UNIT 26 COUNTER REVOLIJTION-I :

FASCISM TO CONSERVATIVE
DICTATORSHIP

26.1 In~roctu~t~c~~l
26.2 (;cncl.:~l Fe;lti~rcsot' t:;r.;cism.
26.' The i'olil~c~~l
/\r~tcccdcnts ol' F;~scisrn

26.4.1 Tlic Emer:lznic o l t;asc.i<t \ l o \ ~ c ~ ~ land

c ~ l (:or~quest
t o f Power
76.1.2 Cor~sol~tlario~i
( i t {lie Rep~lrlz

'26.4..: h1aj01.l'ypcr, (;I' F;ISL.IS[

:\,i<rs\O r g L ~ ~ i i z : l ~ i o ~ ~ ~
204.4 S:!l~~l-e
r 1 1 the F;r\c~stSl;irt.
16.45 'T'llc Fall and Solo R e l ~ ~ ~ h l ~ c
?(75 Right Wing Dicralor.;hip nnct Mo\,L*mcn:i n Spain
2h 6 Thc Frellcll Right and Vichy Go\,c:rnmcnt
26.7 R ~ g h !Wing Movcmcnts and D i c ~ a ~ o r s h i: pt:.;~\lt.i-nC'i:nki~~lI:til.t,pc :rncl 13:~ltir-Slalc.;
7 Polancl
20,7.2 1iullgal.y
20 7.3 c'~c~llo-SIovilc
26.7.3 Baltic Srntes
6 I,c1 L S Suln l i p
26.9 Key Wolcl.;
? , h 10 .Ana\\cl. lo C:lii.cl, \'OLII. l'~.ogl-c\s Exercise.;

26.0 OBJECTIVES
l'he h a s ~ cpurpose 01' ~lris(:nil is to makc you unticr>t;lnd 11-rc <lereloprncnr ol' extreme right
w i n ? Ini!\cnicnt> ailtl rcpinrcs in the fn~cr-Wurpcrioti i l l Europe. AAcr rcadillg this Unit, you
will hi. ;~t)leLo i~~lclc:.s~and:

.;one general I'c:rlurc\ of' I';rsc.isrn ~undrhc nature ot its tnohillsation.

1111: iilcoli)gic.al I'OI-I~IS and tllc orgnri~sntioni~l
style f'nscr:,~n in v:~r.ic~us
corlnlrlcs of Eulmpe;
11;1ti1rc01 I';I\CI\I I.~~IIIIC
i l l\ ~ . o l ~ n t ~ .like
i c \ 1ti.rly ;111(l Spirin. : I I I ~ :
t 1 . 1 ~ xprcir(i 01 S ~ I I I I - ~ ; I < L r~\yi111ch
~I~I ;III(I (~~~.II~IS;IIIO!I\ l l ~ r o t ~ g l i oE~L~ lI I . ~ ~ ~ .

26.1 INTRODUCTION
It ir, importanl lo bc;lr In rnirl~li l l c g~-t)\\,rl~ (31' ~>olilich !)I' n~olliii/;rtiono f pcoplc institulionalizcd
t h r o t ~ ~eleclionz.
li p:u.lics ;~ntlrcp~-c.>cnra~ion in I X r l ! a n d l0lh ~ c I I ~ L IThis ~ ~ cIcd . :I whole
~ , ~o
rirnpe 0 1 ~,olilic;rl choicL,.; I ~ o mlcll 11) rislll. Tllc I;~lcrils o c i < t l - i ~ c a v ~also \ ~ cc~u n c into open.
'l'lic gr-owrh 01' monopc!lr c a p i l ; ~ l ~ s:m~ n drc.;uli:~nt Intcnsc inrl-1~1-ialist ~rivalricsfueling cxtrcnrc
n:rliol~alisl iticologic ; r ~ ~ n~ilil;rrisrn tl al'lc~ 1870 .>h(~1.11~1 ;tt40 Iw x ~ 1 as 1 the hackgroi~ncl0 1 lhc
gr~.!\vllii ) I ' ~ . ~ g l ~ t - wIJSL.I\~ i ~ l g ~ \ ~ t ~ t : ~ ~ o r in s l iEi L ~ L * illc first 1~lii1hcof' Worl~iWar I . 11)(his
p sI I . , ):rI'tc~.
11cw co~ilext.t~pl~cirl IOI- I ) I I ~ I ~ IS ~L I.I;JL~ OI I u:as
- t 111~1dc 011 lilt h i ~ ~01'l i I I C W . \ c c ~ ~ i i ~ l ytlon-cl:~ss,ly
icicntitc\ cxl~cc,iallyiri11.;1,1c, rlrc \vol.hplac\c. ;\s ;I 1r~sul1.unlclilc 111;1:.~-io11~111i~snzies suLh L
:a
' L \ < I I - \ ~ c ~ ~ ' I ~ I I'ItSi '~. \ - l > ; ~ y c .s1)(11-t>
~i'. l ' c ~ ~ ~C IhU ' A I I I I ~ I ) ' 1 i ~ ~ i 1 t ~ 1 '1I ~L 1I /1C I I ~ ' \ V C I - ~<r~:\t~:l.
I
j
111 i!lc llrc'\ ii;uh (!nil
1 ~ 1 1 .~.iy!ic,rnd
L:LI lciirn~.ihoi~trhe triple idcol(~giciilJivi.slon o f ' E!rropc into rcgirnc.;

~xn:rc.in rile post-mill- period. You \\,ere ; ~ l s of'anl~l~:irisctl

llic i i b c ~~. !~c~r n~i ~ ~ . ~~-e;:i~lics
- a r i c o! Ijrit:iin. F I . ; ~ I I:11111
\vrth the 'c'.~i:~'c. 1.c..
. .
C ~ (ic'rrn~riyiri thc 1920s. T'l~isI ' i ~ i (i ( l i l ~ ~ c , >
(11' ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ i i f ~ ~ !1:- l-- r- ~
c ~~ c~ti o:~ tm~ ~ c ~ i ~
r i v Ic i ~ t c ~ r ~ l ~ i p
i o ~ , ~ ; ' . : . ~ ; ~[)it

C ~ I Itlic .'~-i;Glt..i . ~ .t, l l';1scist

~ r ~ ~ o v e ~ ~ 2111~1
~ c r rcg1111~\
its pri~riar~ly
111L . O L I I II ~l Ik ~It:li\.
~ ~ SL;LI-I~I:II~!
( in the 1!)30i ancl early 1940s under Hiilcr-) ;ind Spain. 'l'lic (Jnii i-)L%yins M ' I I I ~ ; I d i \ c u s s i o ~011
~
. ; o ~ ~ i01'c tht. general Scnrurcs of t'ascis~n. l i rher~";tal\e.: up the stor!. of' l'oscis~n in spccifrc
C ~ ~ I I I I I <- S~i CCI ~) I (.;el-many. Germany will he discussed cuclusi\~clyin ~ l i cnext Unir.

