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Modern Information Optics with MATLAB
Modern Information Optics with MATLAB is an easy-to-understand course book and

is based on the authentic lectures and detailed research, conducted by the authors
themselves, on information optics, holography, and MATLAB. This book is the first
to highlight the incoherent optical system, provide up-to-date, novel digital hologra-
phy techniques, and demonstrate MATLAB codes to accomplish tasks such as optical
image processing and pattern recognition. This title is a comprehensive introduction
to the basics of Fourier optics as well as optical image processing and digital holog-
raphy. This is a step-by-step guide that details the vast majority of the derivations,
without omitting essential steps, to facilitate a clear mathematical understanding. This
book also features exercises at the end of each chapter, providing hands-on experience
and consolidating the understanding. This book is an ideal companion for graduates
and researchers involved in engineering and applied physics, as well as those inter-
ested in the growing field of information optics.
Yaping Zhang is Professor and Director of Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of

Modern Information Optics, Kunming University of Science and Technology. Pro-
fessor Zhang is an academic leader in optics in Yunnan Province and a member of
the Steering Committee on Opto-Electronic Information Science and Engineering,
Ministry of Education, China.
Ting-Chung Poon is Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Virginia
Tech, USA. Professor Poon is Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE), the Institute of Physics (IOP), Optica, and the International Soci-
ety for Optics and Photonics (SPIE). He also received the 2016 SPIE Dennis Gabor
Award.
bli h d li b C b id i i
Modern Information Optics with
MATLAB
Y A PI N G ZH ANG
Kunming University of Science and Technology
T I N G - CH UNG P O O N
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
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Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781316511596
DOI: 10.1017/9781009053204
@ Higher Education Press Limited Company 2023
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2023
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Zhang, Yaping, 1978– author. | Poon, Ting-Chung, author.
Title: Modern information optics with MATLAB / Yaping Zhang, Kunming
University of Science and Technology, Ting-Chung Poon, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY, USA : Cambridge
University Press, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022024946 | ISBN 9781316511596 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781009053204 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Information display systems. | Optical communications. |
Optics. | MATLAB.
Classification: LCC TK7882.I6 Z4364 2023 |
DDC 621.3815/422–dc23/eng/20220805
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022024946
ISBN 978-1-316-51159-6 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
To my parents, my husband, and my daughter
Yaping Zhang
To my grandchildren, Gussie, Sofia, Camden, and Aiden

Ting-Chung Poon
Contents
Prefacepage xi
1 Gaussian Optics and Uncertainty Principle1

1.1 Gaussian Optics 1
1.1.1 Ray Transfer Matrices 3
1.1.2 Ray Tracing through a Thin Lens 8
1.2 Resolution, Depth of Focus, and Depth of Field 12
1.2.1 Circular Aperture 12
1.2.2 Annular Aperture 14
1.3 Illustrative Examples 16
1.3.1 Three-Dimensional Imaging through a Single-Lens Example 16
1.3.2 Angle of Spread from a Slit Example 17
2 Linear Invariant Systems and Fourier Analysis21

2.1 Signals and Systems21
2.1.1 Signal Operations 21
2.1.2 Some Useful Signal Models 23
2.1.3 Linear and Time-Invariant Systems27
2.1.4 Impulse Responses 31
2.1.5 Frequency Response Functions 34
2.2 Fourier Analysis 37
2.2.1 Fourier Series 37
2.2.2 Fourier Transform 40
2.3 Fourier Analysis in Two Dimensions 45
2.3.1 The Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform 45
2.3.2 Calculation Examples of Some 2-D Fourier Transforms 46
2.3.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform54
2.3.4 2-D Convolution, Correlation, and Matched Filtering 60
3 Wave Propagation and Wave Optics70

3.1 Maxwell’s Equations 70
3.2 Vector Wave Equations 74
3.3 Traveling-Wave Solutions and the Poynting Vector 76
3.4 Fourier Transform-Based Scalar Diffraction Theory 86
3.4.1 Huygens’ Principle 91
viii Contents
3.4.2 Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction93

3.4.3 Phase Transforming Property of an Ideal Lens 97
3.5 Gaussian Beam Optics 105
3.5.1 q-Transformation and Bilinear Transformation 108
3.5.2 Examples on the Use of the Bilinear Transformation 111
4 Spatial Coherent and Incoherent Optical Systems119

4.1 Temporal Coherence and Spatial Coherence119
4.2 Spatial Coherent Image Processing 124
4.2.1 Pupil function, Coherent Point Spread Function, and Coherent
Transfer Function 124
4.2.2 Coherent Image Processing Examples 127
4.3 Spatial Incoherent Image Processing 132
4.3.1 Intensity Point Spread Function and Optical Transfer Function 132
4.3.2 Incoherent Image Processing Examples 134
4.4 Scanning Image Processing 139
4.4.1 Coherent Imaging 141
4.4.2 Incoherent Imaging 142
4.5 Two-Pupil Synthesis of Optical Transfer Functions 143
5 Principles of Coherent Holography151

5.1 Fresnel Zone Plate as a Point-Source Hologram 151
5.1.1 On-axis Recording 151
5.1.2 Off-axis Recording 159
5.2 Three-Dimensional Holographic Imaging 163
5.2.1 Recording and Reconstruction 164
5.2.2 Lateral and Longitudinal Holographic Magnifications 167
5.3 Types of Holograms 169
5.3.1 Gabor Hologram and On-axis Hologram 169
5.3.2 Fourier Hologram 174
5.3.3 Image Hologram 176
5.3.4 Complex Spatial Filtering and Joint Transform Correlation 178
6 Digital Holography190
6.1 Coherent Digital Holography 190
6.1.1 CCD Limitations 190
6.1.2 Optical Recording of Digital Holograms 194
6.2 Modern Digital Holographic Techniques 198
6.2.1 Phase-Shifting Holography 198
6.2.2 Optical Scanning Holography in Coherent Mode 204
6.3 Incoherent Holography 212
6.3.1 Optical Scanning Holography in Incoherent Mode 212
6.3.2 Fresnel Incoherent Correlation Holography 218
Contents ix
6.3.3 Coded Aperture Imaging and Coded Aperture Correlation

Holography (COACH) 223
6.3.4 Pre-processing in Optical Scanning Holography 230
6.4 Computer-Generated Holography 235
6.4.1 Point-Based Approach 236
6.4.2 Polygon-Based Approach 243
7 Spatial Light Modulators for Processing Optical Information260

7.1 Information Processing with Acousto-Optic Modulators 260
7.1.1 The Acousto-Optic Effect 260
7.1.2 Raman–Nath and Bragg Diffraction272
7.1.3 Typical Applications of the Acousto-Optic Effect 281
7.2 Information Processing with Electro-Optic Modulators 289
7.2.1 Polarization of Light 290
7.2.2 Index Ellipsoid and Birefringent Wave Plates 294
7.2.3 The Electro-Optic Effect 298
7.2.4 Electro-Optic Intensity Modulation and Phase Modulation 302
7.3 Information Processing and Display with Liquid Crystal Cells 305
7.3.1 Liquid Crystals 305
7.3.2 Phase Modulation and Intensity Modulation Using Liquid
Crystal Cells 306
Index 317
h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 00 bli h d li b C b id i i
Preface
This book covers the basic principles used in information optics including some of its
modern topics such as incoherent image processing, incoherent digital holography,
modern approaches to computer-generated holography, and devices for optical infor-
mation processing in information optics. These modern topics continue to find a niche
in information optics.
This book will be useful for engineering or applied physics students, scientists, and
engineers working in the field of information optics. The writing style of the book is
geared toward juniors, seniors, and first-year graduate-level students in engineering
and applied physics. We include details on most of the derivations without omitting
essential steps to facilitate a clear mathematical development as we hope to build a
strong mathematical foundation for undergraduate students. We also include exer-
cises, challenging enough for graduate students, at the end of each chapter.
In the first three chapters of the book, we provide a background on basic optics
including ray optics, wave optics, and important mathematical preliminaries for infor-
mation optics. The book then extensively covers topics of incoherent image process-
ing systems (Chapter 4), digital holography (Chapter 5), including important modern
development on incoherent digital holography, and computer-generated holography
(Chapter 6). In addition, the book covers in-depth principles of optical devices such
as acousto-optic and electro-optic modulators for optical information processing
(Chapter 7).
The material covered is enough for a one-semester course (Chapters 1–5) with
course titles such as Fourier optics, holography, and modern information optics or
a two-course sequence with the second course covering topics from Chapters 6 to 7
(with a brief review of Chapters 3 through 5). Example of a course title would be opti-
cal information processing. An important and special feature of this book is to provide
the reader with experience in modeling the theory and applications using a commonly
used software tool MATLAB®. The use of MATLAB allows the reader to visualize
some of the important optical effects such as diffraction, optical image processing,
and holographic reconstructions.
Our vision of the book is that there is an English and Chinese version of this book
that are printed together as a single textbook. It is the first of its kind in textbooks
and a pioneering project. Information optics is a growing field, and there is an enor-
mous need for pioneering books of this kind. A textbook like this will allow students
and scholars to appreciate the much-needed Chinese translation of English technical

xii Preface
terms, and vice versa. The textbook also provides them with professional and techni-
cal translation in the area of information optics.
We would like to thank Jung-Ping Liu for his help on writing some of the MAT-
LAB codes. Also thanks are extended to Yongwei Yao, Jingyuan Zhang, and Houxin
Fan for drafting some initial figures used in the book and, last but not least, Christina
Poon for reading parts of the manuscript and providing suggestions for improvements.
Yaping Zhang would like to thank her parents, her husband, and her daughter (Xinyi
Xu) whose encouragement and support have enabled her to fulfill her dreams. In par-
ticular, she wishes to express her appreciation to her collaborator, Professor Poon, for
his professional knowledge and language polishing that made the book more readable
for users, and resulted in the publication of Modern Information Optics. Working with
Professor Poon on this project was a great pleasure and resulted in further growth in
her professional experience.
Ting-Chung Poon is greatly indebted to his parents, whose moral encouragement
and sacrifice have enabled him to fulfill his dreams and further his achievements.
They shall be remembered forever.

