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Detailed Contents
List of Listening Examples xvii

Foreword by Brenda M. Romero xix
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgments xxvi
1 Music of Latin America and the Caribbean:

An Overview 1
Introduction 1
Indigenous Cultures Before 1492 5
Pre-Columbian Music 6
1492 and the Advent of Syncretism 8
The White Legend and the Black Legend 8
The Emergence of Mestizo Culture 12
Mestizo Music 13
European Cultures in America 14
The Emergence of African Culture 15
Religious Syncretism 18
Modern Native Societies 20
Indigenous Music Today 21
Latin America Today 22
Further Reading 23
2 The Classical Tradition 25

Introduction 26
The Colonial Period 26
Colonial Church Music 27
Instrumental Music 30
Musical Syncretism 31
The Villancico 33
Art Music in Colonial Brazil 34
vii
Detailed Contents
The American Baroque 35

Colonial Opera 36
The Fall of the Colonial System 38
The Nineteenth Century: Romanticism in America 40
Romantic Opera 40
Música de Salón and Art Song 42
Estudiantinas 43
The Twentieth Century: Nationalism in America 44
The Aztec Renaissance 45
Brazil 46
Argentina 48
Other Nationalist Styles 49
Latin American Modernism 49
Further Reading 50
Recommended Viewing 51
Recommended Listening 51
3 Mexico 55
Introduction 56
Historical Overview 56
The Mayas and Other Early Mexican Cultures 58
The Aztecs 58
Aztec Instruments 59
Aztec Music 61
The Conquest and the Colonial Period 63
Mexican Independence 64
Mexican Celebrations 65
Mexican Native Traditions 66
Modern Maya Music 67
Modern Aztec Music 68
Los Concheros 69
Other Native Traditions 70
Mexican Folk Music 70
Canción 71
Orquesta Típica 71
Mexican Folk Dances 72
Regional Traditions 72
Southeastern Mexico 73
Danzón and Bolero 73
Son Jarocho 75
Son Huapango 78
Central and Western Mexico 79
The Charro 79
Canción Ranchera and Mariachi 80
Jarabe and Bolero 83
viii
Detailed Contents
The Borderland Region 84

Corrido 84
Dueto Singing 88
Conjunto and Norteño 89
Tejano and Tex-Mex 90
Banda 91
Popular Music in Mexico 92
Música Tropical 92
Pop 93
Further Reading 93
4 Central America 99
Introduction 100
The Garífuna 101
Garífuna Music 102
Punta 103
Punta Rock 104
Guatemala 105
The Marimba 105
Belize 108
Honduras 109
Nicaragua 110
El Salvador 111
Costa Rica 112
Panama 113
Further Reading 114
5 The Caribbean: An Overview 119

Introduction to the Caribbean 119
Caribbean History 120
Caribbean Culture 121
Native Musical Traditions 122
African Religions and Rituals 122
Modern Caribbean Music 124
Further Reading 125
6 The Spanish Caribbean 127

Cuba 128
Introduction 128
ix
Detailed Contents

Instruments and Elements of Cuban Music 130
The African Roots of Cuban Music 131
Santería 132
Other Afro-Cuban Styles 133
The Spanish Roots of Cuban Music 134
Trova and Bolero 135
Cuban Dance Music 136
Son Montuno 137
Cuban Music Leaves the Island 139
Cuban Music Since the Revolution 141
Salsa 142
The 1990s 146
Puerto Rico 147
Spanish Roots: Jíbaro Music 147
Décima and Seis 147
Aguinaldo 148
Danza 148
African Roots 149
Bomba 149
Plena 151
Puerto Rican Popular Music 154
Reggaetón 154
The Dominican Republic 155
Afro-Dominican Styles 156
Palos 156
Cocolos 156
Syncretic Styles 157
Merengue 157
Bachata 161
Further Reading 164
7 The English Caribbean 169

Jamaica 170
Afro-Jamaican Traditions 171
Maroon Nation: Obeah 171
Bongo Nation: Kumina 172
The Rastafarian Movement 173
Jonkonnu and other Festivals 174
Jamaican Popular Music 175
Harry Belafonte 175
x
Detailed Contents
Mento 176
Ska 176
Rocksteady 177
Reggae 178
Bob Marley and The Wailers 178
Dub Music 180
Dancehall 180
Trinidad 181
Trinidadian Carnival 182
Early Song Forms: Kalinda and Lavway 182
Calypso 182
Tamboo Bamboo 185
Steel Pan 186
Soca 188
Rapso 190
Parang 190
Chutney 191
Other Traditions on English Islands 192
Afro-Christian Traditions 192
British Music 192
Ring Games and Work Songs 193
The Bahamas: Rake n’ Scrape and Ripsaw 193
Barbados: Tuk and Spouge 193
Carriacou: Big Drum 194
The Virgin Islands: Scratch Bands 195
Further Reading 195
8 The French and Dutch Caribbean, and the Guyanas 201

