Modelling State of Charge Estimation for
Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Polynomial
Approximation of Voltage Output
Sparsh Karna Udbhav Tripathi
Department of Electric and Computer Department of Electrical and Electronics
Science Engineering Engineering
B.Tech. Vellore Institute of Technology B.Tech. Vellore Institute of Technology
(Chennai), (Chennai),
Tamil Nadu, India Tamil.Nadu, India
sparsh.karna2023@vitstudent.ac.in udbhav.tripathi2023@vitstudent.ac.in
Abstract: The escalating adoption of electric
machinery as a replacement for fossil fuel-powered
counterparts has underscored the critical need for
robust energy storage solutions, with lithium-ion (Li-
ion) batteries emerging as a cornerstone technology,
particularly in electric vehicles (EVs). However, the
intrinsic vulnerability of Li-ion batteries to
degradation, caused by cyclic charge-discharge
operations, poses significant challenges to accurate
state of charge (SOC) estimation and capacity
assessment, thereby impeding optimal EV
performance. This study presents a novel approach to
address these challenges by elucidating a direct
correlation between battery voltage output (V) and
SOC. Through rigorous empirical experimentation
and advanced mathematical modelling, a polynomial
equation is derived to precisely quantify SOC
dynamics in response to voltage fluctuations. This
framework facilitates real-time capacity estimation,
empowering proactive management of EV energy
systems. By integrating empirical data with
sophisticated mathematical analysis, this research
contributes to a deeper understanding of Li-ion
battery behavior, paving the way for enhanced energy
storage management strategies. The findings hold
promise for optimizing EV efficiency, reliability, and
longevity in the evolving landscape of
electric machinery.
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the advancement of electric
vehicles has led to an increased demand for efficient and
accurate state of charge estimation methods for lithium-
ion batteries [1]. The state of charge estimation plays a
crucial role in optimizing the performance and range of
electric vehicles. State of charge estimation methods for
lithium-ion batteries have been the subject of extensive
Atharv Verma Dhruv Kachhawaha
Department of Electric and Computer Department of Electric and Computer
Science Engineering Science Engineering
B.Tech. Vellore Institute of Technology B.Tech. Vellore Institute of Technology
(Chennai), (Chennai),
Tamil Nadu, India Tamil Nadu, India
atharv.verma2023@vitstudent.ac.in dhruv.kachhawaha2023@vitstudent.ac.in
research and development [2]. One prominent method
that has garnered attention is the use of polynomial
approximation of voltage output. By employing
mathematical models and algorithms, researchers have
been able to accurately estimate the state of charge of
lithium-ion batteries, thus contributing to the
optimization of electric vehicle performance and range.
Polynomial approximation of voltage output offers
the advantage of capturing the complex behaviour of
lithium-ion batteries under different operating conditions.
Through this method, the non-linear relationship between
voltage and state of charge can be effectively modelled,
enabling more accurate estimation.
Furthermore, the precision of state of charge
estimation using polynomial approximation has the
potential to enhance battery management systems,
ultimately leading to improved reliability and longevity
of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles. This
approach is increasingly acknowledged for its ability to
meet the growing demand for efficient and accurate state
of charge estimation in the context of advancing electric
vehicle technology. However, it is important to note that
state of charge estimation is a multifaceted challenge, and
no single approach can provide an absolute solution.
Various factors, such as battery degradation and dynamic
stress factors, can impact the accuracy of state of charge
estimation. To address these challenges, researchers have
proposed intelligent methods that utilize data-driven
approaches.
II. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
We conducted the experiment by subjecting the
battery to charging and discharging cycles, connected to
a charging station, while recording voltage output,
current through the battery, state of charge, and elapsed
time. The dataset comprised 2634 readings. Charging
was performed using a controlled current method to
prevent overcharging, given the sensitivity of lithium-ion
batteries.
Fig. 1. Current delivery plot for charging-discharging cycles, (a)
throughout the period, (b) resting period, (c) charging, (d) discharging
Figure 1(a) depicts the current used during
charging. Upon closer examination, the curve in Figure
1(b) reveals a period of constant current around 90mA,
representing the initial charging phase. Figure 1(c)
highlights the resting period, where current approaches
zero as the battery neither charges nor discharges.
Of particular interest is the discharging phase
illustrated in Figure 1(d). While the curve initially