1 Gaussian Optics and Uncertainty
Principle
This chapter contains Gaussian optics and employs a matrix formalism to describe
optical image formation through light rays. In optics, a ray is an idealized model
of light. However, in a subsequent chapter (Chapter 3, Section 3.5), we will also
see that a matrix formalism can also be used to describe, for example, a Gaussian
laser beam under diffraction through the wave optics approach. The advantage of the
matrix formalism is that any ray can be tracked during its propagation through the
optical system by successive matrix multiplications, which can be easily programmed
on a computer. This is a powerful technique and is widely used in the design of optical
elements. In the chapter, some of the important concepts in resolution, depth of focus,
and depth of field are also considered based on the ray approach.
1.1 Gaussian Optics
Gaussian optics, named after Carl Friedrich Gauss, is a technique in geometrical optics
that describes the behavior of light rays in optical systems under the paraxial approxi-
mation. We take the optical axis to be along the z-axis, which is the general direction
in which the rays travel, and our discussion is confined to those rays that lie in the x–z
plane and that are close to the optical axis. In other words, only rays whose angular
deviation from the optical axis is small are considered. These rays are called paraxial
rays. Hence, the sine and tangent of the angles may be approximated by the angles
themselves, that is, sin q » tan q » q. Indeed, the mathematical treatment is simplified
greatly because of the linearization process involved. For example, a linearized form
of Snell’s law of refraction, n1sinfi = n2 sin ft , is n1fi = n2ft . Figure 1.1-1 shows ray
refraction for Snell’s law. fi and ft are the angles of incidence and refraction, respec-
tively, which are measured from the normal, ON, to the interface POQ between Media
1 and 2. Media 1 and 2 are characterized by the constant refractive indices, n1 and
n2 , respectively. In the figure, we also illustrate the law of reflection, that is, fi = fr ,
where fr is the angle of reflection. Note that the incident ray, the refracted ray, and the
reflected ray all lie in the same plane of incidence.
Consider the propagation of a paraxial ray through an optical system as shown in
Figure 1.1-2. A ray at a given z-plane may be specified by its height x from the optical
axis and by its launching angle q. The convention for the angle is that q is measured in
radians and is anticlockwise positive from the z-axis. The quantities ( x, q ) represent the

2 Gaussian Optics and Uncertainty Principle
Figure 1.1-1 Geometry for Snell’s law and law of reflection
Figure 1.1-2 Ray propagating in an optical system
coordinates of the ray for a given z-plane. However, instead of specifying the angle the
ray makes with the z-axis, another convention is used. We replace the angle q by the
corresponding v = nq, where n is the refractive index of the medium in which the ray
is traveling. As we will see later, the use of this convention ensures that all the matrices
involved are positive unimodular. A unimodular matrix is a real square matrix with
determinant +1 or −1, and a positive unimodular matrix has determinant +1.
To clarify the discussion, we let a ray pass through the input plane with the input
ray coordinates ( x1 , v1 = n1q1 ). After the ray passes through the optical system, we
denote the output ray coordinates ( x2 , v2 = n2 q2 ) on the output plane. In the parax-
ial approximation, the corresponding output quantities are linearly dependent on the
input quantities. In other words, the output quantities can be expressed in terms of
the weighted sum of the input quantities (known as the principle of superposition) as
follows:

Figure 1.1-3 Ray propagating in a homogeneous medium with the input and output coordinates
( x1, v1 = n1q1 ) and ( x2 , v2 = n2q2 ), respectively
x2 = Ax1 + Bv1 and v2 = Cx1 + Dv1 ,
where A, B, C, and D are the weight factors. We can cast the above equations into a
matrix form as
 x2   A B  x1 
  =    (1.1-1)
 v  C D v .
2 1
The ABCD matrix in Eq. (1.1-1) is called the ray transfer matrix, or the system matrix
S, if it is represented by the multiplication of ray transfer matrices. In what follows,
we shall derive several important ray transfer matrices.
1.1.1 Ray Transfer Matrices

Translation Matrix
A ray travels in a homogenous medium of refractive index n in a straight line (see
Figure 1.1-3). Let us denote the input and output planes with the ray’s coordinates,
and then we try to relate the input and output coordinates with a matrix after the trav-
eling of the distance d. Since n1 = n2 = n and q1 = q2 , v2 = n2 q2 = n1q1 = v1 . From the
geometry, we also find x2 = x1 + d tan q1 ≈ x1 + dq1 = x1 + dv1/ n. Therefore, we can
relate the output coordinates of the ray with its input coordinates as follows:
 x2  1 d / n x1  x 
  = 
   =  d / n  1  , (1.1-2)
 v  0
2 1  v1   v 
1
where
1 d / n
 d / n =  ,
0 1 
(1.1-3a)

Figure 1.1-4 Ray trajectory during refraction at a spherical surface separating two regions of
refractive indices n1 and n2
which is called the translation matrix. The matrix describes the translation of a ray
for a distance d along the optical axis in a homogenous medium of n. The determinant
of  d / n is
1 d/n
d /n = = 1,
0 1
and hence  d / n is a positive unimodular matrix. For a translation of the ray in air, we
have n = 1, and the translation can be represented simply by
1 d 
 d =  . (1.1-3b)
0 1 
Refraction Matrix
We consider a spherical surface separating two regions of refractive indices n1 and n2
as shown in Figure 1.1-4. The center of the spherical surface is at C, and its radius of
curvature is R. The convention for the radius of curvature is as follows. The radius of
curvature of the surface is taken to be positive (negative) if the center C of curvature
lies to the right (left) of the surface. The ray strikes the surface at the point A and gets
refracted into media n2 . Note that the input and output planes are the same. Hence, the
height of the ray at A, before and after refraction, is the same, that is, x2 = x1 . fi and
ft are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively, which are measured from
the normal NAC to the curved surface. Applying Snell’s law and using the paraxial
approximation, we have
n1fi = n2ft . (1.1-4)
Now, from geometry, we know that φi = θ1 + φ and φt = θ2 + φ (Figure 1.1-4).

Hence, the left side of Eq. (1.1-4) becomes
n1φi = n1 (θ1 + φ) = v1 + n1 x1 / R, (1.1-5)

where we have used sin f = x1 / R ≈ f. Now, the right side of Eq. (1.1-4) is
n2φt = n2 (θ2 + φ) = v2 + n2 x2 / R, (1.1-6)
where x1 = x2 as the input and output planes are the same.

Finally, putting Eqs. (1.1-5) and (1.1-6) into Eq. (1.1-4), we have
v1 + n1 x1 / R = v2 + n2 x2 / R
or
v2 = v1 + (n1 − n2 ) x1 / R, as x1 = x2 . (1.1-7)
We can formulate the above equation in terms of a matrix equation as
 0 
 x2   1  x1   1 0 x1  x 
  =  n − n   =    = R  1  , (1.1-8)
 v   1 2     
1 v1  − p 1 v1    v 
2  R  1
where
 0
 1 0  1 
R =   =  n1 – n2 .
 – p 1 
 R 1

The determinant of R is
1 0
R = = 1.
−p 1
The 2 × 2 ray transfer matrix R is a positive unimodular matrix and is called the
refraction matrix. The matrix describes refraction for the spherical surface. The quan-
tity p given by
n2 − n1
p=
R
is called the refracting power of the spherical surface. When R is measured in meters,
the unit of p is called diopters. If an incident ray is made to converge on (diverge
from) by a surface, the power is positive (negative) in sign.
Thick- and Thin-Lens Matrices

A thick lens consists of two spherical surfaces as shown in Figure 1.1-5. We shall find
the system matrix that relates the system’s input coordinates ( x1 , v1 ) to system’s output
ray coordinates ( x2 , v2 ). Let us first relate ( x1 , v1 ) to ( x1 ¢, v1 ¢) through the spherical sur-
face defined by R1 . ( x1 ¢, v1 ¢) are the output coordinates due to the surface R1 . According
to Eq. (1.1-8), we have
 1 0
 x1 ′    x1  x 
  =  n − n    = R1  1 . (1.1-9)
 v ′   1 2 
1  v1   v 
1
 R1  1

Figure 1.1-5 Thick lens
Now, ( x1 ¢, v1 ¢) and ( x2 ¢, v2 ¢) are related through a translation matrix as follows:
 x2 ′ 1 d / n2  x1 ′  x ′

  =    =  d / n2  1 , (1.1-10)
 v ′  0  
1  v1 ′    v ′ 
2 1
where ( x2 ¢, v2 ¢) are the output coordinates after translation, which are also the coor-
dinates of the input coordinates for the surface R2 . Finally, we relate ( x2 ¢, v2 ¢) to the
system’s output coordinates ( x2 , v2 ) through
 1 0
 x2     x2 ′  
  =  n − n    =   x2 ′.
 v   2 1
1  v ′  − R2  
 v2 ′ 
2
 R2  2
(1.1-11)
If we now substitute Eq. (1.1-10) into Eq. (1.1-11), then we have

 1 0
 x2    1 d / n2  x1 ′
  =  n − n    .
 v   2 1
1 0 1  v1 ′ 
2
 R2 

Subsequently, substituting Eq. (1.1-9) into the above equation, we have the system
matrix equation of the entire system as follows:
 1 0  d   1 0
 x2    1    x1 
  =  n − n   n2   n1 − n2  
 v   2 1
1   1  v1 
2
 R2  0 1   R1 
(1.1-12)
x  x 
= R− R2 T d / n2 RR1  1  = S  1 .

 v1   v1 
We have now finally related the system’s input coordinates to output coordinates.
Note that the system matrix, S = R−R2 T d / n2 RR1 , is a product of three ray transfer

matrices. In general, the system matrix is made up of a collection of ray transfer

matrices to account for the effects of a ray passing through the optical system. As the
ray goes from left to right in the positive direction of the z-axis, we obtain the system
matrix by writing the ray transfer matrices from right to left. This is precisely the
advantage of the matrix formalism in that any ray, during its propagation through the
optical system, can be tracked by successive matrix multiplications. Let  and  be
the 2 × 2 matrices as follows:
a b  e f 
A =   and B =  .
 c d   g h 
Then the rule of matrix multiplication is
a b  e f  ae + bg af + bh

AB =   = .
 c d  g h   ce + dg cf + dh 
Now, returning to the system matrix in Eq. (1.1-12), the determinant of the system
matrix, S = R−R2 T d / n2 RR1 , is
S = R− R2 T d / n2 RR1 = R− R2 × T d / n2 × RR1 = 1.
Note that even the system matrix is also positive unimodular. The condition of a unit
determinant is a necessary but not a sufficient condition on the system matrix.
We now derive a matrix of an idea thin lens of focal length f, called the thin-lens
matrix, f . For a thin lens in air, we let d ® 0 and n1 = 1 in the configuration of Fig-
ure 1.1-5. We also write n2 = n for notational convenience. Then the system matrix
in Eq. (1.1-12) becomes
 1 0  1 0
 1 0 
 =  n −1  1 − n 
 10 1 1
 R2   R1 
 1
 0 1 0 (1.1-13)
 
=  n −1 1 − n 
 1 1
 R2  R1 
 1 0
 
=  1  = Lf ,
− 1
 f 
where f is the focal length of the thin lens and is given by
1  1 1
= (n −1) − .
f  R1 R2 

For f > 0, we have a converging (convex) lens. On the other hand, we have a diverging
(concave) lens when f < 0. Figure 1.1-6 summarizes the result for the ideal thin lens.

Figure 1.1-6 Ideal thin lens of focal length f and its associated ray transfer matrix
Note that the determinant of f is

1 0
f = 1 = 1.
− 1
f
1.1.2 Ray Tracing through a Thin Lens

As we have seen from Section 1.1.1, when a thin lens of focal length f is involved,
then the matrix equation, from Eq. (1.1-13), is
 1 0
 x2      x1 
  =   x1  =  1   . (1.1-14)

 v  f  
 v1  − 1 v1 

2
 f
Input Rays Traveling Parallel to the Optical Axis

From Figure 1.1-7a, we recognize that x1 = x2 as the heights of the input and output
rays are the same for the thin lens. Now, according to Eq. (1.1-14), v2 = −x1 / f + v1 .
For v1 = 0, that is, the input rays are parallel to the optical axis, v2 = −x1 / f . For pos-
itive x1 , v2 < 0 as f > 0 for a converging lens. For negative x1 , v2 > 0. All input rays
parallel to the optical axis converge behind the lens to the back focal point (a distance
of f away from the lens) of the lens as shown in Figure 1.1-7a. Note that for a thin
lens, the front focal point is also a distance of f away from the lens.
Input Rays Traveling through the Center of the Lens

For input rays traveling through the center of the lens, their input ray coordinates
are ( x1 , v1 ) = (0, v1 ). The output ray coordinates, according to Eq. (1.1.14), are
( x2 , v2 ) = (0, v1 ) . Hence, we see as v2 = v1 , all rays traveling through the center of the
lens will pass undeviated as shown in Figure 1.1-7b.

