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Soil Sampling EEE oxenson
Strategies for Site-
Specific Field
Management
SoilFacts
Introduction
Soil sampling is the first step in generating field-specific information to make lime and fertilizer
decisions. Selecting an appropriate sampling strategy ensures that the soil in a field is collected in a
manner that produces the most accurate and reliable soil test results. Because soils in agricultural
fields can vary significantly, use a sampling strategy that best captures that variation. Proper
‘sampling is particularly important when a site-specific management approach is embraced.
In site-specific management, the management of the crop and underlying soil occurs at a scale
smaller than that of the whole field, Under this management approach, separate soil samples are
collected from areas that are smaller than the generally recognizable subunits within a field. Soil
amendments such as fertilizer and lime are then applied at rates based on soil test results and plant
needs specific to that area, thus optimizing the overall production in the field. Site-specific
management results in a variable rate of applied amendments. The required amount of amendments
to a field varies based on the soil nutrient status (soil tests) and crop grown, but is also influenced by
factors such as soil texture, drainage, and landscape position
Modem technologies including GPS (Global Positioning System), GIS (Geographic Information
‘Systems), FMIS (Farm Management Information Systems), and Variable Rate Technology (VRT)
allow producers to manage soils and amendments with greater precision. Site-specific soil sampling
Provides the foundation for many lime and fertilizer decisions enabled by these technologies. Site-
specific soil sampling is the basis for
+ identifying the spatial distribution of nutrient deficiency and sufficiency within fields:
+ increasing lime and fertilizer use efficiency by variably distributing lime, nutrients, and other
amendments based on the spatial distribution of soil properties and crop requirements;
+ minimizing potential for nutrient loss from fields by overapplication; and
+ optimizing production through the targeted use of agricultural amendments.
To best utilize site-specific soil sampling, you need a clear understanding of the benefits and
limitations of each sampling strategy, as well as knowledge surrounding the tools and process used
to develop the sampling plans. This publication provides information to help select and develop soil
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‘sampling strategies used in the site-specific management of agricultural fields.
Site-Specific Soil Sampling Terms
Base map: A background map used within a GIS that enables the digitization of spatially accurate
field boundaries. Typically, the base map is an aerial photograph referenced to locations on Earth's,
surface (georeferenced). Field boundaries are created by tracing the border of a field as itis visually
identified in the base map.
Cell sampling: A sampling approach in which a field is divided into a grid of uniformly sized cells
and each cell is sampled independently. A single composite sample is collected throughout each cell
and used to characterize soil properties within a cell
Composite soil sample (single versus multiple): A single composite sample contains 15
to 20 soil cores collected at random locations throughout a field or area. In comparison, multiple
composite samples involve collecting soil samples (15 to 20 cores per sample) at multiple locations
within a field, as determined by the site-specific sampling approach (for example, point, cell, or
zone).
Differential correction: A GPS technique that uses an additional signal to enhance the accuracy
ofa position collected using a GPS receiver. Different sources of differential correction exist and
vary in cost and in their ability to correct for the normal errors in a GPS-determined position.
FMIS (Farm Management Information System): Software designed to support various aspects of an
agricultural operation. Unlike a GIS, the software helps organize and manage farm activities such as
record-keeping, work scheduling, purchasing, data collection and storage, and map making. The
levels of support and functionality differ based on the software and intended use.
GIS (Geographic Information System): Software used to visualize, analyze, and describe patterns
and relationships between layers of spatial data. GIS is the foundation for most Farm Management
Information Systems.
GPS (Global Positioning System): A global navigation and positioning system that uses satellites to
locate positions on Earth's surface, A GPS receiver uses signals broadcas| from satellites to
determine its position (for example, latitude, longitude, and elevation). A GPS receiver can either
record, or navigate to, different locations within a field to collect a site-specific soil sample,
Grid: A network of lines superimposed on a field map to assist in partitioning the field into smaller
areas. The resulting cells are the areas sampled in a grid cell sampling approach, while the
intersecting lines (or the centers of the resulting cells) indicate the location of samples in a point
sampling approach.