Haiti 202
Vodou 203
Rará 206
Secular Dances 207
Compas and Cadence 207
Martinique and Guadeloupe 208
Drumming in the French Antilles 208
African-Derived Dances 209
Bamboula 209
Kalinda 209
Bélé 209
Gwo ka 210
European-Derived Dances 210
Carnival 213
Zouk 213
xi
Detailed Contents
Dominica 215
Jing Ping 215
Lapo Cabwit and Chante Mas 216
Cadence-Lypso 216
Bouyon 216
St. Lucia 217
Kwadril and Jwé 217
Contemporary Trends 218
The Netherlands Antilles 219
Tambú 220
Tumba 220
Séu 221
The Guyanas 221
Guyana 222
Bhagee 222
French Guyana 222
Suriname 223
Winti and Kawina 223
Kaseko 223
Further Reading 224
9 Brazil 229
Introduction 230
Saudade 232
Religious Syncretism and Candomblé 232
The Roots of Brazilian Music 234
Brazilian Musical Instruments 235
Afro-Brazilian Folk Dances 236
Samba de Roda 238
Capoeira 238
Carnival 240
History of Brazilian Carnival 240
Carnival Samba 242
The Escolas de Samba 244
Carnival Today 245
The Northeast 246
Fossa and Baião 246
Forró 247
Other Rural Styles 249
Música Popular Brasileira 249
Modinha, Lundu, and Maxixe 249
Choro 250
The Golden Age of Música Popular Brasileira 251
xii
Detailed Contents
The Bossa Nova Phenomenon 253

After the Bossa Nova 256
Tropicália 257
The Post-Tropicália Explosion 259
Axé 260
Rap and Hip-Hop 261
Further Reading 262
10 Colombia and Venezuela 267

Introduction to Hispanic South America 268
Colombia 269
Music of the Interior 270
Bambuco 270
The Caribbean Coast 272
Cumbia 273
Modern Cumbia 274
Porro 280
Vallenato 280
The Pacific Coast: Currulao 283
Popular Styles 286
Salsa 286
Champeta 286
Venezuela 288
Venezuelan Instruments 289
Música Llanera 290
Joropo 290
Venezuelan Christmas Music 294
Parranda and Aguinaldo 294
Gaita 295
Afro-Venezuelan Music 296
San Juan Bautista 297
San Benito el Moro 297
San Antonio de Padua 298
Corpus Christi 299
Caribbean Styles 302
Calipso 302
Música Tropical 302
Further Reading 303
xiii
Detailed Contents
11 The Andean Region 307

Introduction 308
The Incas 308
Inca Music 310
The Modern Andean Region 311
Andean Music 312
General Characteristics 313
Andean Instruments 313
Andean Ensembles 320
Andean Rituals 321
Inti Raymi 323
La Fiesta del Apóstol Santiago 324
La Fiesta del Gran Poder 324
Pachallampe 325
Andean Dances 327
Huayno 327
Sanjuán 328
Danza de las Tijeras 329
Carnival Dances 329
Andean Music in a Modern Context 330
Peru 333
Historical Introduction 333
Afro-Peruvian Music 334
Música Criolla 336
Criollo Songs 337
Criollo Dances 338
Peruvian Popular Music 340
Chicha 341
Ecuador 342
Afro-Ecuadorian Music 342
Ecuadorian Música Criolla 343
Pasillo 343
Other Criollo Dances 344
Amor Fino 344
Ecuadorian Popular Music 345
Rockola 345
Technofolclor 345
Bolivia 346
Afro-Bolivian Music 347
Further Reading 348
xiv
Detailed Contents
12 The Southern Cone Region 355

Introduction 356
Argentina 356
The Gaucho 358
Payada 359
Milonga 360
Tango 361
Origins 361
Guardia Vieja 364
Guardia Nueva 366
Carlos Gardel 367
After Gardel 369
Nuevo Tango 369
Ástor Piazzolla 370
Other Folk Styles 372
Zamba 372
Chacarera 373
Chamamé 375
Música tropical 375
Cuarteto 375
Bailanta 376
Cumbia Villera 377
Uruguay 378
Camdombé 379
Carnival 380
Murga 381
Paraguay 382
The Paraguayan Harp 383
Polca Paraguaya 383
Guarania 384
Chile 384
Chilean Folk Songs 386
Poetas Populares 386
Cueca 387
The Popularization of Chilean Folk Music 389
Further Reading 390
13 Transnational Genres: Nueva Canción and Latin American Rock 395