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.1-7 Ray tracing through a thin convex lens
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.1-8 Ray tracing through a thin concave lens
Input Rays Passing through the Front Focal Point of the Lens
For this case, the input ray coordinates are ( x1 , v1 = x1 / f ) , and, according to Eq. (1.1-
14), the output ray coordinates are ( x2 = x1 , v2 = 0) , which means that all output rays
will be parallel to the optical axis (v2 = 0), as shown in Figure 1.1-7c.
Similarly, in the case of a diverging lens, we can draw conclusions as follows. The
ray after refraction diverges away from the axis as if it were coming from a point on
the axis a distance f in front of the lens, as shown in Figure 1.1-8a. The ray traveling
through the center of the lens will pass undeviated, as shown in Figure 1.1-8b. Finally,
for an input ray appearing to travel toward the back focus point of a diverging lens, the
output ray will be parallel to the optical axis, as shown in Figure 1.1-8c.
Example: Imaging by a Convex Lens

We consider a single-lens imaging as shown in Figure 1.1-9, where we assume the
lens is immersed in air. We first construct a ray diagram for the imaging system. An
object OO¢ is located a distance d0 in front of a thin lens of focal length f. We send
two rays from a point O¢ towards the lens. Ray 1 from O¢ is incident parallel to the
optical axis, and from Figure 1.1-7a, the input ray parallel to the optical axis con-
verges behind the lens to the back focal point. A second ray, that is, ray 2 also from
O¢, is now drawn through the center of the lens without bending and that is the result
from Figure 1.1-7b. The interception of the two rays on the other side of the lens
forms an image point of O¢. The image point of O¢ is labeled at I¢ in the diagram. The
final image is real, inverted, and is called a real image.

Figure 1.1-9 Ray diagram for single-lens imaging
Now we investigate the imaging properties of the single thin lens using the matrix
formalism. The input plane and the output plane of the optical system are shown in
Figure 1.1-9. We let ( x0 , v0 ) and ( xi , vi ) represent the coordinates of the ray at O¢ and
I¢, respectively. We see there are three matrices involved in the problem. The overall
system matrix equation becomes
 xi     
  = T L T  x0  = S  x0 . (1.1-15)

 v  di f d0    v 
i  v  0 0
The overall system matrix,
 1 0
1 di  1 d0 

S = T di Lf T d0 =    ,
0 1 − 1 10 1 
 f 
is expressed in terms of the product of three matrices written in order from right to left
as the ray goes from left to right along the optical axis, as explained earlier. According
to the rule of matrix multiplication, Eq. (1.1-15) can be simplified to
1 − di / f d0 + di − d0 di / f 
 xi    x   A B  x0 
  =  1  0  =    . (1.1-16)
 vi   − 1 − d0 / f  v0  C D v0 
 f 
To investigate the conditions for imaging, let us concentrate on the ABCD matrix
of  in Eq. (1.1-16). In general, we see that xi = Ax0 + Bv0 = Ax0 if B = 0, which
means that all rays passing through the input plane at the same object point x0 will
pass through the same image point xi in the output plane. This is the condition of
imaging. In addition, for B = 0, A = xi / x0 is defined as the lateral magnification of

Figure 1.1-10 Imaging of a converging lens with object inside the focal length
the imaging system. Now in our case of thin-lens imaging, B = 0 in Eq. (1.1-16) leads
to d0 + di − d0 di / f = 0 , which gives the well-known thin-lens formula:
1 1 1
+ = . (1.1-17)
d0 di f
The sign convention for Eq. (1.1-17) is that the object distance d0 is positive (nega-
tive) if the object is to the left (right) of the lens. If the image distance di is positive
(negative), the image is to the right (left) of the lens and it is real (virtual). In Figure
1.1-9, we have d0 > 0, di > 0, and the image is therefore real, which means physically
that light rays actually converge to the formed image I¢. Hence, for imaging, Eq. (1.1-
16) becomes
1 − di / f 0 
 xi    x0 
  =    , (1.1-18)
 v   − 1 1 − d0 / f  v0 
i  
 f
which relates the input ray and output ray coordinates in the imaging system. Using
Eq. (1.1-17), the lateral magnification M of the imaging system is
xi d d
M = A= = 1− i = − i . (1.1-19)
x0 f d0
The sign convention is that if M > 0, the image is erect, and if M < 0, the image is
inverted. As shown in Figure 1.1-9, we have an inverted image as both di and d0 are
positive.
If the object lies within the focal length, as shown in Figure 1.1-10, we follow the
rules as given in Figure 1.1-8 to construct a ray diagram. However, now rays 1 and 2,
after refraction by the lens, are divergent and do not intercept on the right side of the
lens. They seem to come from a point I¢. In this case, since d0 > 0 and di < 0, M > 0.
The final image is virtual, erect, and is called a virtual image.

1.2 Resolution, Depth of Focus, and Depth of Field
1.2.1 Circular Aperture

The numerical aperture (NA) of a lens is defined for an object or image located
infinitely far away. Figure 1.2-1 shows an object located at infinity, which sends rays
parallel to the lens with a circular aperture. The angle qim used to define the NA on
the image side is
NA i = ni sin(qim / 2), (1.2-1)
where ni is refractive index in the image space. Note that the aperture stop limits the
angle of rays passing through the lens, which affects the achievable NA. Let us now
find the lateral resolution, Dr.
Since we treat light as particles in geometrical optics, each particle then can be
characterized by its momentum, p0 . According to the uncertainty principle in quan-
tum mechanics, we relate the minimum uncertainty in a position of quantum, Dr , to
the uncertainty of its momentum, Dpr , according to the relationship
∆r ∆pr ≥ h , (1.2-2)
where h is Planck’s constant, and Dpr is the momentum spread in the r-component of
the photons. The momentum of the FB ray (chief ray, a ray passes through the center
of the lens) along the r-axis is zero, while the momentum of the FA ray (marginal ray,
a ray passes through the edge of the lens) along the r-axis is ∆pAB = p0sin(qim / 2),
where p0 = h / l0 with l0 being the wavelength in the medium, that is, in the image
space. Hence, Dpr is ∆pr = 2∆pAB = 2 p0 sin(qim / 2) to accommodate a maximum
variation (or spread) of the momentum direction by an angle qim. By substituting this
into Eq. (1.2-2), we have lateral resolution
Figure 1.2-1 Uncertainty principle used in finding lateral resolution and depth resolution

h h l0 (1.2-3)
∆r ≥ = = .
∆pr 2 p0sin(qim / 2) 2sin(qim / 2)
Note that this equation reveals that in order to achieve high resolution, we can increase
qim / 2. For example, when qim / 2 = 90°, Dr is half the wavelength, that is, l0 / 2,
which is the theoretical maximum lateral resolution.
Since the wavelength in the image space, l0 , is equal to lv / ni , where lv is the
wavelength in air or in vacuum, Eq. (1.2-3) becomes, using Eq. (1.2-1),
lv lv
∆r ≥ = . (1.2-4)
2 ni sin(qim / 2) 2 NA i
Similarly, we can calculate the depth of focus, Dz . Depth of focus, also called longi-
tudinal resolution in the image space, is the axial distance over which the image can
be moved without loss of sharpness in the object. To find the depth of focus, we use
∆z∆pz ≥ h , (1.2-5)
where Dpz is the momentum difference between rays FB and FA along the z-direction,
as shown in Figure 1.2-1, which is given by
∆pz = p0 − p0 cos(qim / 2). (1.2-6)
By substituting this expression into Eq. (1.2-5), we have
h h l0
∆z ≥ = = . (1.2-7)
∆pz p0 [1 − cos(qim / 2) ] [1 − cos(qim / 2) ]
This equation reveals that in order to achieve small depth of focus, we can increase
qim / 2. For example, when qim / 2 = 90°, Dz is one wavelength, that is, l0, which is
the theoretical maximum longitudinal resolution. Equation (1.2-7) can be written in
terms of the numerical aperture and is given by
l0 lv (1.2-8)
∆z ≥ = .
2
1 − 1 − sin (qim / 2) ni − ni2 − NA i 2
For small angles, that is, qim <<1, one can use the approximation
1 − sin 2 b ≈ 1 − (sin 2 b ) / 2 to get
2 ni lv
∆z ≥ . (1.2-9)
NA i 2
Taking the equality in Eq. (1.2-9) and combining with Eq. (1.2-4), we have
2
(∆r ) l0
≈ (1.2-10)
∆z 8

Figure 1.2-2 Image-forming instrument illustrating resolutions in the object

space and image space
under the small-NA approximation. This equality is derived from uncertainty relation-
ship, which says that during imaging the higher the lateral resolution is, the shorter the
depth of focus. For example, by increasing the lateral resolution by a factor of 2 will
result in the depth of focus decreased by a factor of 4.
Figure 1.2-2 shows an image-forming instrument with qob and qim denoting the ray
of maximum divergent angle and maximum convergent angle from the object side and
the image side, respectively.
If the resolutions in the object space are given by ∆r0 ≈ lv / 2 NA 0 and
∆z0 ≈ 2 n0 lv / NA 0 2 , where NA 0 = n0 sin(qob / 2) and n0 is the refractive index in
the object space, and if the lateral magnification of the instrument is M, the reso-
lution on the image space is then ∆ri ≈ M ∆r0 . Let us establish the relationship
between the depth of field Dz0 and the depth of focus Dzi , where ∆zi ≈ 2 nilv / NA i2
with NA i = ni sin(qim / 2). Since ∆ri ≈ lv / 2 NA i = M ∆r0 = M lv / 2 NA 0 , we have
NA 0 = M × NA i . Hence,
2
∆zi ≈ 2 ni lv / NA i2 = 2 ni lv / (NA 0 / M )
= M 2 (2 ni lv / NA 20 ) (1.2-11)
n
= i M 2∆ z0 .
n0
This result indicates that the longitudinal resolutions in the object space and image
space are related by a factor of M 2. Take a 40×, NA 0 » 0.6 microscope objective as
an example, we have ∆r0 ≈ lv / 2 NA 0 ≈ 0.5 µm for red light with wavelength of 632
nm and the depth of field, ∆z0 ≈ 2 n0 lv / NA 20 ≈ 3.5 µm for n0 = 1 in air. In the image
space, the lateral resolution is ∆ri ≈ M ∆r0 = 40 × 0.5 µm = 20 µm and the depth of
focus is ∆zi ≈ M 2∆z0 = 40 2 ×3.5 µm = 0.56mm for ni = 1.
1.2.2 Annular Aperture

Three-dimensional imaging in microscopy aims to develop techniques that can pro-
vide high lateral resolution, and at the same time maintain a large depth of focus in
order to observe a thick specimen. However, calculations have shown that the depth
of focus may be increased by reducing the numerical aperture of the lens, but this
is achieved at the expense of a decrease in lateral resolution. In what follows, we

Figure 1.2-3 Annular aperture
Figure 1.2-4 Uncertainty principle used in finding depth of focus for a lens with annular aper-
ture stop
consider an annular aperture which has the property of increasing the depth of focus
and at the same time maintaining the lateral resolution. An annular aperture is defined
as a clear circular aperture with a central obstruction, as shown in Figure 1.2-3. If
the aperture is an annulus with outer radius a and inner radius b, we define a central
obscuration ratio e = b / a. For e = 0, we have a clear circular aperture.
Since b = q im as shown in Figure 1.2-1, the possible spread in the r-component of
momentum Dpr is the same in Figure 1.2-4 as it is in Figure 1.2-1. Hence, the lateral
resolution remains the same as that in the case of the clear aperture, that is, e = 0,
given by Eq. (1.2-4). However, the spread or uncertainty in the momentum in the z-
direction is different due to the central obscuration of the annulus. Dpr in this case is
the momentum difference between the ray passing the upper part of the annulus (Ray
A) and the ray passing the lower part of the annulus (Ray B) and is given by
∆pz = ∆pRay A − ∆pRay B , (1.2-12)
where DpRay A and DpRay B are given by Eq. (1.2-6) with b and a substituted into the
argument of cosine, respectively. Hence Eq. (1.2-12) becomes

