18ENG68 - DESIGN OF HIGH RAISED

BUILDING
CHAPTER 2
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
 BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
1.Limit States Design Philosophy
2.The Speed of Erection
3.Loading
4.Sequential Loading
5.Strength and Stability
6.Drift Limitations
7.Stiffness
8.Human Comfort
9.Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature effects
10.Fire
11.The Effect of Foundation Settlement upon the Tall
Building
12.Soil-Structure Interaction
Limit States Design Philosophy:

The aim of this approach is to ensure that all structures and their
constituent components are designed to resist with reasonable
safety the worst loads and deformations that are liable to occur
during construction and service, and to have adequate durability
during their lifetime. The entire structure, or any part of it, is
considered as having“failed”when it reaches any one of various
“limit states. “Two types of limit states must be considered: The
ultimate limit states, corresponding to the loads to cause failure,
endangering lives and causing serious financial losses, the
probability of failure must be low. These serviceability limit states,
which involve the criteria governing the service life of the
building. Since the consequences are not catastrophic, a much
higher probability of occurrence is permitted. A particular limit
state may be reached as a result of an adverse combination of
random conditions. Partial safety factors are employed for different
conditions that reflect the probability of certain occurrences or
circumstances of the structure and loading existing. The implicit
objective of the design calculations is then to ensure that the
probability of any particular limit state being reached is maintained
below an acceptable value for the type of structure concerned.
The Speed of Erection Process:

The speed of elections a vital factor in obtaining a return on the

investment by minimizing the cost of interest payments on the large
capital costs involved in such large-scale projects. Most tall
buildings are constructed in congested city sites with difficult
access, and with no storage areas. Careful planning and
organization of the construction sequence become essential. The
story-to-story uniformity of most multi-story buildings encourages
construction through repetitive operations and prefabrication
techniques. The progress in the ability to build tall buildings has
gone hand in hand with the development of more efficient
equipment and improved methods of construction, such as:-Slip-
and flying-formwork-Concrete pumping-The use of climbing tower
cranes and large mobile cranes.
Loading:

The structure must be designed to resist the gravitational and lateral

forces, both permanent and transient that will be sustained during
construction and during the expected useful life of the structure
(from 60 to 100 years). These forces will depend on the size and
shape of the building, and its location. Load combinations depend on
the probable accuracy of estimating the dead and live loads, and the
probability of the simultaneous occurrence of different combinations
of gravity loading, both dead and live, with either wind or earthquake
forces. The accuracy of these loads is included in limit states design
through the use of prescribed factors.
Sequential Loading
For dead loads, the construction sequence should be
considered to be the worst case. It is usual to shore the
freshly placed floor upon several previously cast floors. The
construction loads on the supporting floors due to the weight
of wet concrete and its formwork will greatly exceed the
loads of normal service conditions. These loads must be
calculated considering the sequence of construction and the
rate of erection. However, the designer rarely knows who the
contractor will be, nor his method of construction.
Strength and Stability
The primary requirement of the ultimate limit state of
design procedure is that the structure has adequate
strength to resist and remain stable under the worst
probable loads during its lifetime.
This includes all critical load combinations, augmented
moments from second-order deflections (P-Delta) plus an
adequate reserve; study all critical members whose
failure may lead to a progressive collapse of part or the
whole structure. Finally, the whole building must be
checked against toppling as a rigid body about one edge
of the base. Moments are taken about that edge with the
resisting moment of the dead weight of the structure to be
greater than the overturning moment by an acceptable
factor of safety.
Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature effects:
In very tall buildings, the cumulative vertical movements due to
creep and shrinkage may cause distress in the structure and induce
forces into horizontal elements especially in the upper regions of
the building. During the construction phase, elastic shortening will
occur in the vertical elements of the lower levels due to the
additional loads imposed by the upper floors as they are completed.
Cumulative differential movements will affect the stresses in the
subsequent structure, especially in the building that includes both
in-situ and pre-cast components. Buildings subjected to large
temperature variations between their external faces and the internal
core, and that are restrained, will experience induced stresses in the
members connecting both. Important factors in determining long-
term deformations include:
1) Concrete properties;
2) Loading history;
3) The age of the concrete at the time of load application;
4) Volume-surface ratio and amount of reinforcement in the
members concerned;
5) Achieving a uniformity of stress in the vertical components will
reduce anyrelative vertical movement due to creep and elastic
shortening.
Drift Limitations:
The parameter that measures the lateral stiffness is the drift index.
It is defined as the ratio of the maximum deflection at the top of
the building to the total height of the building. In addition, each
floor has an index called the inter-story drift index which checks
for localized excessive deformation. There is no national code
requirement for the drift index, but 1/400 is a traditionally
accepted limit. Different countries use from 0.001 to 0.005
(1/1,000 to as low as 1/200). Lower values are used for hotels and
condominiums because the noise and discomfort at those levels
are unacceptable. For conventional structures, the preferred range
is 0.0015 to 0.0030 (in other words, from 1/700 to 1/350).
Stiffness:
The lateral stiffness is a major
consideration in the design of a tall
building. Under the ultimate limit state, the
lateral deflections must be limited to
prevent 2nd-order P-delta effects from
gravity loading to be large enough to
precipitate collapse. In addition,
serviceability requires these deflections not
to affect elevator rails, doors, glass
partitions, and prevent dynamic motions to
cause discomfort to the occupants and
sensitive equipment. This is one of the
major differences of tall buildings with
respect to low-rise buildings.
Human Comfort:
Buildings subjected to both lateral and torsional
deflections (plus vortex shedding and other usual effects)
may induce in their human occupants from discomfort to
acute nausea. These are major factors in the final design
of the building. When a tall structure is subjected to
lateral loads, the resulting oscillatory movements can
induce a wide range of responses in the building’s
occupants, ranging from mild discomfort to acute nausea.
This may prove the structure undesirable or un-rentable.
There are no codified standards for comfort criteria. A
dynamic analysis is required to determine the response of
the structure in order to determine its adequacy to the
comfort criteria.
Fire:
The design considerations for fire preventions and protection, smoke
control, firefighting, and escape are beyond the scope of a book on
building structures .However, since fire appears to be by far the most
common extreme situation that will cause damage in structures, it must be
a primary consideration in the design process. The characteristic feature of
a fire such as the temperature and duration, can be estimated from a
knowledge of the important parameters involved, particularly the quality
and nature of combustible material present, the possibility and extent of
ventilation and the geometric and thermal properties of the fire
compartment involved.
The Effect of Foundation Settlement upon the Tall Building:

The gravity and lateral forces on the structure will be transmitted to the
earth through the foundation system. Because of its height, a tall
building’s columns may be very heavy. In areas with bedrock,
appropriate foundations can be shallow foundations, drilled shafts, or
deep basements. In areas with poor soil conditions, differential
settlements must be avoided. A typical solution is the use of mat (or raft)
foundation, where the weight of soil equals to a significant portion of
the gross building weight. This method is called “partially compensated
foundation.
“Overturning moments and resisting moments and shears must be
checked. Minor movements of the foundations are greatly exaggerated
by a tall building, leading to very large inclinations of the tower. If an
overall rotational settlement of the entire foundation occurs, the ensuing
lateral deflections will be magnified by the height, increasing maximum
drift and incurring P-delta effects.
Soil-Structure Interaction:
Soil-structure interaction involves both static and dynamic behavior.
The former is generally treated by simplified models of subgrade
behavior, and finite element methods of analysis are customary. When
considering dynamic effects, both interactions between soil and
structure, and any amplification caused by a coincidence of the natural
frequencies of building and foundation must be included. Seismic
forces may develop excessive hydrostatic pressures, causing
liquefaction of the soil. These types of conditions must be considered
and avoided.