26.2 FASCISM : GENERAL FEATURES

t ..ixc~am
. . 1121s heell in~erpretedin multiple w;~y.;.Some i~lil,drtant ~ntcrprcta~ions
explain !I :I, :

a violent. dict;~torialagent of finance capital - a k~vouritcMarxist position.

the ~ ~ n i c l uec~ p ~ c s s i ool'r ~Miildle Class Raclicnlisrn;
[he protl~~cr
01 ;l cultur,~l and moral hrc,rkdo\vn;

ihc 1 ~ r ~ ~ 1 101r c111c

t rise of' ani0rl>ho~rslna\ws \vitll [lie h~.c;tkclo\\~~~
of tradi~ion:rl iclentiriC\
h;~scd(111 h i ~ ~ \ h i pcl~lrrc.ll,
. guild ant1 res~tlcncc:ctc.: :ilicl
:I 1;1r111of 13011;1pa1.tis111
01. ill1 aulonolnous autlioriiii~.i:ungo\.cl.nnicni Independent of specific
~I;I~S-~~!III~II:IIIOII,
Mall! Inore points !nay he added to this list. But these multiple interp~.etationsare sul'ficien~
to pornt to thc hctcrogeneous insredicnts of fascism. Fascisni emerged in Europe as a synthesis
ol t)rg:1nlc nationalism (a helicl'in tlie har~noniouscnllcctivity of Nation sul,erscding all other
I'orrnb o l ' l l l ~ ~ nidentific;~~ion)
a~~ and anti-?rliu.iisi socialisni. Its organic nationalism accounts l'or
its clccp-rix~tcdllostility to inter-natio~lalisrnand oryaniz:~tion and 1i1ovcmc;lts haazcl on
irltcrnationi~lis~n such as comlnunlsm. I'reeniasonry. the I,c;~p~lc of' Nations. f'inal~cecal>ital n11ci
t l ~ i : ~ u u l ~na~ional
i J c w i s l ~cornlrlunlly. I':rc~s~ilc~neryctl:IS ;I I-:~clical~ ~ ~ o v c bahcd ~ u c ~on~ tlre
t
rc,jection ot' ~ ~ c ~ t i of' o n liberalism,
s dcmo<racy ancl Marxiam. .l'lic Fascist sy~lthcsissyrnholizcd
111c r c j z c t ~ o01~ ~:I ~ ~ o l i t i c acultul-e l inllcritcd I ' I ~ , I I I rlic ~ : I ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ C I I'111d
I I I Cits
I I IiJe;is ~ 1 1 ~ 1:IS
1
~ . : i l i ~ r i ~ ~I II I~: I\~t C Ii:iIis~~l, ~~rclivi~i~i:~lisni : I I I ~p l u r ~ ~ lLi i~~ ~ ~ l o .I~lie
~ ooilier
~ ~ 111~1jor
i y , c~riturz~l v:iri;~l~lcs
01' l ~ : i ~ c ~UL>I-C: s r ~ i ~ ~ c t i \ i \ n vi .i t ; ~ I i s ~:111cl
i ~ socii11-clii~.wir~is~~i. Sorcl's philoxopl~j(11. : ~ ~ t i i ) \\.:LS i~
I>:i\~'tlon irl~uitlon,enel-gy and ilan. Its :rctivisrn wiis ~lscil io inobilizc the Illasses. Socr,~l
I),~r.\\inis~n hclicvccl that people in society compete for survi\:al and only superior groups and
I.iLCCS s1lc~L:cc~i.

.. .
i;,)\clsnl w:~arooted in tlre IC)thcentul.y critiques of liberal dc~noc~.acy. p,~~~Ii:u:lcni~iriarlis~n ancl
hll:l~.uistiocialis~u.~r)m,dver,it dii-fered from the conservative aulho~-rr,~ri;un proups. The bas15
of co~~scr.vnti\:c 3~1tlioritarianisniwas generally r c l i g i o ~ ~ideology
s \ ~ h c r c ; ~lascisni
s hasctl itsc!f:
on a I I ~ \ Vcul~ur:~l~nystiqucsuch as vitalism, non-rationalisln or sccul;u. neo-ide:~lis~n.Tllc
c o ~ l \ ~ * r - ~ a r in\rokcc.l
i\cz [I-adilional legirinlacies whcl-eas fascists w a ~ ~ ~ I:c cradic:~l
l in~,titutio~~:rl
cI1:111;c,
'I'18c\bar drcl p~.o;rclc sociolo~icaland psychological cclntlitions for the crysialli~:~tion 01' Fascisrlr.
11 ~.<\,c:~lccl the c a l x ~ c i ~01.y nation:llis~n in (lie ~lioh~li-/;~tron of ~llasscs-:r~ld econoruic reso:lri,,.;.
I t I'~i1-11icr d c ' ~ ~ ~ o n s ~ rtlie a t eimportance
d i l l 11nityol'co~nmancl.ol' autllority. 0 1 r~io~.,iI ~lrol?~lir:ltion
: I I ~ L ,)I'~ ~ ~ r o l ) ; ~ g . ~Inn ~r li~ncservice of the 1nodc1.11srate. After tlic w:u. F;~.;cisnl c~~icrgccl ns ,I
\.isiurr (11 ;I colrc~ren~ c l tllc h,ri 01' :L u~liolccoil~!r~ur~al
; I I I ~~ . r ' ~ l n i ~~c~dc o ~ )~lueo,h i l i ~ c on Irtur;~
ol' ,xi)i:g\ i ~ n drorc.lr-ligl~i~,~.occssions. hi,oIilighting tlir culr of ~ ~ h y s i c as l r c r ~ g ~violence l~, :ind
b~-~rr;~iit!. I t \ per I'rc~cxpl-cssion hcing 111cquasi-sacred tigurc of I.llc leader-the D~rcc:!;I> in li;iI!.'i
or- tllc I;~~ellrcr ( ; I S ill C;crlnany). Thc tascist opposition to rhc d c r n c ~ c ~ - a r i c - t ~ o ui~~';iit!rrr,::~\ ~.gc~~~~
; t ~ i t l v;ilirc\ c!rd nor 1.1111: out their L I S ot' ~ Inaxs. ~,lchiscita~-y I'oI-~nx01' poli~ics,hut !lie! .)1)17< .\cc!
IIIL' 11otli)llof < I C ' I I > O ~ ~ - ; I C ~ based o n rzq)ecI I'or ~)lu~.ali.im in o c i c i y , :lie f';ccdo~nof the i ~ i t i i ! iJi1~11
.111t1IIW C Y ~ S ~ C ' I I01'C ~ci\,il and politic:ll I~hcrtics.11.; nrtelnpicd rllass ~nohili/ariorl Ik:11~1rccl!!~r,
t ~ ~ i I i ~ : ~ ~ . ~ / : iit) if i ~ ) ~~i o l i t iand
c ~ , thc usc 01 riiiI~t:~ry111si31nii1 :11nc1t c r ~ r l l ~ ~ ~ ~A, l p'irty
o g y , I I I ~ I I ( ~ : I %.I
L!-