Interpolation: A mathematical technique that uses neighboring points with known values to
estimate values at unsampled locations. In a point sampling approach, interpolation is used to
create a spatially continuous model of a soil property or recommended value. Common interpolation
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techniques include Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW), Spline, and Kriging,
Point sampling: A sampling approach in which soil samples are collected from relatively small,
localized areas (points) systematically located throughout the field. A uniform grid placed over the
field boundary typically guides the design of the sampling plan. After point sampling, interpolation is
used to estimate the soil properties at unsampled locations. Interpolation creates a continuous
representation of the measured soil property that is then used to develop a prescription rate map
across the entire field
Prescription rate map: A digital map used in variable rate technology to control the rate (or
amount) of amendment (for example, lime, fertilizer, or water) to apply based on the location in the
field
‘Shapefile: The data format used by most GIS/FMIS software to store spatial data (for example,
field boundaries, point locations, or the polygons that represent grid cells). A shapefile is stored as a
collection of files with a common name but different file extensions (for example, shp, .shx, and
dbf).
Variable rate controller: The field computer and software mounted inside a tractor that control
the rate of application based on location. Most rate controllers work by altering the output or flow of
applicator pumps or by controlling regulating valves.
VRT (Variable Rate Technology): A technology that enables the variable application of inputs (for
example, fertilizer, lime, or water) by location. The basic components are a field computer, a variable
rate controller, a GPS receiver, and a prescription rate map indicating where and how much material
to apply,
WASS (Wide Area Augmentation System): A satellite-based source of differential correction used to
enhance the accuracy of a GPS receiver, Developed for the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),
the signal is free and available anywhere in the United States. Most GPS receivers use this signal to
achieve a horizontal accuracy of 10 to 15 feet (3 to 5 meters).
Zone sampling: A site-specific sampling scheme that is designed to split afield into zones
containing similar soil or crop characteristics. Zones are managed as separate areas within the field
and are often based on areas that exhibit similar field variability due to inherent soil properties (for
example, soil texture and drainage), management history (for example, drainage, land shaping,
spreader patterns, and previous land use), or historic production levels. This approach reduces the
number of samples required while still recognizing zones of differing nutrient status and fertility
requirements. Zone sampling typically defines smaller, more detailed areas compared to those
defined under standard sampling guidelines. Multiple spatial data layers are typically combined (for
example, historic yield and soil type) to develop zones.
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How to Collect Georeferenced Soil
Samples
1. Delineate field boundaries.
Field boundaries are best delineated by using either a portable GPS receiver or by tracing
boundaries from an aerial image used as a base map. For this purpose, the GPS manufacturer
specifications should indicate horizontal accuracies of about 3 meters or better. Most GPS receivers
with this level of accuracy cost less than $500 and use a free differential correction service known as
WASS. If greater accuracy is desired, you may buy or rent GPS receivers designated as mapping-
grade or survey-grade. Mapping-grade receivers are typically accurate to 1.5 to 7 feet (0.5 to 2
meters) and cost about $2,000, while survey-grade receivers can pinpoint locations to within a few
inches but typically cost more than $10,000. Survey-grade receivers require an additional differential
correction signal provided either from a local base station or from a paid subscription service. For a
one-time $500 subscription fee, the North Carolina Geodetic Survey will provide the real-time
differential corrections required to achieve the highest accuracy with a survey-grade GPS receiver.
To map field boundaries using a GPS, either walk or drive along the field's edge and record the GPS
positions. Rectangular fields are best delineated using GPS locations at field comers, while
irregularly shaped fields necessitate the GPS to log points continuously along the field boundary.
After data collection, the files are downloaded from the GPS receiver and loaded into a GIS or FMIS
to guide the development of the base map. Data formats used by GIS or FMIS can vary, but both
types of software should accept a shapefile as the input format.
An alternative to developing field boundaries with a GPS is to trace the outline of your fields using
GIS/FMIS software and an aerial photograph or photographs as a base map. The National
Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) acquires aerial imagery yearly during the agricultural growing
season. You may download the images free via the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Farm Ser
Agency website. The typical process used to develop field boundaries without a GPS involves
locating and downloading the aerial photographs for your field locations, loading the aerial
photographs into a GIS/FMIS, creating an empty shapefile to store and save the field boundaries,
and tracing each field boundary using the drawing tools in the software and the aerial photographs
as a visual reference. Compared to GIS, most FMIS software makes the creation of field boundaries
simpler by providing georeferenced imagery as base maps and a simplified set of tools designed for
creating field boundaries
2. Select a sampling strategy: grid cell, point, or zone sampling.
Site-specific soil sampling strategies include cell (Figure 1), point (Figure 2), and zone (Figure 3)
methods as well as combinations of each called “hybrid” approaches (Figure 8).