Introduction 396
Nueva Canción 396
Origins 396
xv
Detailed Contents
Nueva Canción’s Political Outlook 397

Chile 399
The Peak of Nueva Canción 400
The 1973 Coup d’État 402
Canto Nuevo 403
The 1990s 403
Cuba: Nueva Trova 404
Other Countries 406
Latin American Rock 407
Latin Rock in the United States 409
Rock in Latin America 411
Early Rock and Roll 411
Rock en Español 412
Mexico 412
Argentina: Rock Nacional 416
Andean Rock 419
Other Countries 420
Further Reading 421
Credits 425
Glossary 427
Index 437
xvi
Listening Examples
2.1 Renaissance Polyphony: Missa Ego flos campi: Agnus Dei 29

2.2 Villancico: “Tururu farara con son” 34
2.3 Baroque: “Celebren, publiquen” 37
2.4 Art Song: “Estrellita” 42
2.5 Twentieth-Century Nationalism: Bachianas brasileiras No. 2,
“O trenzinho do Caipira” 47
3.1 Bolero: “Sabor a mí” 74
3.2 Son Jarocho: “La bamba” 77
3.3 Son Huapango: “El caballito” 78
3.4 Son Mariachi: “Son de la negra” 81
3.5 Corrido: “Gregorio Cortez” 86
4.1 Punta: “Santo Negro” 103
4.2 Marimba: “Luna De Xelajú” 108
6.1 Afro-Cuban Ritual: “Yemayá olordo” 133
6.2 Son Montuno: “Mayeya, No juegues con los santos” 138
6.3 Salsa: “Las Calaveras” 144
6.4 Bomba: “Camino a Mayagüez” 150
6.5 Plena: “Tanta vanidad” 153
6.6 Merengue: “Juanita Morey” 159
6.7 Merengue Típico: “Apágame la vela” 160
6.8 Bachata: “Dos Locos” 163
7.1 Afro-Jamaican Ritual: “Anabo Yedeng” 172
7.2 Nyabinghi: “Nyabinghi Medley” 174
7.3 Calypso: “No Money No Love” 184
7.4 Steel Pan: “Pan in A Minor” 188
7.5 Soca: “Get On Bad” 189
8.1 Vodou Ritual: “Gangan Move Tèt O” 205
8.2 Biguine: “Serpent Maigre” 212
8.3 Zouk: “Zouk-La-Se Sel Medikaman Nou Ni” 214
9.1 Candomblé Ritual: “Canto a Changó” 234
9.2 Capoeira: “Paranaê” 239
xvii
Listening Examples
9.3 Samba: “S.P.C.” 243