~ I ' ! c I I LI>C(I 10 ~ ~ ~ i ~ i t ' the l i \ ~ ~ i S L I . L I ~ ~ I 215

o ~ .ScCcI I W of ~ i : ~ ~ i o r ~:IIICI~ ~ c(]rl>i;1rlt C \I,L%II .IS I ( : ill,: O I ~ '
! I ! ~ I I : I Y ~ Sp~-ii(i<;~l!j.
II~III. l-claicil lo tf<s r~lilil.~r.~&~tiof~ 01' ~)olilica/r.cllatiorl\llil> ?:,itil ;'::iit.\\.;ii
\\':I< : I I C I I~. ~ u t r >[I-ess t , ~ ~o n~ the ~ mi~scul:rlcprrrici1)le or male donlinancc uhilc. c;yr;a\:n;c :I[!
~I~;:.!I:IL :ir\\ oi' \o~.ict\,.In rlicir organic vicw (11.;oc:icty. tllc struci~rr-,IIrelationship 01' \ .I;.;.
O U ? ~ ,I(, I ~L\, L ~ L , l ; ,1~1iti1011ly \ c ~ \ e ~tol Jcc111c<ci12&!i;;iit t l ~ 1 1r;)lt:<. - ,>Y:~L'L~:,I~:: ri\'l'? t!!:
-- ,~

The c+is of the 20thCentury identities and rights of individu~~ls.

The exaltation of youth and the specific tendency towards
an authoritarian, charismatic. personal style of command (whether elective or non-electivej
were other features related to this militarization of politics.

Fig. 1: Fuehrer and L)urc: Hitlcr ancl \lus\olin~,l l ~ cla\cisl Icadcr\

Another significant feature of fascist ideology was the orgunisation of some kind of regulated,
multi-class. integrated national economic structure (\/ariously called national corporatist. national
socialist or national syndicalist). The goal of empire or at least a radical change in the nation's
relationship with other powers was.also a crucial factor.

26.3 THE POLITICAL ANTECEDENTS OF FASCISM

The growth of I'ascist ideas. in embryonic Sonn, can he traced to {he late 19th and early.2Oth
centuries. The ideas of'corl,oratism (as a community of' pcoplc, of producers free from class-
strife) emergcd in rcuction to individualism, social atomization and new centrtalizing states.
Initially, it was a residue of the fcudal ideology of a mystical 'community' of personal ties. But
gradually it acquired modern reformist, class-collaborationist forms. Its two distinct forms
were societal corporatis~n(based on autonomy to corporations) and state corporatism. At the
. .
second level, we may discern a tendency from co~lscr\latism towards nco-authoritarianism.
Action Francaise (founded in 1899 in France) reprcscntcd this new autliol.itarinn, neo-nlonarchist
. - nationalism. Its core principle was legiti~natcmonarchy and colyoratc ~.cprcscntation.It also
made use of anti-semitism and an embryonic militant group of young activis~s(as a precursor
of the fascist militia).
The third trend toward the crystallization of the fascist right was symbolized by an instl.urne~~tal,
modernizing radical right which co~nbineddo~rlesticmodernization with militant nationalism.
Its political nianifestation was the ltalian National Association (AN1 - founded in 1910). Its
ideology of statc-corporatism dernancled a co-ordination of rnodel'n industrial production to
make Italy a strong imperial country and its militia Sempre Pronti (Always Ready) countered
leftist violence with its own stlcct violence. The other political precursons of radical, semi-
collectivist nationalism which a~lticip;~tcclthe fascist goal ol' broader mass mobilization were
Paul Deroulede's League of Patriots in France and thc Boulangist Movement in Francc in tlic Counter-rrvolutiun-l:,I;ascismto
Conscrvativc Dictatursl~ip
1880s. Pan-Germanism and the racial nationalism o f 11ic Austrian lcader Georg Ritlcr von
Sclicncrer in the late 19th century, Maurice Banes socialist-nationalism embodied in tile Czech
National Socialist Party (1904) and the German National Stxialist Workers' Party (DNSAP)
av,l its lcnders Dr. Walter Riehl and Rudolff Jung c a m much closer to the later Hillerite ideas
;icd progranimcs.

('heck Your Progress 1

I) In what way did the war contribute to the development 01' l'asciSmoven~ent'?

2) What are the general features of fascism.?

3) How would you distinguish a conservative right-wing l i o ~ nI:ascist niovcment? Answer in

about five sentences.

26.4 FOUNDATION OF FASCIST STATE IN ITALY

By now you must have acquired a general awareness ol'the I'eatures of fascism. It is now time
lo dh a case study. Germany, Italy and Spain are somc of thc examples of' fasc,ism. German
fascism will be discussed in the next Unit. Let us now look at thc spccific t'or~nsbthatfascis~n
took in Italy and Spain.

26.4.1 The Emergence of the Fascist Movement and Conquest of Power

Fascism in Italy was created by the convergence of certain existing trends. The split in the radical
syndicalist Confederation of Trade Unions took place in I9 14,overthe issue of Italian participation
ir, the war. The syndicalist believed in the 'self-emancipation' of the 'producers', which could
be achieved through 'regulation at factory levd', and not through 'seizure of stale power'. The
state would be replaced at an appropriate time by worker's syndicates or associations, which
would act as the instruments of self-government of the producers. The Syndicalist wing which
moved towards fascism embraced extreme nationalism, and nations wcre described by i t as
proletarian or plutocratic (is., in class terms); The futurisb who rejected traditional norms and
existing institutions and exalted violence, and were fascinated by speed, power, motors and
1;1;1chines,or all the modem technological possibilities, were a second major ideological factor.
Mussolini's socialistic views, and ideas on leadership, mass-mobilization and national revolution
ocntributed the third major strand. , ' I
Thc Crisis of the 20"'Century 'The initial programme of fascists, launched as Fasci di Cnrnhattirnento (1919) in Milan
called for the istallation of a republic and reflected demands. for radical.dernocratic and
socialistic reforms.including confiscation of the huge war-time profits of !he capitalists,
the suppression of' big joint-stock companies and land for the landless peasants. These
lel'tist elements of the programn-re ,wcre dropped in 1920 at@only, an emotive.miiture of
strident patriotism, justification ofqthcwar and a concern for$ir'ional greatness and growing
aversion to tlik socialist' party were retained. The growth of fascist squads led by e x -
military personnel ant1 supported by thc local police and army especially in northern and
central Italy- tlie Po w l l e y and Tuscany-was directly linked to the actual or perceived
threat of the left. The Fascist Militia was created in January 1923 by M u s ~ o l i n iin ordcr
. to discipline the squads and cujtail the powers of local squad leaders.
The poorly o r g : ~ i , ~ efascist
d march on Rome (October 1922, suggests that a re\,olutionary
insurrection co:.i(l not have succeeded bur for the indecisiveness uf the King and the passivc
support of a section of army. Thc King appointed Mussolini as tl.1~Prime Minister on 29111
.October 1922, who temporarily observed all the constitutional norms after the a s s u n ~ ~ t i oofn
power. Mussolini, however, I-ealized that even a multi-class nationalist rnovement would
need a compromise or a coalition 01' right forces to stay in powel-. In February 1923. a fusion
of Fascist Party and Nationalist Association of Italy (ANT) took place. This fusion with a
conscrvative'. elitist, ~uonarchistright-wing became essential to gain broader suppdrt among
army officers, acade~nics,civil servants and. businessmen.This and other stcl~sto seek
acco~nmodationwith the traditional elites left its ilnprint on the fascist party and the state.
The traditional right gl-oups-60-operated with fascists in passing the Acerbo Bill in 1923
which proposed that the party receiving a- quarter of votes in an election, should be
a~~tomatically given two-thirds of seats in the parliament.