 α   β 
∆pz = p0  cos   − cos   ,
  2   2 

and the depth of focus is
h l0
∆zann = = , (1.2-13)
∆pz  a   b 
 
cos   − cos 
 2   2 
which can be shown to have the form
lv
∆zann = ,
2
1 − NA (1.2-14)
− 1 − NA 2
1 + NA 2 (e 2 −1)
where NA = sin (b / 2), that is, assuming the lens is being immersed in air. For small
NAs, it can be shown that Eq. (1.2-14) is given by
2l v ∆z
∆zann = = . (1.2-15)
NA (1 − e ) (1 − e 2 )
2 2
The above equation is consistent with Eq. (1.2-9) for a clear aperture, that is, for the
case e = 0. With 95% obstruction, that is, e = 0.95, we can increase the depth of focus
of a clear lens by more than a factor of 10.
1.3 Illustrative Examples
1.3.1 Three-Dimensional Imaging through a Single-Lens Example

Figure 1.3-1a shows the imaging of two objects in front of the lens, where both of the
object lie beyond the focal length of the lens. We note that magnification is different,
depending on the object distance to the lens. Let us consider longitudinal magnifi-
cation, M z , in addition to lateral magnification, M, considered earlier. Longitudinal
magnification M z is the ratio of an image displacement along the axial direction, ddi,
to the corresponding object displacement, dd0, that is, M z = d di / d d0 .
Using Eq. (1.1-17) and treating di and d0 as variables, we take the derivative of di
with respect to d0 to obtain
M z = d di / d d0 = −M 2 . (1.3-1)
This equation is consistent with Eq. (1.2-11) and states that the longitudinal magni-
fication is equal to the square of the lateral magnification. The minus sign in front of
the equation signifies that a decrease in the distance of the object from the lens, d0 ,
will result in an increase in the image distance, di , and vice versa. The situation of
a magnified volume is shown in Figure 1.3-1b, where a cube volume (abcd plus the
dimension into the paper) is imaged into a truncated pyramid with a–b imaged into
a'–b' and c–d imaged into c'–d'.

1.3 Illustrative Examples 17
Figure 1.3-1 (a) Illustration of different magnifications and (b) volumetric imaging
Figure 1.3-2 Spreading from a slit
1.3.2 Angle of Spread from a Slit Example

Consider light emanating from a slit aperture of width lx, as shown in Figure 1.3-2.
We relate the minimum uncertainty in position Dx of a quantum to the uncertainty
in its momentum Dpx according to

∆x∆px ≥ h.
Because the quantum of light can emerge from any point in the aperture, we have
∆x = lx . Therefore,
h
∆px ∼ .
lx
We define the angle of spread as
h
∆px l l
q sp ∼ = x = 0, (1.3-2)
p0 h lx
l0
which is basically the result in Eq. (1.2-3) for small angles. Note that the spread angle
is inversely proportional to the width of the aperture.
Problems
1.1 Find the transfer matrix for Snell’s law.
1.2 An object 4 cm tall is 10 cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 20 cm.
Using the matrix formalism, find the location and magnification of the image. Draw a
ray diagram from the object to the image.
1.3 A slide 5 cm tall is located 110 cm from a screen (see Figure P.1.3). What is the
focal length of the positive lens, which will project a real image measuring 50 cm on
the screen? Use the matrix formalism to solve the problem.
Figure P.1.3 Single-lens system
1.4 If an object 3 cm tall is located on the optical axial 24 cm to the left of the convex
lens as shown in Figure P.1.4, find the position and size of the image using the matrix
formalism. Also, draw the ray diagram from the object to the image.

Bibliography 19
6 cm
= 8cm = -12cm
Figure P.1.4 Two-lens system
1.5 In 3-D imaging through a single lens example, it is stated that the longi-
tudinal magnification is equal to the square of the lateral magnification, that is,
M z = d di / d d0 = −M 2 . Verify this statement.
1.6 Fill in the blanks below for several microscope objective lenses (assuming the
lenses are immersed in air with wavelength of operation using red light of lv = 632 nm).
Magnification, NA Resolution in image space Depth of field (µm) Depth of focus (mm)
10×, 0.1
20×, 0.4
40×, 0.6
60×, 0.8
100×, 0.95
1.7 Starting from Eq. (1.2-13) and with reference to Figure 1.2-4, show that the
depth of focus of an annular aperture with a thin lens is given by
lv
∆zann = ,
2
1 − NA
− 1 − NA 2
1 + NA 2 (e 2 −1)
where NA = sin (b / 2) and for small NAs, it is approximately given by

2l v ∆z
∆zann = = ,
NA 2 (1 − e 2 ) (1 − e 2 )
where Dz is the depth of focus for a clear lens.
Bibliography
1. Banerjee, P. P. and T.-C. Poon (1991). Principles of Applied Optics. Irwin, Illinois.
2. Gerard, A. and J. M. Burch (1975). Introduction to Matrix Methods in Optics. Wiley, New York.
3. Hecht, E. (2002). Optics, 4th ed., Addison Wesley, California.
4. Korpel, A. (1970). United State Patent (#3,614,310) Electrooptical Apparatus Employing a
Hollow Beam for Translating an Image of an Object.

5. Poon, T.-C. (2007). Optical Scanning Holography with MATLAB®, Springer, New York.
6. Poon, T.-C. and M. Motamedi (1987). “Optical/digital incoherent image processing for
extended depth of field,” Applied Optics 26, pp. 4612–4615.
7. Poon, T.-C. and T. Kim (2018). Engineering Optics with MATLAB®, 2nd ed., World
Scientific, New Jersey.

2 Linear Invariant Systems and Fourier
Analysis
The purpose of this chapter is twofold. We will first discuss basic aspect of signals
and linear systems in the first part. We will see in subsequent chapters that diffraction
as well as optical imaging systems can be modelled as linear systems. In the second
part, we introduce the basic properties of Fourier series, Fourier transform as well as
the concept of convolution and correlation. Indeed, many modern optical imaging
and processing systems can be modelled with the Fourier methods, and Fourier anal-
ysis is the main tool to analyze such optical systems. We shall study time signals in
one dimension and spatial signals in two dimensions will then be covered. Many of
the concepts developed for one-dimensional (1-D) signals and systems apply to two-
dimensional (2-D) systems. This chapter also serves to provide important and basic
mathematical tools to be used in subsequent chapters.
2.1 Signals and Systems
2.1.1 Signal Operations

A signal is a set of data. For electrical systems, a signal is a function of time, meas-
ured in terms of voltage or current. For optical systems, a signal is of the form of
1-D, 2-D, or even 3-D images. In this section, we introduce some signal operations
and useful signal models. We first restrict ourselves to 1-D time signals for brevity.
Two-dimensional signals will be covered subsequently. We denote a continuous-time
signal by x (t ). There are three useful signal operations: shifting, scaling, and reversal.
Shifting
x (t − t0 ) is a time-shifted version of x (t ). If t0 is positive, the time shift is to the right
and it represents a time delay of t0 seconds to the original signal x (t ). If t0 is nega-
tive, the shift is to the left and the original signal x (t ) is advanced by t0 . The situation
is illustrated in Figure 2.1-1.
Scaling
x (at ) is a scaled version of the original signal x (t ), where a is a scale factor and is a
positive number. If a > 1, we have a compressed version of x (t ). On the other hand,
if a <1, we have an expanded version of x (t ). Figure 2.1-2 shows a compressed and
expanded versions of x (t ) for a = 2 and 1/2, respectively.

22 Linear Invariant Systems and Fourier Analysis
Figure 2.1-1 Time shifting a signal for t0 positive
Figure 2.1-2 Time scaling of a signal
Figure 2.1-3 Time reversal a signal
Reversal
x (−t ) is a time reversal of x (t ). In other words, if we replace t by -t in the original
signal x (t ), we have a mirror image of x (t ) about the vertical axis t = 0. Figure 2.1-3
illustrates the situation.
Example: Signal Operations

Plot x (1 − t / 2) if x (t ) is shown in Figure 2.1-4a.
 t  2 − t  1 
Let us first rewrite x (1 − t / 2) as x 1 −  = x  
 = x  (2 − t ) . We then
 2   2   2 
recognize that there are three signal operations involved. The factors ½, 2, and −1
correspond to scaling, shifting, and reversal, respectively. Let us first perform rever-
sal as x (t ) |t →−t = x (−t ) and it is shown in Figure 2.1-4b. We then perform scaling
according to x (−t ) |t → t / 2 = x (−t / 2) and the result is shown in Figure 2.1-4c. Finally,
 t  t − 2   t
we perform shifting according to x −  = x − 
 = x 1 −  , which is the
 2   2   2 
t → t −2
desired signal we want to plot.

2.1 Signals and Systems 23
Figure 2.1-4 Signal operations example
2.1.2 Some Useful Signal Models

Unit Step Function, u( t )
The unit step function, u(t), is shown in Figure 2.1-5. It is defined by
0, t < 0
u (t ) = 
1, t > 0. (2.1-1)
Because u (t ) does not have a unique value at t = 0 and its derivative is infinite at
t = 0, it is a singularity function.
Rectangular Function, rect ( t / a)

The rectangular function or simply rect function, rect (t / a), is given by
 t  1, t < a / 2
rect   = 
 a  0, otherwise ,(2.1-2)

where a is the width of the function. The rect function is typically called a pulse in
electrical engineering. The function is shown in Figure 2.1-6. It is a singularity func-
tion as it is discontinuous at its two edges.

Figure 2.1-5 Unit step function
Figure 2.1-6 Rectangular function
Figure 2.1-7 Dirac delta function defined using a rectangular function
Dirac Delta Function, d ( t )

Another singularity function is the Dirac delta function d (t ), which is also known as
the unit impulse function or just simply as the delta function. We can define the delta
function as follows:
1 t
d (t ) = lim rect  .
a→0 a  a 
The situation of the above equation is illustrated in Figure 2.1-7. Note that the area
under the rectangular function is a ´(1 / a ) , which is always equal to 1 regardless the
value of a. We denote this unity as “(1)” beside the arrow, which is the symbol of the
delta function d (t ). This unity is sometimes called the “strength” of the delta func-
tion. For this reason, to plot 5d (t ), we just plot the delta function as shown in Figure
2.1-7 but denote its strength as “(5)” beside the arrow.
The delta function is one of the most important functions in the study of system and
signal analysis. We will discuss four important properties.