appears as a straight line, closer inspection reveals
irregularities. This behaviour can be attributed to
variations in internal resistance and heat dissipation,
governed by Ohm's Law. During charging, temperature-
dependent internal resistance causes small fluctuations in
current. As heat dissipates, internal resistance increases,
leading to further current fluctuations, unlike the steadier
current observed during charging.
V battey =i Rbattery
P=V battey i
These observations align with studies such as those
conducted by Smith et al. (2019) [3], which highlight the
complex interplay between temperature, internal
resistance, and current fluctuations in lithium-ion
batteries during charging and discharging. Additionally,
research by Johnson and Williams (2020) [4] provides
insights into the effects of temperature on battery
performance and internal resistance dynamics.
III. METHODOLGY FOR BATTERY SOC
ESTIMATION GENERATION
In the modelling process aimed at estimating the
state of charge (SOC) of lithium-ion batteries through
voltage output polynomial approximation, a systematic
approach integrating experimental data is imperative.
Leveraging industrial design of experiments techniques
such as orthogonal arrays and response surface
methodology [6], facilitates robust data acquisition and
analysis. Additionally, the utilization of MATLAB's
modelling toolbox for transient modelling, as discussed
in (Fortuny Sanromá et al., 2018) [5], ensures precise
representation of the battery's behaviour. Furthermore,
incorporating the extraction constant obtained from
liquid-liquid extraction modelling, as highlighted in
(Fortuny Sanromá et al., 2018) [5], can significantly
enhance the accuracy of the modelling process. By
integrating these methodologies, the modelling process
can effectively capture the dynamic relationship between
SOC and voltage output, leading to a more accurate and
reliable estimation of the battery's SOC.
Fig. 2. Plot for state of charge of battery and approximation, (a) state of
charge of battery and the approximated equation, (b) residuals between
the measured and the generated curve
However, our approach diverges from previous
methodologies in deducing the approximated polynomial
equation. Initially, data retrieved from experiments was
plotted, depicting voltage output against the battery's
state of charge. Subsequently, the basic fitting option in
MATLAB was employed to derive a 4th order
polynomial approximation of the curve. As illustrated in
Figure 2(a), the plot between SOC and voltage, with the
dotted line representing the approximated 4th order
polynomial, namely:
4 3 2
y=0.001224 z +0.0074282 z + 0.0071632 z +0.011594 z−
and,
x−2.996
z=
0.5559
Where x is the voltage output of the battery and
y is the state of charge of the battery
Multiple polynomial orders were evaluated, with
the 4th order yielding the most favourable results. Figure
2(b) illustrates the residual between the approximated
curve and the original curve, indicating high accuracy of
the generated equation within the range of -0.02 to 0.05.
IV. RESULT ANALYSIS
To analyse the readings obtained from the
experiment, we examine the plot of voltage output versus
time, illustrating how the battery's voltage output evolves
over time. Figure 3(a) presents the voltage output over
time, providing a basis for detailed analysis by
segmenting the plot into distinct sections.
 Intriguingly, Figure 3(b) depicts the battery's
supposed resting period, where neither charging nor
discharging occurs. Ideally, the battery's voltage output
should remain constant during this phase. However, the
observed increase in voltage output can be attributed to
the temperature-dependent nature of the battery's internal
resistance [8]. Under load, the battery experiences
increased temperature, elevating the resistivity of its
internal resistor (R0). Consequently, despite constant Vcell
and current (i) as per the discharging equation, the
Fig. 3. The voltage output of the battery during charging-
overall Vbattery decreases. Conversely, during the resting
discharging cycles, (a) throughout the period, (b) resting
period, as the battery cools down, its resistivity
period, (c) charging, (d) discharging
decreases, causing Vbattery to return to its nominal value.
In Figure 3(d), which depicts the battery's
Finally, in Figure 3(c), illustrating battery charging,
discharging phase, an instantaneous drop in voltage from
the instantaneous increase in voltage is explained by the
the maximum to a certain value is observed. While this
sudden change in current direction. And then as the time
abrupt change may initially appear as an experimental
progresses the voltage approaches a plateau which
error, a closer examination reveals its significance.
depicts the battery is near its maximum capacity.
Referring to Figures 4(a) and 4(b), representing battery
charging and discharging, respectively, These findings corroborate studies such as those by
Chen et al. (2018) [7], which elucidate the temperature-
dependent behaviour of internal resistance in lithium-ion
batteries and its impact on voltage output dynamics.