26.4.2 Consolidation of the Regime

Using force and fraud, Fascists swept the 1924 election and after ternpol-ary discornfiturc over
the murtler ol' Socialist Deputy Matteotti in 1924, Mussolini went ahead with his
institutionalization ot' dictatorship. In Octohcr 1926, all opposition parties were banned. The
press was shackled, and the Public Safety Law (1926) made the security of state take precedence
over personal liberty. The Syndical Law (1926) brought labour under the control of state, in
llle interest of production. The law confirmed the fascist unions in their monopoly of negotiations,
set up tribunals for compulsory arbitration and banned strikes and go-slows. The Fascist Party
itself was bureaucratized. The new party statute in October 1926 introduced rigid centralization
of powers, all posts being appointed iron1 above. In 1927, Mussolini resolved the q u e s t i o ~of
the relationship between the parly and the state, in favour of the latter. Between 1926 and 1929.
over 60.000 squad members were expelled from the party. Attempt was made to control
syndicalist ideas among fascist tl.acie unions and Edmondo Rossoni, the leader of syndicalists,
was sacked in 1928; The procluctivist and modernizing goal ol'early led to a compromise
with private capital in the 1920s and 1930s. without formally I-enouncing.syndicalistprolects
of semi-coltectivism. The 'Corporate Statc' was formally createdin t934 -with 22 new combined
corporations of employers ancl employees, but thcy lacked real powers to takc economic
decisions.
hlussolini also tried to appcasc thc church. Large grants were-made for the repair of war-
damaged churches. In 1923. reliyious education was madc compulsory in secondary schools.
The Roman qucstion was l'inally settled En 1929 with the sign~neoi' the Lateran Pacts. The
Vatican becanie a sovereign statc :~ncla l a r ~ esum was given 10 it li)r the loss of'papal territories
i n 1860 and 1870. The Churcll's milin lay organi/.ntion. Catholie Action. was guaranteed
freedom providetl it stayecl out 01' politics. ..

26.4.3 Major Types of Fascist Mass Organizations

:I~:h lop
c a:'s the Grand Council of Fascism cre~itedill 192'2 as a consultative body which was
:.o~l\rcrteclinto an c q a n of statc hy 1928. But ,grass-root org'a~lisatio~is
were more important.
'I'hc military typc Militia dc\.elopcd out c'f !he hscist squads. It was trained to use all kind ol"
.weapons and centred around a core uf profcssional soldiers. Its cadrcs were indoctrinated and
used against opponents. The semi-military propaganda-type organization included Balilla, young
vanguards ancl the young fascists. These orga!l~zationswere bureaucratically controlled by the
Party. The rcgimentcd fascist unions for workers were another niajor mass organization. Fascism's
most effective experiment in con$:nt-building was creation of tlie Opera Nazinale Dopolavoro,
 Paul ~ e r o u l e d e ' sLeague of Patriots in France and thc Bodangist Movement in Francc in the Countcr-rcvolutiun-I: Yasckm to
1880s. Pan-Germanism and the racial nationalism of the.Austrian leader Georg Rittcr von Cons~rvativcDictatorship
~cliencrerin tlie late 19th century, Maurice Barrcs socialist-nationalism embodied in the Czech
National Socialist Party (1904) and the German National Socialist Workers' Party (DNSAP)
: ~ o dits leaders Dr. Walter Riehl and Rudolff Jung caiiic much doscr to the later Hitlerite ideas ,

a~:d programmes.

('heck Your Progress 1

I ) In what way did the war contribute to tlie dc\lclopiiient 01' l'ascis)'move~ilenr'?

.................................................................................................................................................
2) What arc tlie general features of fascisni.?

3) How would you distinguish a conservative right-wing l'loln I:ascist niovcment'? Answer in
about five sentences.

26.4 FOUNDATION OF FASCIST STATE IN ITALY

By now you must have acquired a general awareness oltlie features of fascism. It is now time
to dh a case study. Germany, Italy and Spain are somc of thc exainples of fa~c~ism. German
. '
fasc~slnwill he discussed in the next Unit. Let us now look at thc spccitic forms~thatfascisni
took in Italy and Spain.

j
26.4.1 The Emergence of the Fascist Movement and Conquest of Power
! Fascism in Italy was created by the convergence of cer~ainexisting Irends. The split in tlie radical
: syndicalist Confederation of Trade Unions took place in 1914over the issue of Italian participation
ir, the war. The syndicalist believed in the 'self-emancipation' of the 'producers', which could
)
be achieved through 'regulation at factory levej', and not through 'seizure of state power'., The
state would be replaced at an appropriate time by worker's syndicates or associations, which
would act as the instruments of self-government of the producers. The Syndicalist wing which
! moved towards fascism embraced extreme nationalisni, and nations were described by it as
proletarian or .plutocratic (i.e., in class terms): The futurists who rejected' tradilional norms and
'
existing institutions and- exalted violence, and were fascinated by speed, power, motors and
I;l;a.hi'nes, orall the modern technological possibilities, were a second majar ideological facror.
, Mussolini's socialistic views, and ideas on leadership, mass-niobilization and national revolution
, ocntributed the third major strand. I
The Crisis of the 20"' Century The initial programme of fascists, launchcd as Fa.sci di Car~zhattirnento(1919) in Milan
called for the istallation 01' a republic and reflected demands for radical.democratic and
socialistic reforms,including confiscation of the huge war-time profits of t h e capitalists,
the suppression of big joint-stock companies and land for the landless peasants. These
leftist elements o.f the programme.were dropped in 1920 ar+&only, an emotive.mixture of
strident patriot/s~n,justificatioll of'thc war and a concern for7Qa+iona~greatness and growing
aversion -to the socialist'party were retained. The growth of fascist squads led by e x -
military personnel ancl supported by the local policc and army especially in northern and
central Italy- the Po w l l c y and Tuscany-was directly linked to the actual or perceived
threat of the left. The Fascist Militia was created in January 1923 by Mussolini in order
to discipline the squads and curtail the powers of local squad leaders.
The poorly ore : n . ~ e d fascist march on Rome (Octoher 1922) suggests that a rc\rolutionary
insurrection co6i c l not have succecdetl bur for the indecisiveness of the King ant1 the passive
support of a section of army. The King appointed Mussolini as the Prime Minister on 29th
October 1922, who temporarily observed all the constitutionnl norms after the hssumption of
power. Mussolini, however: realized that even a multi-class nationalist movement would
need a compromise or a coalition of right forces to stay in power. In February 1923. a fusion
of. Fascist Party and Nationalist Association of Italy (ANI) took place. This fusion with a
~onservative',elitist. non narc hi st light-wih.g became essential to gain broader suppdrt among
army officers, academics, ci\il servants and businessmen.This and other steps to seek
accommodation wit11 the traditional elites left its imprint on the fascist party and the state.
The traditional right .groups-&-operated with fascists in passing the Acel-bo Bill in 1923
which proposed that the party receiving a. quarter of votes in an election, should bc
automatically given two-thirds of seats in the parliament.