Cell sampling is a sampling technique in which a field is subdivided into uniformly sized squares
(or rectangles) called cells. The cells are created by placing a grid over the field boundary (base
map). Soll samples are collected within each cell using a traditional composite sample approach;
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cores are collected from locations within each cell and mixed to generate a single composite sample
(Figure 4). The resulting soil analyses represent average soil characteristics within each cell. The
soil test data are then used to develop amendment recommendations for each cell
Each cell within the grid is typically 4 to 3 acres for most fields in North Carolina. A smaller cell size
is justified with higher value crops or if greater soil variability is expected, Selecting a cell size is a
practical decision based on the added costs of collecting more samples compared to the potential
benefits of site-specific management.
To use the cell sampling approach, collect 15 to 20 cores from random locations within each cell
(Figure 4a). Soil samples may be collected via a staggered pattem that facilitates forward walking or
vehicle movement to the next cell (Figure 4b). To avoid spatial bias, avoid collecting cores in smaller
clusters (Figure 4c) or in a straight line (Figure 4d). A sample that contains cores from only a small,
localized area within the cell can result in a misrepresentation of the underlying soll properties and
an inaccurate recommendation. Samples collected along straight lines may unintentionally
correspond to previously banded fertilizer applications, vehicle traffic, or localized removal of
nutrients along rows.
Point sampling is typically recommended when litte information is known about the underiying
field-scale variability. As with cell sampling, a uniform 1- to 3-acre grid is placed over the field
boundary, and soil samples are collected at point locations on the grid (Figure §). The grid is used to
identify sample locations at the intersection of the grid lines (Figure Sa and Figure 5d), every other
Gfid intersection (Figure 5b), or random spots within each grid cell (Figure 5c). Once the plan is
developed, the sample locations are loaded into a GPS and used to navigate to the points. At each
point, a composite sample is collected. To collect the sample, combine 8 to 10 cores randomly from
an area about 15 to 30 feet from the center of the point (Figure 6b). Fewer cores are required to
collect a representative composite sample because the sampling area is substantially smaller than a
cell
After laboratory analysis, soil test results are associated with each georeferenced point and
interpolated. The process of interpolation produces estimates for the soil property between sample
locations, effectively filing the gaps between measured locations with predicted soil property values.
The resulting map contains a soil value at every location on the map. For example, interpolating soil
pH would produce a map that depicts the underlying soil pH across the entire field. Maps produced
using interpolation techniques vary in smoothness and have a continuous surface without sharp
breaks between neighboring values. As such, they are often more realistic than maps produced with
a cell or zone sampling approach, where values change sharply at the boundary of cells,
These interpolated maps, typically of existing soil nutrients, are then used to determine the
recommended amount of amendment at every location within the field. This recommendation map,
called a prescription rate map, contains the “prescribed” amount of nutrients or lime to apply at every
location on the map. To develop the prescription rate map, a yield-response curve is typically used
to estimate the amount of nutrient needed based on the crop, the amount of nutrient existing in the
soil, and a predetermined yield goal. An FMIS often provides the yield-response curves for different
regions and crops, but new or custom yield-response models can be built and applied based on
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historic yield data or local data from on-farm trials. Regardless, the equations used to develop the
prescription rate map should best represent local conditions and incorporate realistic yield
expectations whenever possible.
The prescription rate map is then uploaded into a variable rate controller and used to variably apply
the recommended amount of product throughout the field. The rate is determined by matching the
GPS location from the applicator equipment to the corresponding location in the prescription rate
map. The rate controller then adjusts the amount applied by changing pressures, flow, or spreader
speed.
Prescription rate maps can be developed in either GIS or FMIS software. A GIS provides more
flexibility but requires greater understanding of data formats and spatial data processing, By
contrast, an FMIS simplifies many of the processing tasks but often by including a reduced subset of
possible spatial analysis tools and techniques. An FMIS is also designed to automate many of the
repetitive steps in producing prescription rate maps and in designing soil sampling plans. An FMIS
also provides accompanying smartphone applications that allow the user to view a map of the
sampling plan and navigate to the sample locations. Many types of FMIS software also include
functionality for such tasks as record-keeping, accounting, and general farm management.