9.4 Forró: “Asa Branca” 248
9.5 Popular Song: “Aquarela do Brasil” 252
9.6 Bossa nova: “Garota de Ipanema” 255
9.7 Tropicália: “Alegria, alegria” 258
10.1 Bambuco (Chirimías): “Brisas del Pamplonita” 271
10.2 Bambuco: “Agáchate el sombrerito” 271
10.3 Cumbia de Gaita: “Fuego de cumbia” 275
10.4 Cumbia: “Cumbia Cienaguera” 277
10.5 Cumbia: “A Mover la Colita” 278
10.6 Vallenato: “Altos del Rosario” 281
10.7 Currulao: “El Currulao me llama” 284
10.8 Joropo: “Alma Llanera” 293
11.1 Panpipes: “Los jilacatas” 316
11.2 Charango: “Love Song of the Animals” 319
11.3 Yaraví: “A vuestros pies madre” 326
11.4 Huayno: “Río de Paria” 328
11.5 Modern Andean Song: “Cumbre” 332
11.6 Landó: “Zamba malató” 335
12.1 Tango (Guardia Vieja): “El choclo” 364
12.2 Tango (Guardia Nueva): “La cumparsita” 368
12.3 Nuevo tango: “Adiós, Nonino” 371
12.4 Chacarera: “Chacarera del patio” 374
12.5 Cueca: “Adiós Santiago Querido” 388
13.1 Nueva canción: “El pueblo unido jamás será vencido” 398
13.2 Nueva canción: “Plegaria a un labrador” 401
13.3 Nueva Trova: “Hasta siempre Comandante” 404
xviii
Foreword
The great diversity and sheer amount of music in Latin America and the Caribbean makes
capturing all of it in a single text impossible, yet the scope and breadth of Mark Brill’s text is
vast and impressive. Addressing a general lack of understanding and awareness of Latin American
and Caribbean cultures that applies as much to music majors as to non-majors, the author
focuses little on musical transcriptions; instead a more literary and historical approach informs
the listening experience but does not define it. The text’s greatest strengths are its candid
reporting of historical and political processes and the author’s excellent selections from such
a vast field as Latin American and Caribbean music. Because of its strong historical approach
to a dynamically changing musical soundscape, this text surpasses other introductory texts to
Latin American and Caribbean music. No doubt other books address the needs and prefer-
ences of some professors, yet this text is of timely and singular importance in attempting to
provide an unbiased historical perspective informing each chapter. Mark Brill’s approach satisfies
a need for a comprehensive historical picture—missing in more specialized music narratives—
of the complicated developments that have produced the immense variety of what one might
call Music of Latin America and the Caribbean. There is no way to teach it all, but by
emphasizing the processes of musical development in the Americas, Dr. Brill helps students to
grasp the big picture and gain a larger understanding that they can apply to their specific research
projects.
The main arguments and conclusions of this text are that individual histories throughout
Latin America and the Caribbean have similar roots but have developed uniquely subsequent
to the radical changes brought about by colonization and globalization over the past half
century. As such, the text is ethnomusicological in nature, firmly rooted in examining cultural
histories and ideas in order to understand the deeper significances of music in its local mani-
festations.
Dr. Brill does a great job of establishing the social and musical contexts, naming and describ-
ing the instruments and how they’re played, and always providing the names of more genres
he can’t address. Students and the general reader will want to take a break from the text to
listen to the audio tracks that accompany the text or search the internet for additional examples.
The more readers listen to the examples and engage with the reading, the better they will
understand how the music summarizes the points made in the text. The text leads us to many
doors, but it is up to the reader to open them to see what is on the other side. Sidebars are
provided to call attention to important details.
xix
Foreword
Dr. Brill’s text provides what other texts have not. Top on the list of praises are those leisurely
walks through the critical historical past, in which the author does not equivocate the facts,
allowing the stunning realizations that come with knowing the simple truths about things. Dr.
Brill provides those dimensions of human understanding missing in other texts. For example,
Dr. Brill distinguishes the Caribbean from Latin America in that English, Dutch, African, and
Asian languages and belief systems intersect in these island cultures as much and sometimes
more than the romance languages and belief systems of French or Spanish; hence this text
discusses music of “Latin America and the Caribbean.” And, although in the United States we
have come to appropriate the terms “America” and “American” for ourselves, in this text you
will see the terms applying to America the continent and Americans, its diverse inhabitants.
Those that claim ancestry to multiple racial streams (remember that “race” is merely a social
construction) have fused elements of all cultures, and icons of musical cultures permeate the
people’s musics. With the musics come characters that tell stories of the past, the present, and
those things yet to come; with the musics comes the desire to dance, and with the musics
comes the will to live against screaming poverty and political anxiety. Dr. Brill captures the
complicated histories and inner characters of the peoples whose musics he introduces us to in
his discussions, and thus his text is essential for anyone interested in Latin America and the
Caribbean.
Dr. Brill brings a solid foundation to a complex, multicultural subject by teaching us the
historical trajectories that have brought us to this moment. Instructors now have a strong
fundamental text on which to build their lectures, and students learn details of particular
traditions that allow them to connect concepts from one region to another. The classroom
teacher can rest assured that the students are reading contemporary historical accounts, many
of which never made it into history books in the past. Instructors are given the flexibility and
freedom to build on those histories as they select listening examples for classroom analyses, to
plug in their own expertise in the continuum of things, indeed, offering new continua in the
classroom.
Although most useful for undergraduate courses, this text has much to offer the general
interested reader. Dr. Brill assists the novice reader at any age in his or her understanding of
the music and cultures that are the focus. Indeed, limiting the scope of this project was and
continues to be a challenge, but in a day when students have easy access to sites such as YouTube,
names of musicians and genres and bits of information of any kind can lead to further personal
research instantly on the internet. This text provides a great deal of information to aid the student