26.4.2 Consolidation of the Regime

Using force and fraud, Fascists swcpt the 1924 election and after temporary discomfiture over
the murder of Socialist Deputy Matteotti in 1924, Mussolini went ahead with his
institutionalizatio~~of dictatorship. In Octohcr 1926. all opposition parties were banned. The
press was shackled, and the Public Safety Law ( 1926) made the security of state take precedence
over personal liberty. The Syndical Law (1926) brought labour under the control of state, i l l
the interest of production. The law confirmed the fascjst unions in their monopoly of negotiations,
set up tribunals for compulsory arbilration and banned strikes and go-slows. The Fascist Party
itself was bureaucratized. The new party statute in October 1926 introduced rigid centralization
of powers. all posts being appointed from above. In 1927. Mussolini resolved the questiop of
the relationship between the party and the slate, in favour of the latter. Between 1926 and 1929,
over 60,000 squad n~embcrswere expelled from the party. Attempt was made to control
syndicalist ideas among fascist tradc unions and Edrnondo Rossoni, the leader of syndicalists,
was sacked in 1928:The PI-ocluctivistand modernizing goal of early fascism led to a compromise
with private capital in the 1920s and 1930s. without formally rcnouncing.syndicalist prqjccts
of semi-collectivism. Thk 'Corporatc State' was formally createdin 1934 with 22 new combined
corporations of c~nployersancl employees. but they lacked real powers to take economic
decisions.
hlussolini also tried to ;Ippcase the church. Largc grants were-made for the repair of war-
damaged churches. In 1923. religious education was ~ n a d ccompulsory in secondary schools.
The Roman question was finally settled En 1929 with [he signing o l the Lateran Pacts. The
Vatican becanie a sovereign statc ancl a l a r ~ esum was given to it li)r the loss oi' papal territories . ,

in 1860 and 1870. Thc Church's nxlin lay organiz~~tinn. Cathdit! Action. was guaranteed
freedom provided it stuyccl o u ~of politics.

26.4.3 Major Types of Fascist Mass Organizations

!\ithe top was the Grand Council ol'Fasc~ismcreated i n 1922 as a consultative body which was
: ;)nvcrted into an organ of statc hy 1928. Sut ,grass-root orghnisations were inore important.
Ike military type Militia dctclopetl out of the fascist squads. It was trained to use all kind 01"
weapons ancl centred around a ccz-c of professional soldiers. Its cadres were indoctrinated and
used against opponents. The semi-military propaganda-type organization included Balilla, young
vanguards hncI the young fascists. These organ~zationswere h~!reaucratically controlled by the
Party. The regimented fascist unions for wmkers were another major mass organization. Fascism's
. .
most effective experiment in congent-building was creation of the Opera Nazinale Dopolavoro,
I
set up In 1925, its main concern being the organ17ation of ]elsure-time. It ran a huge network Counter-revolution-1:Faqcism to
Conservative Dictatorship
of local clubs and recreational facilities with libsarles, bars, billiards halls and sport grounds.
T h Dopolavoro circles arranged concerts, plays and film shows, organi~edoutings and providcd
extremely cheap summer holidays for children. By the 1930s, lhcrc were about 20,000 such
circles in Italy

26.4.4 Nature of the Fascist State

Though some characterize it as a -'totalitarian1 state, the preeminent authoi-ily of the state
aemained only in the areas of conflict, it was never total. Unlike the Nazi. Geman state, it
ncver achieved even an approximate day-to-day institutional control. The bureaucratic structure
was never able to intervene in all avenues of life. It was primarily a dictatorship that presided
over a pluralistic or semi-pluralistic system, pluralist n6t in ideological but in an'institutional
sense. Big business, industry, finance and even army retained their autonomy to a large degree
while labour interests were more and more regimented. The administrative machine6 was.
preserved. Thebureaucracy was never subjected to a systematic purge, and was dominated, as
before, by career offjcials. The police and Carabinieri weic similarly unpoliticized, i.e., .they
were not taken:over b y party officials; however, a new political police, the OVRA was created
in 1932. ~ a s c i s m . c a ~.toe power on the basis of a tacit compromise with the established
institulions and elites and ,&v-&rfully escaped the constraints of that compromise.
I . .
i'he state in,terevektion ik the economic life of the nation was marginal in the early part
of regime. The Direct srate investment during the ~ e p r e s s i o nwas only an emergency
measure. In 1933, after the'fobdation of IRI (Institute jbr Industrial Rerol~srruction)and
IMI (Instituto ~ o b i l i a r e~tqlano),
' state intervention increased. But even in 1940, IRI
possessed only about 1718 per cent of the capital assets of Italian industry. The state in
particular fostered the growthof chemical, electrical and machine industries and gave
impetus to modernization through electrification of Railways and growth of telephone and
radio industry. Another significant feature was the lack of economic militarism or ma.jor
investments i n military production despite the regime's rhetoric of Italy being 'in a
permanent state of war'. .Related to this was the,.predominance of thc humanistic
intelligentsia in Italy which was not reduced in favour of technical experts.
Ttie Fascist State also introduced certain welfare schemes for workers in 1930s. Family
allowances were given in'1934, largely to compensate the loss of income resulting from the
imposition of a forty hour week. Insurance against sicknesiand accident was incorporated into
wage agreements, and in later 1930s Christmas bonus and holiday pay were introduced.
The Italian state also lacked any policy of racial anti-Semitism, at least? upto 1937. There were
only about 45,000 Jew families and they were well assin~ilated.Even in 1938, the Party had
lrJ,125 '~ewishmembers. In November. 1938, however, under the infuence of Nazis, racial
Laws were passed which banned marriages with J ~ W S ,denied jobs to them in public services,. .
debaired them from joining the Fascist Party and from .owhing morc than 50 hectares of land.

26.4.5 The Fall and Salo Republic ..

The overthrow of militarily underprepared Mussolini's regime 'in 1 9 4 3 was effected by an.
adhoc coalition of the old conservative right represented by the monarchy, a h y and the'upper .,'
propertied classes led by moderate fascist leaders. Thc ~ a l orkpublk which appeared 'as a
Gcrman satellite, divested of its former right-wing allies a t t e p p ~ i dto introduce ceriain
mechani'sms for workers' counc~lsand protit-sharing and envisagedincr.~asingnationalization ..
of industries. But this-iadicalish proved. -to
. be the eestwe. of a dying organism.
-.

Check Your ProgresS.2

.. . .
I) What ideological Strands ,contributed ro the of fiascism in ~taly'?
. , . ,
.............................................. .................................................................................................
!

