
being the first newspaper stamp ever known to our grateful British
nation, was forthwith impressed on every single half-sheet of printed
matter issued as a newspaper or a periodical. “Have you seen the
new red stamp?” writes his reverence Doctor Swift. Grub Street is
forthwith laid desolate. Down go Observators, Examiners, Medleys,
Flying Posts, and other diurnals, and the undertakers of the
Spectator are compelled to raise the price of their entertaining
miscellany.
One of the last head Assay Masters at Goldsmith Hall told one of
Hogarth’s biographers, when a very—very old man, that he himself
had been ’prentice in Cranbourn Street, and that he remembered
very well William serving his time to Mr. Gamble. The register of the
boy’s indenture should also surely be among the archives of that
sumptuous structure behind the Post Office, where the worthy
goldsmiths have such a sideboard of massy plate, and give such
jovial banquets to ministers and city magnates. And, doubt it not,
Ellis Gamble was a freeman, albeit, ultimately, a dweller at the West-
end, and dined with his Company when the goldsmiths entertained
the ministers and magnates of those days. Yes, gentles; ministers,
magnates, kings, czars, and princes were their guests, and King
Charles the Second did not disdain to get tipsy with Sir Robert Viner,
Lord Mayor and Alderman, at Guildhall. The monarch’s boon
companion got so fond of him as to lend him, dit-on, enormous sums
of money. More than that, he set up a brazen statue of the royal
toper in the Stocks flower-market at the meeting of Lombard Street
and the Poultry. Although it must be confessed that the effigy had
originally been cast for John Sobieski trampling on the Turk. The
Polish hero had a Carlovingian periwig given to him, and the
prostrate and miscreant Moslem was “improved” into Oliver
Cromwell. [Mem.:—A pair of correctional stocks having given their
name to the flower-market; on the other hand, may not the market
have given its name to the pretty, pale, red flowers, very dear to
Cockneys, and called “stocks?”]
How was William’s premium paid when he was bound ’prentice?
Be it remembered that silver-plate engraving, albeit Mr. Walpole of
Strawberry Hill calls it “mean,” was a great and cunning art and
mystery. These engravers claimed to descend in right line from the
old ciseleurs and workers in niello of the middle ages. Benvenuto, as
I have hinted, graved as well as modelled. Marc Antonio flourished
many a cardinal’s hat and tassels on a bicchiére before he began to
cut from Rafaelle and Giulio Romano’s pictures. The engraver of
arms on plate was the same artist who executed delightful
arabesques and damascenings on suits of armour of silver and Milan
steel. They had cabalistic secrets, these workers of the precious,
these producers of the beautiful. With the smiths, “back-hammering”
and “boss-beating” were secrets;—parcel-gilding an especial
mystery; the bluish-black composition for niello a recipe only to be
imparted to adepts. With the engravers, the “cross-hatch” and the
“double cypher,” as I cursorily mentioned at the end of the last
chapter, were secrets. A certain kind of cross-hatching went out with
Albert Durer, and had since been as undiscoverable as the art of
making the real ruby tint in glass. No beggar’s brat, no parish
protégé, could be apprenticed to this delicate, artistic, and
responsible calling. For in graving deep, tiny spirals of gold and silver
curl away from the trenchant tool, and there is precious ullage in
chasing and burnishing—spirals and ullage worth money in the
market. Ask the Jews in Duke’s Place, who sweat the guineas in
horsehair bags, and clip the Jacobuses, and rasp the new-milled
money with tiny files, if there be not profit to be had from the
minutest surplusage of gold and silver.
Goldsmiths and silversmiths were proud folk. They pointed to
George Heriot, King James’s friend, and the great things he did.
They pointed to the peerage. Did not a Duke of Beaufort, in 1683,
marry a daughter of Sir Josiah Child, goldsmith and banker? Was not
Earl Tylney, his son, half-brother to Dame Elizabeth Howland,
mother of a Duchess of Bedford, one of whose daughters married
the Duke of Bridgewater, another, the Earl of Essex? Was not Sir
William Ward, goldsmith, father to Humble Ward, created Baron
Ward by Charles I.? and from him springs there not the present Lord
Dudley and Ward?[5] O you grand people who came over with the
Conqueror, where would you be now without your snug city
marriages, your comfortable alliances with Cornhill and Chepe?
Leigh of Stoneleigh comes from a lord mayor of Queen Bess’s time.
Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, married an alderman’s daughter two
years ere Hogarth was apprenticed. The ancestor to the Lords
Clifton was agent to the London Adventurers in Oliver’s time, and
acquired his estate in their service. George the Second’s Earl of
Rockingham married the daughter of Sir Henry Furnese, the money-
lender and stock-jobber. The great Duke of Argyll and Greenwich
married a lord mayor’s niece. The Earl of Denbigh’s ancestor
married the daughter of Basil Firebrace, the wine merchant.
Brewers, money-scriveners, Turkey merchants, Burgomasters of
Utrecht’s daughters,—all these married blithely into the haute pairie.
If I am wrong in my genealogies, ’tis Daniel Defoe who is to blame,
not I; for that immortal drudge of literature is my informant. Of course
such marriages never take place now. Alliances between the sacs et
parchemins are never heard of. Mayfair never meets the Mansion
House, nor Botolph Lane Belgravia, save at a Ninth of November
banquet. I question if I am not inopportune, and impertinent even, in
hinting at the dukes and belted earls who married the rich citizens’
daughters, were it not that by and by ’prentice Hogarth will paint
some scenes from a great life drama full of Warton’s ἩΘΟΣ, called
Marriage à la Mode. Ah! those two perspectives seen through the
open windows! In the first, the courtyard of the proud noble’s
mansion; in the last, busy, mercantile London Bridge: court and city,
city and court, and which the saddest picture!
Dominie Hogarth had but a hard time of it, and must have been
pinched in a gruesome manner to make both ends meet. That
dictionary of his, painfully compiled, and at last with infinite care and
labour completed, brought no grist to the mill in Ship Court. The
manuscript was placed in the hands of a bookseller, who did what
booksellers often do when one places manuscripts in their hands. He
let it drop. “The booksellers,” writes Hogarth himself, “used my father
with great cruelty.” In his loving simplicity he tells us that many of the
most eminent and learned persons in England, Ireland, and
Scotland, wrote encomiastic notices of the erudition and diligence
displayed in the work, but all to no purpose. I suppose the
bookseller’s final answer was similar to that Hogarth has scribbled in
the Manager Rich’s reply to Tom Rakewell, in the prison scene:
—“Sir, I have read your play, and it will not doo.” A dreadful,
heartrending trade was average authorship, even in the “silver age”
of Anna Augusta. A lottery, if you will: the prizeholders secretaries of
state, ambassadors, hangers-on to dukes and duchesses,
gentlemen ushers to baby princesses, commissioners of hackney
coaches or plantations; but innumerable possessors of blanks. Walla
Billa! they were in evil case. For them the garret in Grub or
Monmouth Street, or in Moorfields; for them the Welshwoman
dunning for the milkscore; for them the dirty bread flung disdainfully
by bookselling wretches like Curll. For them the shrewish landlady,
the broker’s man, the catchpole, the dedication addressed to my
lord, and which seldom got beyond his lacquey;—hold! let me mind
my Hogarth and his silver-plate engraving. Only a little may I touch
on literary woes when I come to the picture of the Distressed Poet.
For the rest, the calamities of authors have been food for the
commentaries of the wisest and most eloquent of their more modern
brethren, and my bald philosophizings thereupon can well be spared.
But this premium, this indenture money, this ’prentice fee for
young William: unde derivatur? In the beginning, as you should
know, this same ’prentice fee was but a sort of “sweetener,” peace-
offering, or pot de vin to the tradesman’s wife. The ’prentice’s mother
slipped a few pieces into madam’s hand when the boy put his finger
on the blue seal. The money was given that mistresses should be
kind to the little lads; that they should see that the trenchers they
scraped were not quite bare, nor the blackjacks they licked quite
empty; that they should give an eye to the due combing and soaping
of those young heads, and now and then extend a matronly ægis,
lest Tommy or Billy should have somewhat more cuffing and
cudgelling than was quite good for them. By degree this gift money
grew to be demanded as a right; and by-and-by comes thrifty Master
Tradesman, and pops the broad pieces into his till, calling them
premium. Poor little shopkeepers in this “silver age” will take a
’prentice from the parish for five pounds, or from an acquaintance
that is broken, for nothing perhaps, and will teach him the great arts
and mysteries of sweeping out the shop, sleeping under the counter,
fetching his master from the tavern or the mughouse when a
customer comes in, or waiting at table; but a rich silversmith or
mercer will have as much as a thousand pounds with an apprentice.