Figure 2.1-8 Illustration of the product property
Property#1: Unit Area

Since we have found that the area under the delta function is unity, we therefore write
∞
∫ δ (t ) dt = 1. (2.1-3)
−∞
Indeed, the following equality applies in general

b
∫ d (t − t ) dt = 1
a
0
if a < t0 < b since d (t − t0 ) = 0 except at t = t0 .
Property#2: Product Property
x (t ) d (t − t0 ) = x (t0 ) d (t − t0 ) .(2.1-4)
The result of this property can be readily realized by the illustration shown in Figure
2.1-8, where an arbitrary function, x (t ), is shown to be overlapped with the time-
shifted delta function, d (t − t0 ), located at t = t0 . The product of the two functions
is clearly equal to x (t0 ) multiplied by d (t − t0 ). Therefore, the result has become a
time-shifted delta function with its strength given by x (t0 ).
Property#3: Sampling Property

∞
∫ x (t )δ (t − t ) dt = x (t ). (2.1-5)
0 0
−∞
The above result can be obtained readily by the use of Properties #1 and #2. Using
Property #2, we write
∞ ∞
∫ x (t )δ (t − t0 ) dt = ∫ x (t0 )δ (t − t0 ) dt
−∞ −∞
∞
= x (t0 ) ∫ δ (t − t0 ) dt = x (t0 ),
−∞

where we have used Property#1 to obtain the final result. In words, the sampling
property says that the area under the product of a function x (t ) with a time-shifted
delta function, d (t − t0 ), is equal to the function evaluated at the location of the delta
function, which is at t0 .
Property#4: Scaling Property
1
d (at ) = d (t ) for a ≠ 0. (2.1-6)
a
To determine how scaling affects the delta function, let us evaluate the area of d (at )
for a > 0:
∞ ∞
dt ′ 1
∫ δ (at ) dt = ∫ δ (t ′) a =
a
,
−∞ −∞
where we have made the substitution t ′ = at to simplify the integration. So from the
∞
above equation, we have

∞
∫ aδ (at ) dt = 1. Comparing this with property #1, that is,
−∞
∫ δ (t ) dt = 1, we deduce that ad (at ) = d (t ), or

−∞
1
d (at ) = d (t ).(2.1-7a)
a
Similarly, for a < 0, we have
∞
1
∫ δ (at ) dt = −a ,
−∞
giving
1
d (at ) = d (t ) . (2.1-7b)
−a
For all values of a, Eqs. (2.1-7a) and (2.1-7b) give the result in Eq. (2.1-6).
Example: Relationship between d ( t ) and U (t )

When we integrate the delta function from −∞ to t, where t > 0 , the result is always
unity and hence, we have
t
∫ δ (t ) dt = u(t ). (2.1-8a)
−∞
After taking the derivative of Eq. (2.1-8a), we have
du (t )
= d (t ). (2.1-8b)
dt
Figure 2.1-9 illustrates the above relationship.

Figure 2.1-9 Illustration of the relationship between d (t ) and u (t )
2.1.3 Linear and Time-Invariant Systems

Systems are used to process signals. A system is a device that accepts an input x (t )
and gives out an output y (t ). Figure 2.1-10 shows a block diagram representation of
a system, relating x (t ) and y (t ). We show this relation symbolically by
x (t ) → y (t ) .
We read this notation as “x (t ) produces y (t ).” It has the same meaning as the block
diagram shown in Figure 2.1-10.
We can represent the system by a mathematical operator as follows:
y (t ) =  { x (t )} ,(2.1-9)
where  {.} is an operator, mapping the input into the output. Equation (2.1-9) is the
system equation as it relates the input x (t ) to the output y (t ).
A system is linear if superposition holds. Otherwise, it is nonlinear. If x1 ® y1 and
x2 ® y2 ; then superposition means x = ax1 + bx2 → y = ay1 + by2 , where a and b
are some constants. In words, the overall output y is a weighted sum of the outputs
due to inputs x1 and x2 .
Example: Linearity
Consider the system described by the system equation as follows:
y (t ) =  { x (t )} = tx (t ) or x (t ) → y (t ) = tx (t ). According to the system equation,
we write x1 → y1 = tx1 and x2 → y2 = tx2 . The system is linear, since
x = ax1 + bx2 → y = tx = t (ax1 + bx2 )

= tax1 + tbx2
= ay1 + by2 .

y (t ) =  { x (t )} = x 2 (t ) or x (t ) → y (t ) = x 2 (t ). According to the system equation,
we write x1 → y1 = x12 and x2 → y2 = x22 . The system is nonlinear, since

Figure 2.1-10 Block diagram of a general system
Time-invariant
system
Time-invariant
system
Figure 2.1-11 Time-invariant system
2
x = ax1 + bx2 → y = x 2 = (ax1 + bx2 )
2
= (ax1 )2 + (bx2 ) + 2 abx1 x2
≠ ay1 + by2 .
A system is time invariant if a time shift in the input results in the same time shift at
the output. Otherwise, it is time variant. Figure 2.1-11 illustrates this property where
t0 is the time shift or the time delay.
Another way to illustrate the time-invariance property is shown in Figure 2.1-12.
We can delay the output y (t ) of a system by applying the output to a t0 delay, as
shown in the top part of Figure 2.1-12. If the system is time invariant, then the delayed
output y (t − t0 ) can also be obtained by first delaying the input by t0 before applying
it to the system, as shown in the bottom half of Figure 2.1-12. This illustration of
time-invariance property is constructive as we can use this procedure to test if a sys-
tem is time invariant or time variant.
Example: Time Invariance

dx
Consider the system described by the system equation as follows: y (t ) =  { x (t )} =
dx dt
or x (t ) → y (t ) = . The system is a differentiator. We determine time invariance
dt
according to the situations illustrated in Figure 2.1-12. From Figure 2.1-13, we see
that the two final outputs are identical, and hence the system under investigation is
time invariant.

system Delay
Delay system
Figure 2.1-12 Illustration of time-invariance property
system Delay
Delay system
Figure 2.1-13 Time-invariance example: same output
Figure 2.1-14 Time-variance example: different outputs

y (t ) =  { x (t )} = tx (t ) or x (t ) → y (t ) = tx (t ). From the results of Figure 2.1-14,
we see that the final outputs are not the same, and hence the system is time variant.

Figure 2.1-15 RC circuit
Example: RC Circuit Being a Linear and Time-Invariant System

A linear time-invariant system is a linear system that is also time invariant. As we will
see later, linear and time-invariant systems have a key property in that, for a given
sinusoidal input, the output is also a sinusoidal signal with the same frequency (but
possibly with different amplitude and phase). Consider the RC electrical circuit shown
in Figure 2.1-15. Let us first find the system equation. We assume that the input x (t )
is a voltage source and the output y (t ) is the voltage across the capacitor. Accord-
ingly, using basic circuit theory, we get
x (t ) = vR (t ) + y (t ) , (2.1-10)
where vR (t ) is the voltage dropped across the resistor. Now according to the sign
convention used in circuit theory for the two circuit elements resistor and capacitor,
that is, when a current enters the positive polarity of the voltage, we have the follow-
dy (t )
ing relationships for the resistor and the capacitor: vR (t ) = i (t ) R , and i (t ) = c .
dt
Putting these relationships into Eq. (2.1-10), we have
dy (t )
RC + y (t ) = x (t ). (2.1-11)
dt
Equation (2.1-11) is the system equation for the circuit shown in Figure 2.1-15.
If x1 ® y1 and x2 ® y2 then according to the system equation, we have
dy1 (t ) dy2 (t )
RC + y1 (t ) = x1 (t ) and RC + y2 (t ) = x2 (t ) ,
dt dt
respectively. Now multiplying the first equation by a and the second equation by b,
and adding them, we have
d 
RC ay1 (t ) + by2 (t ) + ay1 (t ) + by2 (t ) = ax1 (t ) + bx2 (t )
dt 
This equation is the system equation [Eq. (2.1-11)] with
ax1 (t ) + bx2 (t ) → ay1 (t ) + by2 (t ) ,

satisfying the principle of superposition. Hence, the system is linear. The system is
also time invariant as the circuit elements are constant and not a function of time. As it
turns out, any nth order linear differential equation with constant coefficients belongs
to the class of linear time-invariant systems.
2.1.4 Impulse Responses

The impulse response of a system is the output owing to an impulse d (t ) input when
all the initial conditions in the system have been set to zero. A practical illustrative
example is that in our previously considered RC circuit in Figure 2.1-15, the capaci-
tor has no charges stored when we apply an impulse function to obtain the system’s
output. Returning to Eq. (2.1-9), we have y (t ) =  { x (t )}. Now, for an impulse input
of the form d (t − t ′), the output y (t ) =  { x (t )} =  {d (t − t ′)} = h (t; t ′) is called the
impulse response of the linear system. Using the sampling property of the delta func-
tion, we can write
∞
x (t ) = ∫ x (t ′)δ (t − t ′) dt ′,
−∞
that is, x (t ) is regarded as a linear combination of weighted and shifted delta func-
tions. We can then write the output of the linear system as
 ∞ 
y (t ) =  { x (t )} =   ∫ x (t ′)δ (t − t ′) dt ′
−∞ 
∞
  ∞ (2.1-12)
= ∫ x (t ′) {δ (t − t ′)} dt ′ = ∫ x (t ′) h (t; t ′) dt ′.
−∞ −∞
Note that in the above procedure, the operator has moved to pass x (t ′) and to only
operate on a time function. The above result relating the input and output is known
as the superposition integral. This integral describes a linear time-variant system.
Now, a linear system is time invariant if the response to a time-shifted impulse
function, d (t − t ′), is given by h (t − t ′), that is,  {d (t − t ′)} = h (t − t ′). Equation
(2.1-12) then becomes
¥
y (t ) = ∫ x (t ′) h (t − t ′) dt ′ = x (t ) ∗ h (t ).(2.1-13)
−¥
This is an important result. The impulse h (t; t ′) only depends on t − t ′, that is,
h (t; t ′) = h (t − t ′) in linear and time-invariant systems. The integral can also be
derived as illustrated in Figure 2.1-16.
The integral in Eq. (2.1-13) is known as the convolution integral, and * is a symbol
denoting the convolution of x (t ) and h (t ). x (t ) ∗ h (t ) reads as x convolves with h.
For a linear and time-invariant system with all the initial conditions being zero, the
system output to any input x (t ) is given by the convolution between the input and
impulse response.

Figure 2.1-16 Derivation of the superposition integral for a linear and time-invariant system
Convolution operation is actually commutative, which means the order in which we

perform convolution of the two functions does not change the result. By changing var-
iables in Eq. (2.1-13), we let t − t ′ = t ′′ so that t ′ = t − t ′′ and dt ′ = −dt ′′, we have
¥
y (t ) = x (t ) ∗ h (t ) = ∫ x (t ′) h (t − t ′) dt ′
−¥
−¥
= ∫ x (t − t ′′) h (t ′′)(−dt ′′) (2.1-14)

¥
¥
= ∫ x (t − t ′′) h (t ′′) dt ′′ = h (t ) ∗ x (t ).
−¥
Example: Graphical Method to Find Convolution

Given x (t ) = ae−at u (t ) , a > 0 and h (t ) = u (t ), we evaluate their convolution by a
graphical method. According to the definition of convolution in Eq. (2.1-13), we have
¥
x (t ) ∗ h (t ) = ∫ x (t ′) h (t − t ′) dt ′.
−¥
The above integral simply means that we find the areas under the product of two func-
tions, x (t ′) and h (t − t ′), for different values of t. Hence, the final answer is a func-
tion of t. Let us first visualize how to create the product x (t ′) h (t − t ′). From the
original functions x (t ) and h (t ), we plot x (t ′) and h (t ′) as shown in the Figure 2.1-
17a. Now we have x (t ′) on a graph. To create the graph of h (t − t ′) , we first take the
reversal of h (t ′) to get h (−t ′), as shown in Figure 2.1-17b. Next, we shift h (−t ′) by
t to get h (t − t ′) , as shown in Figure 2.1-17c. We then overlap x (t ′) and h (t − t ′) on
a single graph, which is shown on the left panel of Figure 2.1-17c. This graph guides us
to set up the integrand and the limits for the integral of convolution as follows:

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traverses the cordillera, beyond which it is unknown, as well as the
country through which it flows.
The river Jecu enters the ocean ten miles to the north of the
Guarapary, and three to the south of the entrance to the bay of
Espirito Santo. The Jesuits who possessed the adjacent lands,
formed a navigable communication from this river to the bay, by an
extensive valley, in order to avoid the dangers of the ocean, passing
round mount Moreno to enter the port. It yet remains, presenting the
same advantage to the present agriculturists of the country.
The bay of Espirito Santo is spacious, with secure anchorage.
Amongst the various streams which lose themselves in it, the Santa
Maria is the only considerable one. It is navigable for the space of
forty miles to the first fall. The tide runs up this river about twelve
miles to the mouth of the river Serra, which unites it on the left bank;
by the same side it receives another, which affords navigation to the
centre of the district, which indicates much fecundity. By the
southern margin it is joined by the small river Crubixa, where the
stones met with in its bed afford a sort of coral, with which the
Indians ornament themselves. In the vicinity of this river is cultivated
mandioca, rice, bananas, and canes, the sugar of which is deemed
the best in the province. Seven miles from the northern bar of
Espirito Santo is the small river Carahype, which becomes a current
only when the rains produce an overflowing of the lake Jucunen,
which is well stored with fish, about three miles in length, and near
the sea. A little to the north of the mount of Mestre Alvaro, the Reys
Majos, originally Apyaputang, is discharged, having a small port at
its embouchure.
The Mandu comes from the interior of the country, running north-
north-east between woods, enters the river Doce two miles below
the Escadinha Falls, and is navigable for canoes.
The towns of this province are—
Villa da Victoria
Villa Velha
Benevente
Almeyda
Guarapary
Itapemirim.
The villa or town of Nossa Senhora of Victoria, the capital of the

province, is situated on an amphitheatrical site on the western side
of an island, fifteen miles in circumference, in the bay of Espirito
Santo, which is capable of receiving frigates, and its entrance is
defended by five small forts. The town is well provided with water,
has tolerable houses, paved streets, and a church, which when
complete will be handsome. There is a house of misericordia,
convents of Franciscans and slippered Carmelites, two Terceira
orders belonging to those corporations, a chapel of St. Luzia, three
of Nossa Senhora of Boa Morte, Conceiçao, and Rozario. The ex-
Jesuitical college is a fine edifice, and now serves for the palace of
the governors. The ouvidor of the comarca has his ordinary
residence here. It has also a royal professor of Latin, and a junta da
real fazenda, or the treasury. The island is elevated, and the greatest
part in a state of cultivation. Its eastern side lies in a direct line with
the coast of the continent.
At the entrance of the bar, near the before-mentioned Moreno
Mount, is another, also a land-mark to sailors, and is in the form of a
sugar-loaf. On its summit is a convent of Franciscans, dedicated to
Nossa Senhora da Penha, of which it takes the name, not
unfrequently sustaining damage by the winds. The inhabitants of this
sanctuary enjoy delightful prospects of the vast ocean, and the
varied scenery of mountains of a diversity of elevation and aspect,
with valleys of different width and profundity.
In the skirts of this mount, at the entrance of the bay, is Villa
Velha, (Old Town,) originally the town of Espirito Santo, and for some
time capital of the capitania, which, however, never became
considerable, and is now of little consequence. Our Lady of Rozario
is the patroness of the church, whose parishioners are fishermen.
Fish are abundant and cheap upon all this part of the coast.
Benevente is at present a small town; but it unquestionably
enjoys an advantageous situation for becoming more considerable,
at the mouth of the river which takes its name, having a commodious
anchorage place, and great fertility of surrounding soil. The
inhabitants are mostly Indians, for whose reception it first began. The
Jesuits, its founders, had a hospicio, or entertaining house here,
which is now divided into three portions; one is the residence of the
vicar, another is appropriated to the municipal house, and the third
for the use of the ouvidor. The church is dedicated to Our Lady of
Assumpçao. In the adjacencies of the river, cotton, sugar, rice, Indian
corn, &c. are cultivated. The canoes which convey those productions
to the port can advance up the river with the tide for a considerable
distance.
Guarapary is a villota, or small place, situated near the
embouchure of the river Guarapary, upon a small bay. The church is
dedicated to Nossa Senhora da Conceiçao. Its inhabitants,
principally Indians, cultivate cotton and the necessaries of life. Here
is collected the greatest portion of the Peruvian balsam, which takes
the name of the province.
Almeyda, situated on elevated ground, near the embouchure of
the Reys Magos, from whence a great extent of ocean is discovered,
was founded by the Jesuits, who had a hospicio here, whither they
repaired from the college of the capital to learn the Tupininquin
language. This edifice has been for a long time the residence of the
vicars, and its handsome chapel, dedicated to Reys Magos, has
always served for the mother church. It has a considerable piece of
ground attached to it, in the form of a square. In no other parish of
the bishopric have the number of native Indians increased so much
as here; with them are intermixed some whites and mesticos. The
whole pursue fishing, and are farmers of the first necessaries. They
export some earthenware and timber.
Five miles to the north of Almeyda is the Aldeia Velha, (the Old
Aldeia,) inhabited by Christianized Indians. It has commodious
anchorage for sumacas at the mouth of a small river.
Further on there is another aldeia of Goytacaze Indians, also
Christians. The whole cultivate the necessaries of life, practise
fishing, and many pursue the manufacture of earthenware. Orange
trees are remarkably abundant, and the fruit excellent. A
considerable quantity of gamellas (wooden bowls) are exported.
Itapemirim stands on the southern margin, and two miles above
the mouth of the river of the same name. It has a parish church of
Our Lady of Amparo. A considerable augmentation of this place is
anticipated. Its inhabitants drink the waters of the river, cultivate
plantations of the sugar cane, and the cotton tree, rice, Indian corn,
&c. and cut timber; all these are articles of exportation.
On the margin of the river Piuma there is an aldeia of the same
name, whose inhabitants cultivate the necessaries of life peculiar to
the country, and cut much timber from the neighbouring woods.
Vessels of a small size can be constructed here.
On the margin of the river Doce, two miles below the mouth of
the Mandu, there is a prezidio, with the name of Souza, in order to
impede the smuggling of gold from Minas Geraes, and which may
become in time a considerable povoaçao. The surrounding territory
is highly fertile. One quart of the seed of feijao will generally produce
ninety Winchester bushels; and lower down, upon an island in the
same river, the same quantity of seed has rendered one hundred
and fifteen Winchester bushels, which is nearly four hundred for one.
A quart of Indian corn commonly produces one hundred and fifteen
bushels. A shrub grows here, the bruised leaves of which afford a
liquor by infusion, which will dye a fast purple colour.
Near the river Jecu, at a great distance above its mouth, in a
fertile district, is beginning to flourish the arraial of the same name,
inhabited by white agriculturists, and abounding with game.
In the latitude of 20°, and upwards of five hundred miles distant
from the coast of this province, is the small and rocky island of
Ascension, also called Trinidade. It has good water; but having no
good anchorage place, and little of its surface being susceptible of
cultivation, it is uninhabited.
CHAP. XIV.
PROVINCE OF PORTO SEGURO.
Boundaries—Prosperity of its first Donatory—Reversion to the Crown