. , .
.-
...................................r................ .................................
............................................................
'. ,

.................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
....

, '
TheCrisisnf'he20"'Centur~ 2) How did the nature of I'ascist state changed after selzure ot power by Mussol~ni'!

...............................................................................................................................................
3) How was Italiagi tascism different from its German counterpart'!

26.5 RIGHT WING DICTATORSHIP AND MOVEh4ENT IN

SPAIN
The first phase 01' authoritarian governnicnl in Spain was establisliecl between 1923-30 by
General Migucl Pri~node Rivera. It emerged as a kind of military reaction to the social is^
pressure for democratic reforms and above all the attempt of Spanish Parliament to fix
'responsibilities' Ibr disastrous military campaign in Morocco, where 9,000 soldiers were
killed by Abed-el-Karim Rifian rebels after the collapse of: its military command. Initially the
overthrow of the Spanish Cortes or parliament was intcncled to be a temporary step. But a
dictatorship was institutionaliz,ed gradually. This dictatorship, which sonie call 'Fascism from
above', was based on economic nationalism, protectionism and militant advocacy of a 'strong'
and 'hierarchic' executive for restraining 'social chaos'. and attempted mobilization of people
from above. It was particularly hostile to the activities of Anarcho-Syndicalist labour union,
Confederacion Nacinal de Trabajadores (CNT) and Socialist Union UGT (Union General de
Trabajadores). The dictator created Union Patriotica Party for a controlled popular mobilization.
The Party was based on a militant Catholic ideology and found support ot' agrarian interests.
Similarly, Rivera inslitutionalized Somaten, a traditional Calalan militia which protected
capitalists during crisis and strikes. But the new militia remained an auxiliary of hurhorities i n
thcir endeavour to preserve order and never acq~iircdthe status of a radical fascist militia.
The demise of Rivera's dictatorship inaugurated a new phase of mass democracy and led to
the radicalization of Spanish politics - along both lel't and right lines. CEDA or the
Confederation of Spanish Right groups was the main conservative authoritarian party during
1933-36. Its youth movement (JAP) underwent a certain vertigo of fascistization butremained
ambivalent. The neo-traditionalist Carlist and Alfonsino Monarchists represented another strand
of right-radicalism. The Alfonsirio neo-monarcliists were especially inl'luenced by the Action
Francaise - a rightist-French group as well as the Right Nationalist Wing of Italian fascism.
Their journal A c c i o ~Eslxmoln, and their main ideologue Josc Calvo Sotelo envisioned
establishment of a new autl~~riiarian dictatorship preceding installation of monarchy with the
help of traditional elites-army, landowners, church, etc. and wanted to replace literal parliament
by an indirect corporate chamber representing social and economic interests. Later, Franco
regime approximated the st1:uclure and policies of Sotelo ideas.
The open fascistic groups, however, remained small and insignificant in the ~ ~ a n i politics.
sh
Between 1931 and 1934, a small band of students organized as Jurrtas de qfcnsiva Nacional
Syndicalista (JONS). Their programme resembled Italian fascism.
In October 1933, Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera. with financial assistance from the Basque
businessmen formed Fultrrrge Esl,nrrolu (or Spanish Phalanx) to give form and ideological
content to the national authoritarian movement. JONS merged with Falange in early 1934.
I

Howcvcr. i t rcmaincd politically insignificant and relied heavily on student clientele in the Counter-rcvolutinn-1:Fascism to
j Conserv;ltive Dictahrrship
ithscncc of a hroadcr lower or middle class support. By 1935, it assumed more radical toncs
of' national syndicalism and criiicized Italian rascism as too conservative and capitalistic.
Falangc ndvocatcd nationalistic ideology, believed in 'autllority, hierarchy and order' and its
27 Point Progamnic included development of a national-syndicalist statc, nationalization of
banking and credit facilities and the confiscation of large. landed estates. This programme
~cscmbledearly radical programme of Italian fascists. Falansisni, however, retained a basic
Catholic religious identity, despite being politically anti-clerical. Largc scctions 01' Spanish
1 rich1 becamc 'Sascistiz.ed' but Falange itself failed to acquirc a mass-following. In 1936
election, it rcccived only 44,000 votes or 0.7 per ccnt of all votes cilst. The failure of militant
nationalistic idcology in Spain stemmcd partially l'~.omthe inlluence of intense regional
nationalism (or sub-nationalism) of Catalans and Basques. dircctcci against the unified Spanish
I
nation-statc. Moreover, Spanish Civil war (1936-39) protluccci a polarized rcvolutionary-counter-
I
revolutionary conflict in which Icadersliip passcd co~nplctelyin the hands of' tlic insurgent
Nationalist Army which created the Franco regime and subordinated Falallgc to military

i
i
dic~atorship.In 1937, Franco took ovcr tlic Falangc mo\,e!ncnt ancl created a syncretic,
hc!crogcncous state party on thc basis of Falangism. This new party was a union-of Falangists?
I
(':rlists and ;ill other members of various rightist and olher groups willing to join it. Falange's
j PI-ogrammc was raiscd to the status of off'icial statc cloctrine but it remained modifiable
I
accorcling to future requirements. Only a marginal rolc was played hy the old Falangists in the
1
new clictatorial Franquist state and cven in the adruinistration of new state party, the Fulang~
E.V/)LIIIO~CI
fi-c~diciot~alistu.
The early Franquisin contained a major component of fascism, but
i t was so rcstrictcd within a right-wing, Pretorian. catholic and scmi-pluralist structure, that thc
calcgory of 'semi-fascist' would probably be more aciuratc. Franquism resembled Italian
casclsm
. ' . in its usc of subordinated state fascist parry and in its li111itedpluralism under cxecutivc
dictntorsliip. By 1045 non-mobilized, 'hurcaucrntic' autlioritarianis~n rcplaccd a partially
mobilized semi-fascist statc.

26.6 THE FRENCH RIGHT AND VICHY GOVERNMENT

France had many fascist groups but none of them was able to cross 2 percent votcs, the
minimum required to gain representation in thc French electoral system. Action Francaisc,
hundcd in 1899, was a kind of proto-fascist reactionary movement. Geoyqe Valois Lc Fc/i.sceari
(founded in 1925) tried to wed syndicalisn~witli nationalism. Tlic Joc~r1esse.sP(rtriotes (1924-
7F). was also organized on military pattern and believed in strcct-violence. Some other groups
c1:vclopcd a broader appeal. Among these were the Soli~krt.itrFrcit1cai.s~( 1933) and Croix fie
f i l r . Tllc latter gained supporr from tlie big husiness and l'inancc. Politically, it leaned towards
Catholic conservatism. Banned by the Popular Front ministry in 1936, it soon reorganized as
the Pclr-ti Social Francais. The Francistcs, organized i n 1933 by Marcel Buccai-d, w:\s anotlicr
I ight-wing group.

s e ,by an ex-Communist, Jacques Doriot. represented a kind

The Parti Pollulc~iro~ r ~ t r ~ c a iled
of half-way house between socialism and nationalistic class collaboration. Marcel De&. a
dcviant from socialism, also propagated need for national planning and integration of all
productive forccs. However, during the German occupation, Deat moved towards fascism and
his Ha.ssenible~~let~t
National Populaire (1941) formcd the extreme teft-wing of French fascism.
The Parr~cscommitted to democratic republic (1.e. Socialist, Co~nmu~iist and Radical) created
a Popular Front against fascism (1934-35). The rcal or perceived thrcat of fascist seirurc of
Iwwer rcceded after electoral gains of the left (1936) and formation of a coalition government
' < ,
with the support of the Popular Front tifl 1940. ., .
-. .