Although point sampling can produce maps that most closely depict variation in soil properties, it has
drawbacks. For reliable results, interpolation methods require sample spacing that sufficiently
captures significant changes in soil properties, Highly variable soils require more closely spaced
samples, while fields with less soil variability require fewer samples. Experience in the midwestern
United States and North Carolina suggests that points should typically be spaced 100 to 200 feet
apart. Ata spacing of 209 feet, one composite sample is collected for every acre of land (1-acre
grid), whereas at a spacing of 104 feet, four composite samples are collected per acre (1/4-acre
grid), This sampling is more intensive and thus costlier than the more commonly used 1- to 3-acre
cell approach. In addition, the specific interpolation method can affect the accuracy and reliability of
the resulting maps. A poorly chosen interpolation method or one that is set up and run with
unrealistic parameter values can produce erroneous results and recommendations that are costly or
unwarranted
Zone sampling uses areas of various sizes and shapes to define a sampling zone. Each zone
captures similar soil properties or production characteristics known to vary throughout the field (for
example, elevation, previous crop yield, or soil type). Compared to cell or point sampling, zone
sampling typically reduces the number of samples needed to quantify the spatial variability in soil
properties. In zone sampling, composite samples are collected within zones of similar production,
soil, or management (Figure 6c). Zones often include areas with distinct management history,
consistently different crop yields, or differing topographic position, such as hillslopes or floodplain
(Figure 7). When developing sampling zones, you must consider how the consistency or “stability” of
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different factors influences yield. Zones using factors that do not consistently affect yield may
unnecessarily influence the soil sampling scheme compared to either grid cell or point sampling
When sampling a zone, collect 15 to 20 cores within the zone, or approximately one core per acre.
Hybrid Approach to Sampling
Cell or point sampling approaches can be modified to create a hybrid design in which the goal is to
capture the most variability with the least number of samples. In a hybrid cell sampling approach,
the field is first divided into zones with similar productivity, then each zone is sampled using a
traditional cell-based approach (Figure 8a). Yield maps are typically used to help divide the field into
different production zones, but grower knowledge about historically high and low producing areas
can also be used, The hybrid approach ensures that areas with different historic production levels
are sampled as individual units and not combined. These “split cells are typically located where
cells cross production zones, and they occur more often when grid cells are large. When cells are
split between zones of different production, each area is sampled individually. When the area is
relatively small, it is acceptable to combine a split cell within the same production zone.
When designing a point-based hybrid approach, you will sample areas with highly variable soils at a
greater density (closer together) than in the other, less variable regions (Figure 8b). When you
collect more samples in highly variable regions, the results of the interpolation will better represent
those areas. This targeted approach aims to provide the same or better accuracy as point sampling
but with fewer sample locations. A qualification to this approach is that the areas with greater
variability must be identified in advance; otherwise, the increased sampling density may not provide
any added benef.
Selecting a Sampling Approach
No definitive criteria dictate which soil sampling scheme to use (Table 1). When transitioning to a
site-specific soil management approach, however, a point sampling scheme is often used first to
identify and characterize the degree and location of the field-scale variability, Relying on grower
knowledge and careful examination of prior yield maps can help differentiate the relative productivity
across a field and help guide the spacing and location of sampling points, After the initial point
sampling and analysis, a cell-based or zone-based approach is often adopted and sized to capture
the variability. This transition from point sampling to either a cell or zone approach ensures that the
sampling scheme addresses the scale and magnitude of the variability while minimizing the labor
and analysis costs.
Itis important to periodically re-evaluate changes in soil test levels that may result from the variable
application of fertilizers, chemicals, or other soil and crop amendments. Over time, different rates
applied to different areas can result in changes unidentified by the sampling plan. When this occurs,
a different sampling design may be required to capture these changes. The need to switch sampling
plans, typically back to a point sampling approach, is partially relevant in zone management where
management is kept the same over large zones and for longer periods of time. The amount and
location of amendments required in previously homogeneous zones identified with similar production
potential can change over time. As crop and soil amendments interact differently with environmental
factors in a zone, such as with surface drainage or soil texture, it may be necessary to redraw and
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identify new zones. In other instances, it may not be necessary to redraw zones; however, a change
in the application rate may be necessary to adjust for longer-term effects resulting from the
accumulation of applied nutrients or the depletion of soil nutrients due to crop uptake and removal."
In most cases, resampling using a point sampling approach will verify that either the existing zones
are appropriate or indicate a need for new or redrawn zones.