There is value received on either side. The master is, and generally
feels, bound to teach his apprentice everything he knows, else, as
worthy Master Defoe puts it, it is “somewhat like Laban’s usage to
Jacob, viz. keeping back the beloved Rachel, whom he served
seven years for, and putting him off with a blear-eyed Leah in her
stead;” and again, it is “sending him into the world like a man out of a
ship set ashore among savages, who, instead of feeding him, are
indeed more ready to eat him up and devour him.” You have little
idea of the state, pomp, and circumstance of a rich tradesman, when
the eighteenth century was young. Now-a-days, when he becomes
affluent, he sells his stock and good-will, emigrates from the shop-
world, takes a palace in Tyburnia or a villa at Florence, and denies
that he has ever been in trade at all. Retired tailors become country
squires, living at “Places” and “Priories.” Enriched ironmongers and
their families saunter about Pau, and Hombourg, and Nice, passing
for British Brahmins, from whose foreheads the yellow streak has
never been absent since the earth first stood on the elephant, and
the elephant on the tortoise, and the tortoise on nothing that I am
aware of, save the primeval mud from which you and I, and the
Great Mogul, and the legless beggar trundling himself along in a
gocart, and all humanity, sprang. But then, Anna D. G., it was
different. The tradesman was nothing away from his shop. In it he
was a hundred times more ostentatious. He may have had his
country box at Hampstead, Highgate, Edmonton, Edgeware; but his
home was in the city. Behind the hovel stuffed with rich merchandise,
sheltered by a huge timber bulk, and heralded to passers by an
enormous sheet of iron and painters’ work—his Sign—he built often
a stately mansion, with painted ceilings, with carved wainscoting or
rich tapestry and gilt leather-work, with cupboards full of rich plate,
with wide staircases, and furniture of velvet and brocade. To the
entrance of the noisome cul-de-sac, leading to the carved and
panelled door (with its tall flight of steps) of the rich tradesman’s
mansion, came his coach—yes, madam, his coach, with the
Flanders mares, to take his wife and daughters for an airing. In that
same mansion, behind the hovel of merchandise, uncompromising
Daniel Defoe accuses the tradesman of keeping servants in blue
liveries richly laced, like unto the nobility’s. In that same mansion the
tradesman holds his Christmas and Shrovetide feasts, the
anniversaries of his birthday and his wedding-day, all with much
merrymaking and junketing, and an enormous amount of eating and
drinking. In that same mansion, in the fulness of time and trade, he
dies; and in that same mansion, upon my word, he lies in state,—
yes, in state: on a lit de parade, under a plumed tester, with
flambeaux and sconces, with blacks and weepers, with the walls
hung with sable cloth, et cætera, et cætera, et cætera.[6] ’Tis not only
“Vulture Hopkins” whom a “thousand lights attend” to the tomb, but
very many wealthy tradesmen are so buried, and with such pomp
and ceremony. Not till the mid-reign of George the Third did this
custom expire.
 [I should properly in a footnote, but prefer in brackets, to qualify
the expression “hovel,” as applied to London tradesmen’s shops at
this time, 1712-20. The majority, indeed, merit no better appellation:
the windows oft-times are not glazed, albeit the sign may be an
elaborate and even artistic performance, framed in curious scroll-
work, and costing not unfrequently a hundred pounds. The
exceptions to the structural poverty of the shops themselves are to
be found in the toymen’s—mostly in Fleet Street,—and the
pastrycooks’—mainly in Leadenhall. There is a mania for toys; and
the toyshop people realize fortunes. Horace Walpole bought his toy-
villa at Strawberry Hill—which he afterwards improved into a Gothic
doll’s-house—of a retired Marchand de Joujoux. The toy-merchants
dealt in other wares besides playthings. They dealt in cogged dice.
They dealt in assignations and billet-doux. They dealt in masks and
dominos. Counsellor Silvertongue may have called at the toyshop
coming from the Temple, and have there learnt what hour the
countess would be at Heidegger’s masquerade. Woe to the wicked
city! Thank Heaven we can go and purchase Noah’s arks and
flexible acrobats for our children now, without rubbing shoulders with
Counsellor Silvertongue or Lord Fanny Sporus, on their bad errands.
Frequented as they were by rank and fashion, the toyshops threw
themselves into outward decoration. Many of these shops were kept
by Frenchmen and Frenchwomen, and it has ever been the custom
of that fantastic nation to gild the outside of pills, be the inside ever
so nauseous. Next in splendour to the toyshops were the
pastrycooks. Such a bill as can be seen of the charges for fresh
furnishing one of these establishments about Twelfth Night time!