The Vichv Government

6 I

T' 2 devastat~ngdefeat of French forces In t l p ~atatlleot France in w h ~ c h92,ObO armymen

c -re k~lledand 18,50,000 were taken as prisoners of war hy the Ger1n2n troops, Icd to a
growing demand in France for an armlstlce, vo~cedhy Deputy Prime M ~ n ~ s t eMarshal r,
Petain and new Commander-in-chief. Wcgand. The French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud
res~gneclon 16 June 1940, and Marshal Petain concluded the terms 01 armist~cewhich
~ncludedreduct~onnFFrench army to 100,000 men equipped only to maintain internal order,
de~iinh~li/at~oii~f Home Fleet, German or.c.:lpatlon ot a substant~,llpar1 ot France, an cnornious
levy to illdek the cost of occupiers, and retention of Frcnch prisoners of war practically ac.
~ h e ~ r i safthe
i s 20'Wentury hostages until the final conclusion of a peace trea&. Marshal Petain established his government
on 1 July 1940, in thc c r a m p e d q d unsuitable hotel rooms of Spa town of Vichy. A demoralised
National Assembly gave the right to draft a new constitution and granted 'full executive and
legislative powers' to tlie Marshal. Petain outlook Fi: summed up by tbe-fbr-mulae 'Work,
Family and Hdmeland' (Truvnll, Fumille and Putrie In French) which substituted t k familiar
republican device Liberty, Fraternity and Equality. The Vichy government represented the
conservative e l ~ t egroups' desire to maintain social-hierarchy and order. Rather than Facism,
the dominant feature of new government was traditionalism associated with movements like
Action Francaise. The Vichy government stressed proper moral instruction as a means of
protecting s o c ~ a order.
l There were attempts to glorify the roles of housewife and mother and
to reduce the nu'mber of women working outs~dptlie home. As a result, tlie regime received
widespread support of the clergy. The economy, however, was increasingly subordinated to
German interests. By 1943, 15 per cent of the agricultural and 40 per cent of industrial
output was exported to Germany as the occupation cost. The peasant corporation, created in
December 1940 as a means of producer's self-regulat~on,was rapidly turned into a bureau'cratic
machine tor official intcrvent~onIn the market. In industry, too, growing German demands
called for a degree of planning which heralded the development of post-war technocracy.
The paternalistic rhetoric and corporatist structures became effectively a cover for policies
overwhelmingly favourable 'to businessmen. Trade unions were banned and any sign of
labour resistance was brutally repressed. At local level, appointed mayors replaced the elected
councils. Mediation between the masses and Vichy was fostered through an inflated civil
service. This led to sway of an unelected social and administrative elite, imposing its control
through the bureaucracy and corporations
In return for collaboration, Vichy had expectcd concessions on the armistice terms and a
favourable peace treaty. However, with the German entry into unoccupied zone in November
1942, Vichy was reduced to tlie status of a dependent satellite. Initially, however, only few
fascists were associated w ~ t hthe government. Marcel Deat aud Joseph Darnad were given
ministerial berths only in December 1943.
>
.-:. - Vichy's anti-semitism also tended- to be nationalistic and Catholic rather than racialist. The
armistice obliged Vichy government to repatriate Jewish refugees of German origin. In October
1940, a piece of legislation debarred Jews from the electric offices. civil service and teaching and
journalism besides imposing.quotas on the entry to most professions; although war-veterans and
the fully assimilated Jews were exempted. 'Jewish property was confiscated with V~chy'sco-
operation in tlie occupied zolle and foreign Jews were repatriated. These policies were extended
to the unoccupied zone also after the summer of 194 1.
Resistance to the German occupation and Vlchy's collaboration developed gradually. This was
further fuelled by tlie G e r ~ i ~ asclieme
n for compulsory labour service introduced in August
1942. Some 40,000 resistants were murdered and 60,000 were deported to the concentration
camps.
Allied forces landed on the Coast of Normandy on 6 June 1944 and Paris was liberated on 25
August 1944. By the end ot 1944, most of France was free of German troops. Vichy government
was forced by the German authorities to shift to eastern France, and finally, as virtual captives,
into Germany itself.

26.7 THE RIGHT WING MOVEMENTSAND

DICTATORSHIP : THE EASTERN CENTRAL ..
EUROPE AND BALTIC STATES
Quite apart from the established regions of-Italy and Spain, Eascjsm also existed in the form
of brief political experiments and organisations In cerfain other countries of Europe. Not all
these organisations possessed the basic ingredients of fascism. The degree and extent of fascism
practised also varied. Let us look at the examples of Poland, Hungary, Baltic states and
Czecho-Slovac.

26.7.1 Poland
Poland had a weak fascist movement. Pilsudski's coup d'tat In 1926 resulted in a strong
authoritarian regime. It functioned as a moderate semi-pluralist system up to 1935. National
Democratic Party of Western Poland was a mass parliamentarian party, advocated anti-semitism Counter;revolution-1: Fascism to
Ct~nservativeDictatorship
and a more repressive policy towards other national minorities. Its radical ilouth wing split off
as national radicals in 1930s and gave birth to two more explicitly fascist like organizations -
ABC a n d Falanga. Falanga's ideology was of extreme Catholicism and i t insisted
on elimination of private sector of the economy in favour of some sort of national
socialism.
A new corporative, authoritarian Constitution in 1935 reduced the sphere of tolerated pluralism.
Pilsudski also died in 1935 and the Colonels who succeeded him created? new proto-fasc~slstate
party-the Camp of National Unity or OZN. Colonel Koe, its first director, came to rely heavil)
on Boleslaw Piasecki, the head of Falanga, and the radical implicat~onsof this relationship led
to Koe's ouster and the severing of the Falanga's connection. Some have described this system
as 'directed democracy', but by 1939, the regime was moving towards a mobilized state organization
and a controlled one party system.