in a bad State—Present partial Cultivation—Indians—Mountains
—Mineralogy—Zoology—Phytology—Rivers, Lakes, and Ports—
Povoações—Abrolhos.
This province, which comprises the territory of the capitania of
the same name, with one portion of that of Ilheos, and another of
that of Espirito Santo, is confined on the north by the province of
Bahia, from which it is separated by the river Belmonte, on the west
by Minas Geraes, on the south by Espirito Santo, and on the east by
the ocean. It lies between 15° 54′ and 19° 31′ of south latitude, and
in consequence of its being like the province of Espirito Santo
imperfectly explored, and from the same cause, of being in great part
under the dominion of the Indians, its width cannot be precisely
determined. A different result might have justly been expected, as it
is without contradiction that part of the new world where the
Portuguese were first established. It has already been shown that
Cabral left here two degradados in the year 1500, and Christovam
Jaques a large number of other individuals, with two Franciscan
missionaries in the year 1504. The excellent quality of the Brazil
wood, which the first explorers found in abundance, soon rendered it
an object of public contract, and the good understanding which the
colony maintained] with the Indians, also contributed to its being
regularly and annually visited for the purpose of so important a
traffic.
When John III. partitioned this region into capitanias, the colony
of Porto Seguro had begun to flourish, and many ships destined for
India refreshed in its port. The three Indians, which George Lopez
Bixorda presented to King Emanuel in 1513, were Tupininquins, the
allies and friends of the colonists of Porto Seguro, and the interpreter
who accompanied them was one of the degradados left there by
Cabral in 1500. This Bixorda had the contract for Brazil wood, and in
order to show the king a sample of his new subjects, the three
Indians were conveyed to Portugal in the ship laden with this
precious wood, without any change of their rude and native dress,
the peculiarity of which consisted in their bodies being dressed or
ornamented with feathers, and their lips, noses, and ears distorted
with immense pendants; their usual weapons of defence, the bow
and arrow, added to the interest which their appearance excited.
The name of Porto Seguro, (Secure Port,) given to the bay where
the discovering armada anchored, also soon became common to the
anchorage place of the river Buranhen, with the establishment of the
colony which C. Jaques planted upon its margin, in the place where
the principal or high part of the capital is now situated. It soon after
became the factory also for the Brazil wood.
Pedro do Campo Tourinho, its first donatory, after having sold all
he possessed, for the purpose of transporting himself, his wife, Ignez
Fernandes Pinta, one son, called Fernam do Campo Tourinho, and
various families who agreed to accompany him, arrived safe in the
port of the factory. Not one of the other donatories experienced so
prosperous a disembarkation. His colony was a considerable
augmentation of that of C. Jaques, or the factory, where he found
many countrymen, some of whom had been more than thirty years in
the country, with their half Indian progeny, called Mamalucos, living
in full harmony with the aborigines.
In a few years he found himself in a considerable and flourishing
town. Besides the town of Santa Cruz he founded that of St. Amaro,
and other aldeias, with which the establishment was greatly
increased, and before his death had acquired a very flourishing
state.
The town of St. Amaro, any vestige of which can scarcely at
present be discovered, near the morro crowned with a hermitage of
Our Lady d’Ajuda, three miles to the south of Porto Seguro, was
demolished by the ferocious Abatyra Indians in the year 1564.
The town of St. Cruz, which was commenced upon Cabralia Bay,
(Bay of Cabral,) was removed by its inhabitants near to the river
Joao de Tyba, in consequence of its more favourable soil.
On Stone by C. Shoosmith from a Sketch by Jas. Henderson.
Printed by C. Hullmandel.
BOTOCUDO INDIANS, ABOUT TO CROSS A RIVER.
The first donatory was succeeded by his said son, who did not
live to enjoy it long. To Fernam do Campo Tourinho succeeded his
sister, Leonor do Campo Tourinho, widow of Gregorio de Pesqueira,
to whom the king confirmed the capitania by letter of the 30th of May,
1556. Two months afterwards she sold it, by permission of the
Sovereign, to the Duke d’Aveiro, Don John de Lancastre, to whom
the King, in the same law, granted licence, at his death, to nominate
his son, Don Pedro Deniz de Lancastre, from whose successors it
reverted to the crown in the reign of Joseph I. in a very bad state and
with only two towns. One hundred milreas (about £25) de juro, or
right, six hundred milreas (about £150) in money, and two moyos
(about seventy Winchester bushels each) of wheat every year as
long as the vendor lived, was the price stipulated in the writings of
the sale. The Jesuits, who founded a house in the capital in 1553,
with the intention of better reducing the Indians to Catholicism, only
left two aldeias entirely Indian, of which they were the curates.
Amongst the most able of those in the course of two hundred and
five years, who became curates in these missions, many went there
to be catechised previous to studying theology at the college of
Bahia, in order to learn more perfectly the idiom of the Indians, who
were not taught the Portuguese language, as they only treated or
had intercourse with the curates, who were well acquainted with their
language.
The Abatyra Indians, at the period before alluded to, destroyed,
amongst other places, the towns of Juassema and St. Andre,
founded by the duke. These Indians, now unknown, are said to be a
horde of the Aimores, or perhaps this was the name by which the
Tupininquins designated them in general. The Aimores are believed
to have been a tribe of northern Tapuyas, who, in ancient times, in
consequence of the wars, proceeded southward, and retired to the
west of the serra which afterwards took their name. The
neighbouring nations called them Aimbores, and the Portuguese,
from corruption, Aimores; but, for a considerable time, they have had
no other name amongst the Christians than Botocudos, in
consequence of their custom of perforating the ears and lips. They
always wander about, divided into parties of forty to sixty families,
destroying game, and gathering wild fruits, their ordinary aliment.
Some paint the body, at times, a green colour, at others yellow; and
in order to free themselves from the attacks of the mosquito, at
certain seasons, or in places where they most incommode them,
they varnish the skin with the juice or milk of certain trees. Their
arms are the bow and the arrow barbed on both sides. They have no
other conveyance by water, but jangadas, or catamarans, rudely
formed of the trunks of the jangada tree, and put together with very
little care, with which they cross large rivers. Their combats, like
those of all other Indians, are from ambuscades, and they commonly
make the assault after dark, and only when they judge that they are
taking their enemy by surprise. Some tribes, when they have
determined to engage the foe, leave the aged, the women, and
children, in some secure place in the centre of their district. Their
barbarity has always produced the idea that they are much more
numerous than they are really found to be. The garrisons newly
established upon the eastern line of the province of Minas Geraes,
and those in the centre of this, have obliged many to sue for that
peace which had been so frequently offered them, and which they
always rejected, secure in extensive woods, where there are few, if
any, Christian colonists to subdue their wild habits, or mitigate their
savage propensities.
Of all the provinces of the Brazil, this may be said to be the most
backward in cultivation, and in the civilization of the aboriginal
inhabitants. It is almost one wood of fine timber, and different
species of trees, indicating, beyond a question, the great fertility
generally of its soil. The want of good ports capable of receiving
large ships is assigned as the cause of its present condition; but
want of industry, and the requisite energy and spirit of improvement,
as well as the deficiency, it must be allowed, of population, are the
real causes. The Christianized population only possess the parts
adjacent to the ocean, and few days pass in certain months of the
year, that its coasts are not visited by the Indians in search of the
eggs of the tortoise. From these people the Canarins are known,
who are the nearest hordes to the towns of Caravellas, and
Villaviçoza. It is said that they have an establishment of one vast
house in the centre of the country, hid in a valley between two
mountains. The Machacaris are masters of a country washed by the
rivers Norte and Sul. In the western part are known the Cumanacho,
Mono, Frecha, Catathoy, Aimore, and the Patacho nations; the last
are more numerous than all the others together, and extend
themselves, divided into tribes, from one extremity of the province to
the other.
The Aimores are anthropophagi, and the dread of all the other
nations except the Patachos.
From the river Doce, the southern limit of this province, as far as
a league to the north of the Jucurucu, the lands are so flat, that they
scarcely exceed the level of the highest tides. In the whole of this
tract, (more than one hundred miles,) not one mountain, or even
small elevation is seen. From this point nearly to the Buranhen, the
shore is of a green or white colour, and of four to six yards in height;
the remainder of the coast to the river Belmonte is in parts flat, in
others rather more elevated. Fine woods are everywhere seen
extending to the margin of the ocean.
Mountains.—Those in the central and western parts are
unknown. At the northern extremity of the eastern side only is
discovered the serra of Aimores, the highest portion of which,
denominated the Mount of John de Siam, and the outer portion
Mount Pascoal, is seen for many leagues at sea, being the principal
land-mark in this latitude.
Mineralogy.—Gold, iron, granite, calcareous stone, white
potters’ earth, with other argils, amethysts, topazes, and other
precious stones.
Zoology.—Domestic animals are in all parts very rare, if we
except the environs of the capital. In the woods are the deer, boar,
tamandua, monkey, anta, with various other species of this region,
generally very numerous. Ounces are here in the greatest number,
and commit their depredations upon the sea-coast from April to
August, in consequence, it is thought, of the cold, which makes them
desert the western lands, and seek the vicinity of the sea, where it is
warmer. Hunters find with much facility the mutun, juru, macuco
partridge, jacu, jacutinga, aracuan, nhamba, capueira, parrot, and a
diversity of the turtle bird. The araponga, bicudo, and sabio are well
known. The pavo, or peacock, is little larger than the tucano, black,
with the breast yellow and red. The crijoha is something larger than
the blackbird, and its change of colours beautiful. The bees produce
honey in the trunks of trees, supplying aliment to a great many.
Phytology.—Amongst many other trees of good timber are the
vinathico, aderno, avariba, anhuhyba, aricurana, anhahyba de rego,
angelim, of different colours; also the biriba, buranhen, camacary,
caixeta, cedar, cherry, conduru, grapiapunha, guanandirana,
hoyticica, jatahy; of the jacaranda, are the sorts called cabuina,
mulatto and white; of the jucirana, white and green; the jiquitiba,
inhuhybatan, and the clove; ipe, black and other sorts; piqui, black,
yellow, otherwise mirindiba; the potumuju, bow wood, oil wood,
Brazil wood, oanandy, sapucaya, sobro, sucupiracu, sucupira acary,
tatagiba, white and green timbuhyba; the jabuticaba, the aracaza,
the pindahyba, and various palm trees are well known; the Asiatic
cocoa-nut tree is not very frequent. There is a tree, the leaves of
which, when broken, exhale the aromatic smell of the clove. The tree
which produces the pechurim, here improperly called mulberry tree,
is rare, and its fruit not so fine as that of Para. The soil is good for
the culture of mandioca, the most valuable produce of the country;
Indian corn, rice, and legumes grow in some districts. Cotton trees
prosper best in the vicinity of the sea, at least in many situations.
Rivers, Lakes, and Ports.—The river Doce has its heads in the
centre of Minas Geraes, and, flowing through part of that province,
leaves it, already accumulated by its tributary streams into a
considerable river, under the name by which it is here known. After it
begins to divide this province from that of Espirito Santo, it is
precipitated in the space of one league over three falls, denominated
the Escadinhas. From hence to the ocean it is large, serpentine, and
handsome, and has many flat islands. Its waters are muddy in the
summer season, in consequence of the minerals of Minas Geraes
with which it is impregnated; and this appearance is partly caused, it
may be inferred, by the auriferous bed through which there cannot
be a doubt, from what has been already observed, the latter part of
its course is impelled. Its waters are discharged between two points
of flat sand of considerable extent; and this aqueous volume
preserves its freshness for a considerable distance into the ocean,
from which circumstance its primitive name was changed to that of
Doce (Soft, or Fresh.)
The St. Mattheus, originally the Cricare, has its source in Minas
Geraes. Soon after entering this province, it runs for the space of
many miles with great violence, occasioned by the impulse it
acquires in descending various falls. A little below this current, which
is supposed to be in the meridian of the Escadinhas, it receives by
the left the large river Cotache, which traverses extensive woods,
inhabited by Indians and wild beasts. It irrigates one of the most
fertile countries of the state, and discharges itself into the sea thirty-
five miles north of the Doce. A little above its embouchure it receives
by the northern margin the St. Anna, which is navigable with the tide.
The Mucury, which is considerable as far as the tide advances,
originates in Minas Geraes, and with a rapid current enters the sea
near thirty miles to the north of the St. Mattheus. In the vicinity of the
ocean it traverses a most fertile district, covered with fine woods,
occupied by wild quadrupeds, beyond which it passes through lands
rich in gold and precious stones. This river communicates with the
Peruhype.
The Peruhype, whose mouth is fifteen miles north of the Mucury,
originates in the centre of the province, and is apparently
considerable, with a tide running many leagues up.
Ten miles north of the preceding is the mouth of the channel
called the river Caravellas, but which is only an arm that the sea
extends ten miles to the west, of considerable width, very deep, and
beautifully bordered with mangroves. The entrance is only
accessible to small vessels. About the middle of its extent, there is a
spacious channel of great depth communicating with the Peruhype.
The Itanhem, after a long course, enters the sea fifteen miles
north of Caravellas, and affords navigation for canoes for a
considerable distance.
The Jucurucu, which discharges itself fifteen miles north of the
Itanhem, takes its name at the confluence of the afore-mentioned
river Do Sul, (South) with the Do Norte, (North) which unite about
twenty miles from the sea, and afford navigation to canoes for a
considerable space into the interior of the country. Sumacas
advance up this river as far as the said confluence.
Thirty miles to the north of the Jucurucu is the point Corumbau,
by corruption Corumbabo; three miles further the mouth of the river
Cramimuan, at the bottom of a large bay; and a little further the small
river Juassema, near whose mouth is yet seen the vestiges of the
town so called.
Eight miles north of the Cramimuan is the river Do Frade, (Friar,)
which took its name from the shipwreck of a religious Franciscan. Its
course is through woods, and it is only capable of receiving canoes.
The Buranhen, for a long period here designated only the
Cachoeira, in consequence of a fall, (cachoeira,) which it passed
about the centre of the province, enters the sea eighteen miles north
of the Frade: its origin is unknown; but not being considerable, it may
be inferred that its course is not extensive; that portion of it explored
flows from the south-west to the north-east, with many windings. It
affords various sorts of fish, such as are called here piaus, trahiras,
robalos, acaris, piabanhas, piabas, jundias, pitus, and very large
prones in abundance.
It is followed, at a distance of about eighteen miles by the St.
Cruz, something smaller, and navigable by canoes. It took this name
after the inhabitants of the town of St. Cruz removed to its margin,
then called the Joam de Tyba. They formed the first colony in its
vicinity. It is stored with the same fish as the preceding one.
The St. Antonio, the waters of which are muddy, with an
inconsiderable course, is a few leagues north of the preceding.
The lake Juparana, deep, abounding with fish, interspersed with
small islands, and about fifteen miles in circuit, bordered with fine
woods, growing upon an uneven and fertile country, is twenty miles
from the sea, has an outlet into the river Doce by a narrow and deep
channel five miles in length, and receives a river called Cachoeira,
which is said to be navigable.
Between the mouth of the Doce and the St. Mattheus is the lake
Tapada, of considerable length from east to west but very narrow.
The lake of Medo, (Fear,) very small, is in the proximity of the
origin of St. Antonio and communicates with the Belmonte.
The lake Braco, long and narrow, prolongs itself with the coast,
between the Belmonte and the Mugiquissaba, which is small, and
enters the ocean about eighteen miles south of the first.
The Belmonte, so called after the town of the same name was
founded near its mouth, is formed in Serro do Frio, one of the
comarcas of Minas Geraes, by the waters of the Jiquitinhonha and
Arassuahy. When it traverses the cordillera of Aimores it is
contracted between two mountains of unequal elevation; the
northern one, called St. Bruno, is the highest, and on a sudden
descends from a height of more than forty yards into a whirlpool,
whose evaporation exhibits an eternal cloud, and the loud
murmuring of its falling waters is heard sometimes twelve and fifteen
miles off. Continuing for the space of fifteen miles to the east
between rugged margins to a cachocirinha, (a little fall,) it flows
through a flat and woody country to the sea, describing various
windings, with a current rapid and wide but of little depth. Its fish
called tubarõe is of an enormous size, and the cacoe is the smallest
of its finny inhabitants. It has many flat islands within its margins, and
does not receive any considerable stream after it descends the fall.
The Piauhy, which unites the Belmonte below this fall, is the most
abundant amongst those which it receives, after commencing to
serve as a limit to this province.
Cabralia Bay, (where the armada of Cabral anchored,) fifteen
miles to the north of Porto Seguro, and four to the south of St. Cruz,
is the only port of the province where large vessels can enter.
The bay of Concha, near the Mugiquissaba, is a roadstead which
might be rendered capable of receiving vessels of large burden.
The towns of this province are—
Porto Seguro
Villaverde
Trancozo
Prado
Alcobaca
Caravellas
Villaviçoza
Portalegre
St. Mattheus
Belmonte.
Porto Seguro, a considerable town, and capital of the province, is