* When amendments are variably applied, low soil test areas receive higher amendment rates
than higher soil test areas, potentially resulting in increased soll test values in low testing areas
and decreased soil test levels in initially higher soil test areas in the field. With immobile nutrients
(such as P), for example, areas below the critical soil test P level (CL) will receive P fertilization
(< soil test P > P rate applied). Depending on P rate applied, soil test P will increase in these low-
P areas since the crop will not remove all of the applied P. Altematively, in the areas above the
CL where no fertilizer P was applied, soil test P may decrease due to crop removal of soil P. If
the same P prescription rate map based on the initial point sampling is used for several years,
eventually P will be applied to non-P responsive areas. Resampling this field may not require the
‘same intensive point sampling scheme initially used. Instead, select three to five sampling points
in areas previously identified as low, medium, and high soil test P areas. Within the GIS, the
difference in soil test P between the initial and subsequent sampling times can guide
adjustments in the P prescription rate map to reduce the potential for underapplication or
coverapplication of P.
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Table 1. Comparison of site-specific soil sampling approaches.
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‘Soil Sampling Strategies for Site-Specific Feld Management |NC State Extension Publications
Intps:ilcontont.ces.nesu edulsoi-sampiing-stvatogiesfor-ste-spectfic-lolt-management
Sampling Advantages Disadvantages Relative
Scheme Number of
Soil
Samples
Standard +
fandare + Few samples per + Averaged values or
Method’ ,
field recommendations
+ No need for GPS, over larger areas
GIS, or FMIS + Less spatial
«+ Less time, lower variability captured
cost
cell i i a
+ Less sampling bias + Averages variability
than standard over cell area
method + Checkerboard
+ No cell size representation
restrictions
cad
Point + Better + Requires closely
characterization of spaced samples
field variabil
eld variability + Additional analysis
+ Creates more required to develop
realistic model of prescription map
underlying soils (interpolation)
ze +
one + Captures variability + Potential bias if not
with reduced based on yield-
number of samples determining factor(s)
a
pont or cep + Captures areas of + Prior knowledge of
p greater variability variability required
fe
with overall fewer + More involved setup
0165118/24, 9:41 AM ‘Soil Sampling Strategies for Site-Specific Feld Management |NC State Extension Publications
Sampling Advantages Disadvantages Relative
Scheme Number of
Soil
Samples
‘sample points or
cells
*Under a standard sampling approach, whole-field composite samples are not recommended for
fields that are larger than 20 acres and have recognizable subunits due to landform or past
management.
3. Generate a sampling grid with appropriate shape, size, and orientation.
Computer software packages can position sampling grids over the field base map. A special
consideration of long (more than 2,500 feet) and narrow (150 to 300 feet) fields in easter North
Carolina is that rectangular grids are more appropriate than square grids (Figure 5d). In these fields,
soil properties typically vary more across the narrow width of the field than down the length. This
pattern is related to water management in which long, parallel ditches are installed and fields are
crowned to facilitate drainage and groundwater control. f using a point sampling approach in these
long-narrow fields, it is recommended to space samples every 100 feet in the narrow dimension and
every 700 feet along the length of the field. In all fields, grid sizes and orientation can be
‘manipulated to align grids with field borders.
4. Collect soil samples using appropriate procedures.
{As with all soll sampling, attention to sample depth and collection of adequate cores are critical, For
the recommended procedures for soil sampling, see the NC State Extension publication Careful Soil
‘Sampling—The Key to Reliable Soil Test Information and the N.C. Department of Agriculture &
Consumer Services publication Soil Sampling Basics. When labeling soil samples for use in site-
specific field management, give each sample a unique identifier that corresponds to the grid cell,
point, or zone that it represents.
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Agim
Cell Sampling Point Sampling
Figure 1. Samples are collected within Figure 2. Samples are collected at
each cell area. Cells are created by point locations. Points are located at
placing a uniform grid over the field the intersection of grid lines (as
boundary and sized to capture the depicted in the figure) or collected at
undertying variability. the center of each grid cell.
Intps:ilcontont.ces.nesu edulsoi-sampling-stvatogiesfor-ste-specific-lolt-management sane5118/24, 9:41 AM
Zone Sampling
Figure 3. Samples are collected within
areas of similar soil, crop, or
production characteristics.
‘Soil Sampling Strategies for Site-Specific Feld Management |NC State Extension Publications
Figure 4. Cell sampling strategies
include collecting (a) random soil
cores within the cell or (b)
systematically staggered soil cores to
facilitate sampling by a vehicle. Avoid
collecting soil cores in (c) clusters or
(A) along straight lines.
eagle coe
Figure 5. Point sampling designs can
vary depending on the desired cost,
objective, and field characteristics.