26.7.2 Hungary
Hungary had, the largest assortment of various fascist, fascist type,- right radical and simply
authoritarian nationalist groups. A large unemployed bureaucratic middle class contributed to
fascist growth in the aftermath of Communist Bela Kun rev011 (1919). During most of the Inter-
war period, Hungary was governed by the conservative authoritarian regime of Admiral
Horthy. It valued nineteenth century social hierarchy and was governed by a restrictive
parliament based on limited suffrage. The ofi'icial state party was National Unity Party. A
Fascist group, 'Szeged fascists', led byGyula Combos lacked popular support, but G o ~ n b o s
was offered prime ministership by Horthy in 1932 on the'condition that he would moderate
his programme and abandon anti-semitism. He tried to transform the official National
Unity Party and state towards national socialism. This transformation, however, remained
partial due to his sudden death in 1936.
'Arrow Cross' of Ferenc Szalasi achieved more substantial mass support. The Movement
believed in Hungarian racism and proposed a drastic Hungarian expansion that would
incorporate the greater Danube-Carpathian area. But there was proposal of autonomy to
regions inhabited by a strong majority (of about 80-90 per cent) of a slngle non-Magyar
people. Another anomaly was Szalasi's theoretical eschewal of violence. His movement was
not anti-semltic but 'asemitic', advocating that all Jews leave Hungary for elsewhere. 'Arrow
Cross' further advocated a revolutionary economic corporatism that would overthrow big
landlords and capital in the interest of greater collective well-being. It acquired a broad
mass-base among workers and peasants in the late 1930s but its popularity was waning
during the war. The movement itself became more nazified and was placed in power briefly
in 1944 as a puppet of German military.

26.7.3 Czecho-Slovak
It bad two overtly fascist organizations : The Nat~onalFascist Community (NOF, 01g:lnized in
1926) and the Czech National Socialist Camp which developed in 1930s. These remained weak
as workers clung to socialism and the middle classes remained under the influence of some
variants of liberalism. There was partial fascistization of the Slovak People's Party, the principal
political force in Slovakia during the Inter-war period. It was originally a moderate conservative
authoritarian Catholic-populist nationalist party oriented towards corporatism. It was intlaenced
by ~ a z i f i c a d o nafter 1938 when anti-Semitic policies were adopted that excluded Jews from
business and the professions. Later, many Jews were deported 10Poland under Nazi pressure.

26.7.4 Baltic States

A nghtist moderate dictatorship was established in Lithuania by a military coup at the close
of 1936 after major gains by the left in the domestic elections. Antanas Smetona remained the
hcad of the state till its disappearance in 1940. Some degree of pluralisn~ was tolerated.
However, the state was moving towards one party regime in 1940. The State Party National
Union (Twttlirr Kai) found social support among the ~ntelligentslaand the r ~ c hpeasants.
By contrast, the more moderate regimes of 'authoritarian democracy' in Latvia and Estonia
were instituted simply as preventive authoritarianism in 1934 by the moderate forces.
Konstantin Pats, the !eader of Farmers Party-in F t o n i a established a more authdfitarian
government to c h e c k t h e influencc'of tht right-radical Associativ~l of Estonian Freedom
The Crisis of the 20thCentury Fighters. In Latvia, the new Ulaman~sgovernment was directed against both the left and the
Thunder Cross, a vigorous'Latlian fascist type party inlluenced by Nazism, though politically
strongly anti-German:However, pluralism was tolefated in both Lativia and Estonia and in
neither casc did a well institutionalized dictatorship develop.

Check Your .Progress 3

I) Which of the following sentences are correct? (Mark correct (4) and incorrect (x)
a) Vichy government pursucd independent policies.
b) The French right was unable to acquire a true mass-follow~ng.
c) Falange-the Spanish fascist organization, was the main force behind Franco's
dictatorship.
d) 'Arrow Cross' was the prominent Hungarian fascist movement.
2) Write five sentences about Falange's ideology'?

................................................................................................................................................
3) What was the role of 'Arrow Cross' in the political life of Hungary. Write in about 100
words.

26.8 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit you learnt the following :
the hasic features of fascist movement;
the role of war in preparing sociological and psychological conditions of fascism; and
the basic ideological strands that contributed to fascism and its organizational styles.
We should understand fascism as distinct from conservative right wlng movements, as a radical
attempt to restructure society and its institutions. We also traced the political antecedents of
fascism. It is not correct to see the hscist movement as a kind ot catastrophe which erupted
suddenly with the Great Depressiod. Although the Dcpressioli provided deal conditions for
gl'owth of fascism, its rodts lay in the 19th century Europe and the World War. You also studied
the specific variations in fascist movements uslng examples of Italy, France and Spain, etc. The
emergence of Italian fascist rcgimc was analysed in greater detail and the nature of State was
specifically dealt with. The examples of France, S p a n , the Eastern Central Europe .(Poland,
Hunggry and Czechoslovakia) and Baltic States will further help you to understand the growth
of fascist politics during the inter-war period. However this Unit has left out of i,ts discussion
.the most extreme right wing regime of Europe-Germany unfier Hitlcr. The next Unit takes up
the story of fascism in Ge,rmany.
1

26.9 KEY WORDS

Anti-semitism : prejudice against Jews, its modern variant was hased on the ideology of
racialism and social darw~nism
(:orporatis~~i: A semi-collectivist creed thal altc~?:ptccl h:rrmc~nious rci;ltion\llip l ~ c c \ v c ~ , ~ ~
clnl~loycesand employers by binding them in a common or2atli~;ltion.
I.:lite : a n y socially privileged group
Liberal Democracy : a p~?liticalphilosophy of prrr~icipatory politics wllich ~-~:spc~~tctJ
.soi.l;tl
plu~~;~lism
and t'rccclom and created modern clcctive institutions.
Militia : ;I scrni-military organization.
R.lol)ilizatioi~: Preparation of peoplc I'or action :~roi~ncl
n particular itlc;~.

Social-Darwinism : application of D:lrwi~l'sidc:th to t l ~ cclcvclol~rncntill' io~.icly.a belicl' 111;rl

people ill society competc for- survival and only supcriol- incliviiluals, g~.oupsand races succccd.
l'lris bclicl'directly fed into the anti-Jcwisll p o l ~ t i ~praclised
,s ~ r ~ ; r i n lundcl.
y (;cl.nla~lIiscism but
also elsewhcrc.
Socialism : Political belief in the collective owncl-ship of n con~~nunity's
resources
Syildicalism : The helief in the self-cmnncipatio~~ of the 13r.oduce1-sIhro~~yll
~.cgiilalio~l
at
l'nctory level hy workers' syndicates or associations.

26.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Yoi~rProgress 1
1) Sec Section 20.2.
2 ) Sec Section 26.2.
3 ) Your answer must i'ncus on the ideolo~icalno\,clty 01' I';rscisnl :rnd usc of ~notlcr~l mass
~llohilizntiontcchniclucs and fascist attempted in\ti~ution:~lchanpc and contr:lst thcse with
right-winy consel.vatism. See Scctia~i262.

Chcck Y o u r ~ r o ~ r e s2s
I ) Scc Suh-<Cction 26.4.1.
2) See Sub-scctions 26.4.2 ancl 26.4.4.
3 ) You shouid compare their approaches tc, the Jcu~ishcluestion. See Si~h-section26.4.4. Also
scc the next Unit.

Check Your Progress 3

1) (a) (x) ( 14 (c) (x) (4 ( 4 )

2 ) See Section 26.5.
3 ) Scc Section 26.7. especially Section on Hungarian righ1-~vi1lg111ovetnc11t