situated at the mouth of the river Buranhen, upon an elevation on the
northern side, with an agreeable aspect, enjoying salubrious air, and
provided with good water. It has a church of Nossa Senhora da
Penna, a house of misericordia, and an ex-Jesuitical hospicio, at
present the residence of the ouvidors. The houses are of brick or
wood, and the streets unpaved. The main part of its inhabitants
frequent the fishing of garoupas, which form an important branch of
their commerce. It has, as is usual, a royal professor of Latin. Its
surrounding lands are appropriated to divers productions, none of
which are superabundant except fruits. Porto Seguro, it is said, was
once larger, but upon the occasion previously referred to was nearly
dismantled by the Abatyras, and being rebuilt, again suffered much
from the invasions of the Guerens, who, perhaps, would have
annihilated it altogether if the celebrated Tateno, a cacique or chief
from the river St. Antonio, who was a scourge to the other savages
and a friend of the Christians, had not succoured them, in spite of
the diseases under which he laboured at the time, and which did not
permit him to move, except in a net or rede, carried upon the
shoulders of his most robust comrades. The small povoaçoes of
Pontinha, Marcos, and Pacatta, the whole upon the northern margin
of the river, scarcely separated by small intervals, are so many other
parts of this town.
Villaverde, originally Patatiba, is small but well situated, has a
church dedicated to Espirito Santo, (Holy Spirit,) and a municipal
house. It is eighteen miles above the capital, upon the southern
margin of the same river, near a large lake. It has a profusion of
fruits, and abundance of water from fountains. The soil is of great
fertility, but is entirely left to the indolence of the Christianized
Indians, amongst whom a white is scarcely seen. They export some
timber and a little cotton.
Eighteen miles north of the capital, near the mouth of the St.
Cruz, the parish of this name, formerly considerable, has decayed, in
consequence of the invasions of the Guerens. It has a church,
dedicated to Nossa Senhora of Conceiçao; and in the vicinity a tree
is common, the fruit of which is called the quince. The proximity of
Cabralia Bay, and the roads which are expected to be opened from
divers points of Minas Geraes, will probably render this povoaçao a
flourishing and considerable place.
Trancozo is an inconsiderable town, well situated, near the mouth
of a small river; the church is dedicated to St. John Baptista, and its
inhabitants, almost generally Indians, cultivate cotton and mandioca,
and are also fishermen. It is fifteen miles south of Porto Seguro.
Prado, situated at the mouth of the Jucurucu, which was its
primitive name, is forty miles to the south of Trancozo. A
considerable quantity of farinha (flour of mandioca) is exported from
hence, at present the only riches of its inhabitants. Its church is
dedicated to the Purificaçao de Nossa Senhora.
Alcobaça, another small town, near the mouth of the Itanhen, of
which it originally had the name, has a church dedicated to St.
Bernardo. The population, generally Indian, and the agriculture,
begin to increase, by the establishments of various farmers, who
removed hither from Caravellas, in consequence of the woods or
mattas remaining uncut in the immediate vicinity of the town.
Caravellas is a considerable town, upon the northern margin of
the river of the same name, about five miles from the sea, and
almost in front of the channel which communicates with the
Peruhype. It consists of three streets parallel with the river, which
forms a good port, capable even of receiving large vessels, if the bar
were accessible. It is the most frequented of any other town in the
province; has a church called St. Antonio, and royal masters of the
primitive letters and Latin. Almost all its inhabitants cultivate
mandioca, which is nearly three years in the ground before it
reaches maturity; they can scarcely make two plantations of it, as
already in the second the ants have accumulated upon it to a
destructive extent. The lands overgrow with brushwood immediately
the woods are cleared away. The water-melons, aboboras, bananas,
and oranges, are very fine. There are places covered entirely with
the jabuticaba tree. A great quantity of farinha is exported from
hence. Various families, who escaped from the catastrophe which
attended the destruction of the towns in the vicinity of the capital by
the Indians, commenced this town, upon the right bank of the river,
near the bar, from whence it was shortly afterwards removed to the
situation which it now occupies. They are now labouring in the
opening of a road or track, to communicate with that of Portalegre,
which leads to Minas Geraes.
Villaviçoza, at first called Campinho, upon the southern margin,
and four miles above the mouth of the river Peruhype, is yet small,
with a church of N. Senhora da Conceiçao. Its inhabitants produce
much farinha, and the vessels by which the superfluity is exported
navigate commonly by the river Caravellas, and the channel before
mentioned, in consequence of the little depth which the Peruhype
has at the bar.
Portalegre, at the mouth of the river Mucury, of which it originally
had the name, is a small town, without any thing remarkable; but the
extensive navigation of the river and the fertility of its surrounding
lands promise it future augmentation. Its church is dedicated to St.
Joze; and its inhabitants, besides other necessaries, produce and
export a considerable quantity of farinha, with some flax of ticum,
and timber. In its district there are minerals of iron. From this town, a
road runs to Villa do Principe in Minas Geraes.
The town of St. Mattheus, without regularity, upon gently elevated
ground, on the right margin, and fifteen miles above the bar of the
river so called, does not yet exceed mediocrity, but is well supplied
with fish and good water. Many circumstances, however, concur to
warrant the expectation of its becoming flourishing, when the Indians
are reduced. Its inhabitants hitherto respire air infected by the
neighbouring swamps, which occasionally produce fevers,
terminating sometimes in death. They cultivate feijao, rice, Indian
corn, cotton, the sugar cane, and above all mandioca, the farinha of
which is exported to a great extent. Many other branches of
agriculture would flourish in this district, the fertility of which is
perhaps unequalled, and not materially infested with ants. The
water-melon is here excellent, and oranges and lemons are
abundant.
Belmonte is a town situated in the angle of the mouth of the river,
which took its name, and which injures it occasionally, at the period
of the greatest floods. It was first an aldeia of Christian Indians, and
consists of three streets, in a line, with houses generally of earth.
The church is called Our Lady of Carmo, and the people are of all
complexions.
On the margin of the river Doce, near the outlet of the lake
Juparana, is the increasing aldeia of Linhares, to which a vicar was
appointed in 1815, in consequence of its inhabitants becoming
numerous. With the view of impeding the invasions of the savages,
as well as commencing new povoaçoes, were recently established
the detachments of Arcos, near the margin of the river Belmonte,
above the great fall; Aveiro, upon the river St. Cruz; Aquiar, in the
district of Villaverde; Linhares, on the river Frade; Cunha, on the
Cramimuan; Vimieyro, on the Jucurucu; Obidos, in the district of
Alcobaca; Caparica, upon the river Peruhype; Araujo, upon the
Mucury; Itahunas, upon the Guaxindiba, which discharges itself four
miles north of the St. Mattheus; and Galveas, above the town of St.
Mattheus, upon the margin of the river of that name. All the
parochials of this province are in the jurisdiction of the bishopric of
Rio de Janeiro.
In front of the bar of the river Caravellas, and forty miles from the
coast, are the islands of St. Barbara, generally known by the name
of Abrolhos, four in number, and a short distance from each other;
the largest and most easterly is two miles in length, and has some
vegetation. Portions of a large shoal, which extends two hundred
miles from east to west, in consequence of the dangers which they
present to navigators, were called Abrolhos (“open the eyes.”) There
is no water found upon these islands, and they are generally covered
with marine birds. Upon these shoals the fishing of the garoupas is
pursued, producing the next branch of exportation to farinha; this is a
fish which does not exceed two palms in length, is very thick, of a
green colour, without scales, has little bone, is very white, and is
esteemed savory when fresh.

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Optics and Modern Physics for JEE (Advanced), 3rd

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Disturbance Observer for Advanced Motion Control with

Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging With MATLAB

Dynamic System Modelling and Analysis with MATLAB and

Modern Information Optics with MATLAB is an easy-to-understand course book and

Yaping Zhang is Professor and Director of Yunnan Provincial Key Laboratory of

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

To my grandchildren, Gussie, Sofia, Camden, and Aiden

1 Gaussian Optics and Uncertainty Principle1

2 Linear Invariant Systems and Fourier Analysis21

3 Wave Propagation and Wave Optics70

3.4.2 Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction93

4 Spatial Coherent and Incoherent Optical Systems119

5 Principles of Coherent Holography151

6.3.3 Coded Aperture Imaging and Coded Aperture Correlation

7 Spatial Light Modulators for Processing Optical Information260

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 00 bli h d li b C b id i i

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 00 bli h d li b C b id i i

1.1 Gaussian Optics

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 002 bli h d li b C b id i i

Figure 1.1-1 Geometry for Snell’s law and law of reflection

Figure 1.1-2 Ray propagating in an optical system

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 002 bli h d li b C b id i i

x2 = Ax1 + Bv1 and v2 = Cx1 + Dv1 ,

1.1.1 Ray Transfer Matrices

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 002 bli h d li b C b id i i

Now, from geometry, we know that φi = θ1 + φ and φt = θ2 + φ (Figure 1.1-4).

n1φi = n1 (θ1 + φ) = v1 + n1 x1 / R, (1.1-5)

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 002 bli h d li b C b id i i

n2φt = n2 (θ2 + φ) = v2 + n2 x2 / R, (1.1-6)

where x1 = x2 as the input and output planes are the same.

We can formulate the above equation in terms of a matrix equation as

Thick- and Thin-Lens Matrices

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 002 bli h d li b C b id i i

Figure 1.1-5 Thick lens

Now, ( x1 ¢, v1 ¢) and ( x2 ¢, v2 ¢) are related through a translation matrix as follows:

 x2 ′ 1 d / n2  x1 ′  x ′

If we now substitute Eq. (1.1-10) into Eq. (1.1-11), then we have

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 002 bli h d li b C b id i i

matrices. In general, the system matrix is made up of a collection of ray transfer

a b  e f  ae + bg af + bh

where f is the focal length of the thin lens and is given by

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 002 bli h d li b C b id i i

Note that the determinant of f is

1.1.2 Ray Tracing through a Thin Lens

Input Rays Traveling Parallel to the Optical Axis

Input Rays Traveling through the Center of the Lens

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 002 bli h d li b C b id i i

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.1-7 Ray tracing through a thin convex lens

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.1-8 Ray tracing through a thin concave lens

Example: Imaging by a Convex Lens

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 002 bli h d li b C b id i i

Figure 1.1-9 Ray diagram for single-lens imaging

The overall system matrix,

h d i 0 0 9 8 0090 3204 002 bli h d li b C b id i i

1 Gaussian Optics and Uncertainty Principle1

2 Linear Invariant Systems and Fourier Analysis21

3 Wave Propagation and Wave Optics70

3.4.2 Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction93

4 Spatial Coherent and Incoherent Optical Systems119

5 Principles of Coherent Holography151

7 Spatial Light Modulators for Processing Optical Information260