+ iswag*
casa Po Suaple «Zam Samp
Figure 6. A composite soil sample is
collected differently depending on the
‘sampling strategy: (a) 15-20 cores
within a cell (b) 8-10 cores inside a
15: to 30-foot circle around a point
‘sample or (c) 15-20 cores inside a
delineated zone within the field.
Intps:ilcontont.ces.nesu edulsoi-sampiing-stvatogiesfor-ste-spectfic-lolt-management
ssit65118/24, 9:41 AM
Figure 7. Example of a zone-based
soil sampling approach. Zones are
created and sampled to capture areas
of similar production, soil, or
‘management.
‘Soil Sampling Strategies for Site-Specific Feld Management |NC State Extension Publications
Figure 8. A hybrid approach can be
applied to point or cell sampling.
Hybrid approaches include (a) cells
‘subdivided into regions with
historically different productivity or (b)
a greater density of point samples in
areas of greater soil variability.
Costs and Benefits
Managing soils with a site-specific approach has several potential benefits. When combined with
variable rate technology, site-specific management distributes nutrients and other amendments
according to the spatial variation in soil properties used to determine agronomic optimum
amendment rates. In site-specific management, higher rates of amendments are typically applied to
locations in the field where the potential crop response is greatest, and lower rates are applied in
areas less likely to respond. The desired result of a site-specific management approach is not
limited to optimizing growth and yield; producers also may be aiming for increased pest and disease
resistance or a better quality crop. By matching the needs and production potential of the crop to a
location in the field, amendments are distributed at prescribed amounts and set to meet production
goals. The approach may also have environmental benefits: though higher nutrient rates are applied
in the most productive areas, reduced rates in areas where nutrients are not needed can potentially
lessen the impact of nutrient runoff on water quality. Furthermore, the correction of localized nutrient
deficiencies should increase nitrogen use efficiency (since other nutrients will not be limiting) and
potentially reduce the risk of nitrogen runoff and leaching.
To realize the potential benefits of site-specific soil sampling and management, you must better
understand yield-limiting factors within fields. Yields vary within fields for many reasons, for example,
rate of rainfall, the presence or absence of weeds and insects, and existence of microclimates. All
yield-limiting factors interact at various degrees with the underlying soil conditions (for example,
nutrient level, pH, texture, topography, and drainage); the impact of those interactions on yield
changes in both space and across time. Factors that limit yield one year may be different the next,
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and what is believed limiting at one location may boost production in others. Regardless, the greater
the role of soil nutrient status in controlling yield, the greater the potential benefit from site-specific
sampling and management.
Costs associated with site-specific sampling vary widely, depending on the services and analyses
performed, and are typically associated with equipment, labor, and time, When performed in-house,
much of the cost is in the initial investment and includes GPS receiver(s), an all-terrain vehicle for
sample collection, and computer hardware and software required to perform the analysis. Labor and
opportunity costs are also associated with learning software and developing new workflows.
Increased sampling also results in extra laboratory and labor costs, The equipment and labor costs
associated with variable rate equipment should also be considered
Many agricultural consultants and equipment retailers offer precision soil sampling as a contracted
service. Costs for these services can vary widely and are difficult to estimate because services are
often bundled and discounted in package deals. Packages typically involve tiered pricing with offers
of additional services such as tissue analysis, nematode testing, and pest or disease scouting. An
informal survey of providers of precision soll sampling services in eastem North Carolina revealed
costs of $6 to $10 per acre for sample collection on a 2%/-acre grid cell size. Higher costs were
quoted for point sampling and additional expenses related to analysis and final map production.
To justify adoption of a site-specific soil sampling and field management approach, the costs
associated with increased sampling, soil analysis, and variable rate equipment and application must
be offset by an increased field average yield and productivity
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Carl Crozier and Ronnie Heiniger, the authors of Soil Sampling for Precision
Farming Systems, on which this publication is based.
Authors
Rob Austin
Extension Specialist, Geographic Information Systems Crop & Soil Sciences.
Luke Gatiboni
Extension Soil Fertility Specialist and Assistant Professor Crop & Soll Sciences
John Haviin
Professor and Extension Specialist Crop & Soil Sciences
Publication date: Aug. 10, 2020
AG-439-36
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This publication printed on: May 18, 2024
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