R0
V cell
V battery

4(a)

Fig 5. The rate of change of, (a) output voltage with

respect to time, (b) state of charge of the battery with
R0 respect to time, (c) state of charge of battery with respect
V cell to output voltage
V battery
Now, let’s analyse the behaviour of other physical
quantities. Figures 5(a), 5(b), and 5(c) depict the rate of
dV
change of voltage with respect to time ( ), the rate of
dt
4(b) dSOC
change of state of charge with respect to time ( ),
Fig. 4. The circuit diagram for (a) charging cycles (b) discharging cycles
dt
and the rate of change of state of charge with respect to
we derive voltage output equations: dSOC
voltage ( ), respectively. Upon observation of
V battery =V cell + i R0 dV
Figures 5(a) and 5(b), these quantities exhibit mostly
for charging and, constant behavior, with a notable peak within the steady-
state region, as highlighted and shown after zooming.

V battery =V cell −i R 0 dV dSOC

for discharging.
The sudden change in sign leads to a drastic
voltage change. Subsequently, the battery discharges
steadily until reaching its minimum voltage.
The consistent behaviour of and (
dt dt
reflects the stability of voltage and state of charge over
time, indicating minimal fluctuations in these parameters
during most of the experimental duration. However, the
presence of a peak within the steady-state region
warrants further investigation, as it suggests a transient
phenomenon or perturbation affecting the battery’s
behavior. This peak may correspond to a brief period of
increased charge or discharge activity, possibly induced
by external factors or internal battery dynamics.
These observations are consistent with prior
research by Li et al. (2017) [9], which highlights the
importance of understanding voltage and state of charge
dynamics for effective battery management and
performance optimization.
V. COMPARING THE GENERATED STATE OF
CHARGE WITH THE MEASURED
In this final section, we delve into the comparison
and analysis of the state of charge (SOC) estimated by
the generated equation against the measured SOC with
respect to voltage. Figure 6(a) illustrates the plot of
measured SOC and calculated SOC, where the dotted
line represents the calculated SOC and the solid line
represents the measured SOC. Upon comparison, the
plots exhibit remarkable similarity around the nominal
voltage of the battery, approximately 3V. This alignment
is ideal, as the battery typically operates at its nominal
voltage for the majority of its operational cycle.
Fig. 6. State of charge of the battery with rescpect to voltage output of the
battery, (a) dotted plot is the generated state of charge and solid line is the
measured, (b) percentage error in the measured and calculated
However, closer scrutiny towards the end of the
plots reveals some disparity between the measured and
calculated data. Several factors may contribute to this
variance, including the limited number of test cycles,
potential internal machine errors, or inherent limitations
in the software's ability to accurately estimate the
function. Despite these potential sources of discrepancy,
it is noteworthy that even with the observed error, the
maximum discrepancy in the output is approximately
7%. This level of accuracy is commendable and
reinforces the validity of the experimental data obtained,
substantiating the hypothesis proposed at the outset of
this study.
These findings corroborate previous research by
Zhang et al. (2020) [10], which emphasizes the
importance of accurate SOC estimation for optimizing
battery performance and prolonging battery life.
Additionally, the validation of the generated equation
against measured data aligns with the principles of
experimental validation outlined by Smith and Johnson
(2019) [11], highlighting the significance of empirical
validation in confirming the reliability of
mathematical models.
VI. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this study has presented a
comprehensive investigation into the estimation of state
of charge (SOC) for lithium-ion batteries through voltage
output polynomial approximation. By integrating
experimental data and rigorous analysis methodologies,
we have successfully developed a polynomial equation
that accurately predicts SOC based on voltage output.
Our analysis of the experimental data revealed intricate
dynamics in battery behaviour during charging,
discharging, and steady-state operation.
Through systematic experimentation, we observed
the temperature-dependent nature of internal resistance,
which influences voltage output and state of charge
dynamics. Despite some disparities between measured
and calculated SOC towards the end of the plots, our
generated equation demonstrates remarkable accuracy,
with a maximum discrepancy of approximately 7%. This
level of precision validates the reliability of our
experimental data and supports the hypothesis proposed
at the outset of this study.
Furthermore, the comparison between measured
and calculated SOC aligns with previous research
emphasizing the importance of accurate SOC estimation
for optimizing battery performance. Our findings
underscore the significance of empirical validation in
confirming the reliability of mathematical models in
battery research.
Moving forward, this research lays the groundwork
for future advancements in battery management
strategies, contributing to the ongoing efforts to enhance
the efficiency, reliability, and longevity of lithium-ion
batteries in various applications, including electric
vehicles and renewable energy systems.
In summary, this study provides valuable insights
into the complex dynamics of lithium-ion batteries and
offers a robust methodology for accurate SOC
estimation, with implications for the advancement of
energy storage technologies and
sustainable energy systems.
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