“Sash windows, all of looking-glass plates; the walls of the shop lined
up with galley-tiles in panels, finely painted in forest-work and
figures; two large branches of candlesticks; three great glass
lanterns; twenty-five sconces against the wall; fine large silver
salvers to serve sweetmeats; large high stands of rings for jellies;
painting the ceiling, and gilding the lanterns, the sashes, and the
carved work!” Think of this, Master Brook! What be your Cafés des
Mille Colonnes, your Véfours, your Vérys, your Maisons-dorées,
after this magnificence? And at what sum, think you, does the stern
censor, crying out against it meanwhile as wicked luxury and
extravagance, estimate this Arabian Nights’ pastrycookery? At three
hundred pounds sterling! Grant that the sum represents six hundred
of our money. The Lorenzos the Magnificent, of Cornhill and Regent
Street, would think little of as many thousands for the building and
ornamentation of their palaces of trade. Not for selling tarts or toys
though. The tide has taken a turn; yet some comfortable
reminiscences of the old celebrity of the city toy and tart shops linger
between Temple Bar and Leadenhall. Farley, you yet delight the
young. Holt, Birch, Button, Purssell, at your sober warehouses the
most urbane and beautiful young ladies—how pale the pasty
exhalations make them!—yet dispense the most delightful of
indigestions.]
So he must have scraped this apprenticeship money together,
Dominie Hogarth: laid it by, by cheeseparing from his meagre school
fees, borrowed it from some rich scholar who pitied his learning and
his poverty, or perhaps become acquainted with Ellis Gamble, who
may have frequented the club held at the “Eagle and Child,” in the
little Old Bailey. “A wonderful turn for limning has my son,” I think I
hear Dominie Hogarth cry, holding up some precocious cartoon of
William’s. “I doubt not, sir, that were he to study the humanities of the
Italian bustos, and the just rules of Jesuit’s perspective, and the
anatomies of the learned Albinus, that he would paint as well as
Signor Verrio, who hath lately done that noble piece in the new hall
Sir Christopher hath built for the blue-coat children in Newgate
Street.” “Plague on the Jesuits,” answers honest (and supposititious)
Mr. Ellis Gamble. “Plague on all foreigners and papists, goodman
Hogarth. If you will have your lad draw bustos and paint ceilings,
forsooth, you must get one of the great court lords to be his patron,
and send him to Italy, where he shall learn not only the cunningness
of limning, but to dance, and to dice, and to break all the
commandments, and to play on the viol-di-gamby. But if you want to
make an honest man and a fair tradesman of him, Master Hogarth,
and one who will be a loyal subject to the Queen, and hate the
French, you shall e’en bind him ’prentice to me; and I will be
answerable for all his concernments, and send him to church and
catechize, and all at small charges to you.” Might not such a
conversation have taken place? I think so. Is it not very probable that
the lad Hogarth being then some fourteen years old, was forthwith
combed his straightest, and brushed his neatest, and his bundle or
his box of needments being made up by the hands of his loving
mother and sisters, despatched westward, and with all due solemnity
of parchment and blue seal, bound ’prentice to Mr. Ellis Gamble? I
am sure, by the way in which he talks of the poor old Dominie and
the dictionary, that he was a loving son. I know he was a tender
brother. Good Ellis Gamble—the lad being industrious, quick, and
dexterous of hand—must have allowed him to earn some
journeyman’s wages during his ’prentice-time; for that probation
being out, he set not only himself, but his two sisters, Mary and Ann,
up in business. They were in some small hosiery line, and William
engraved a shop-card for them, which did not, I am afraid, prosper
with these unsubstantial spinsters any more than did the celebrated
lollipop emporium established in The House with the Seven Gables.
One sister survived him, and to her, by his will, he left an annuity of
eighty pounds.
Already have I spoken of the Leicester Square gold and silver
smith’s style and titles. It is meet that you should peruse them in full:
—
 So to Cranbourn Street, Leicester Fields, is William Hogarth bound
for seven long years. Very curious is it to mark how old trades and
old types of inhabitants linger about localities. They were obliged to
pull old Cranbourn Street and Cranbourn Alley quite down before
they could get rid of the silversmiths, and even now I see them
sprouting forth again round about the familiar haunt; the latest