in online research. As Dr. Brill writes in the first chapter: “There is work for anthropological
and ethnomusicological research for generations. Hopefully, the richness and historical import-
ance of Latin American music that this textbook is attempting to convey will inspire students
to undertake such work in years to come.” To further enable such research, the text spills over
to a website that includes what could not be included in a single text.
Among the innovative aspects of Dr. Brill’s text, he establishes a fundamental history of pre-
colonial music cultures. He submits that, “Modern students of pre-colonial cultures are
hampered by a scarcity of primary documents and artifacts. Any conclusions drawn from these
studies, particularly in relation to music, must be taken with caution at the outset, since the
record is often incomplete and misleading” (Chapter 1). Dr. Brill’s focus on processes
surrounding the establishment and development of classical music imported from Europe is
especially important because these traditions today reflect 500 years of ongoing evolution in
the Americas. He highlights genres that proved to be seminal for secular music as well, such
as the villancico. We learn how nationalism has expressed itself through art music. He is able to
xx
Foreword
discuss the impact that globalization has had on genres like reggae, cumbia, tango, mariachi, salsa,
and others as they have become transnational, including nueva canción as a widespread American
(including the U.S.) phenomenon. He puts to rest many previously anecdotal understandings
about the origins of instruments and genres, revealing the ethnic origins of particular traditions
and supplying connections that clearly mark musical developments in their evolutions, as in
the Cocolo bands of the Dominican Republic. He provides a comprehensive view of the cultural
diversity of Latin America and the Caribbean with strong connections to the pulse of the people
and current trends. The text offers a strong foundation in music history as well as additional
resources that enable students to undertake their own special projects in areas not covered in
the text itself; for example, Dr. Brill has provided additional information on a companion website
about indigenous musics, which arguably could be the focus of an entire text in themselves.
He grapples with the contradictions whenever possible, anticipating student questions.
Ultimately it is the life of the instruments and the music they make today that takes the
foreground. This is an exciting new contribution to music scholarship. With this new resource,
we have made a monumental leap into twenty-first-century awareness and understanding of
the universe that exists south of the United States and that will continue to shape U.S. musical
culture over time.
Brenda M. Romero
Professor of Ethnomusicology,
University of Colorado, Boulder
xxi
Preface
When I first began teaching the music of Latin America back in the early 1990s, there were
virtually no resources available for beginning students to consult. Most texts on the subject
were out-of-print, and the few available ones were specifically geared towards upper-level music
majors or graduate students: in-depth studies of Latin American classical music, or detailed reports
on ethnomusicological field-work. I needed a text that provided a general approach to the
subject, appropriate for beginning students with no formal music training. So I began writing
my own materials, which I distributed in class. The eventual result was the textbook you are
now holding in your hands.
Content Features/Organization
Music of Latin America and the Caribbean provides a survey of both musical and cultural elements
of the region, connecting musical trends to historical and cultural developments. It is designed
for beginning students (either music-majors or non-majors) who do not have a background in
Latin American studies. While basic music elements are addressed (concepts of rhythm, melody,
harmony, and orchestration), this text is not meant as a comprehensive upper-level music
resource. It does not provide in-depth analysis of musical compositions, nor does it delve into
deep anthropological or ethnomusicological theory. Nevertheless, even for in-depth music
studies, the text provides a basic framework on the subject, upon which historical, theoretical,
and compositional concepts can be built.
The text is organized mostly geographically: musical trends are examined as they emerged
and evolved in individual Latin American countries or regions, where they were shaped by
specific political, historical, racial, cultural, ethnic, gender, economic, and spiritual factors. There
are three important exceptions to this geographical structure: classical music, nueva canción, and
Latin rock are examined as continental developments that were mostly unconstrained by
political borders or ethnic identities.
xxiii
Preface
Listening Examples
Central to the discussion of music in this textbook is the collection of 57 musical examples that
are representative of some of the most important Latin American styles. Readers access the
musical examples through a companion website. Each piece has an explanatory chart that appears
in the textbook, with timed listening guides and lyrics in English translation where appropriate.
The textbook website also provides student resources and ancillary materials for instructors,
listed below in the New to This Edition section.
In addition to the 57 pieces that accompany the text, there are almost one thousand
recommended listening examples, listed at the end of each chapter, that illustrate hundreds of
Latin American musical styles. These recommendations are taken for the most part from
commercially available compact discs, and are usually available on internet resources such as
YouTube and Spotify. There are also several commercial compilations that would be of great
benefit to readers, including:
• the original field recordings of the ethnomusicologist Alan Lomax that have recently been
released and that provide an invaluable insight into many Latin American cultures.
• the compilations Africa in America: Music from 19 Countries (Corason Records) and Raíces
Latinas (Smithsonian Folkways) together offer examples of more than 50 different styles
from all over Latin America.
• the JVC/Smithsonian Folkways Video Anthology of Music and Dance of the Americas provides
extensive video footage of more than 150 music traditions on the American continent,
most of which are covered in this textbook.
New to This Edition
The second edition of this textbook brings new and improved materials.
• There are new chapters on Central America and on the French and Dutch Caribbean, and
the Guyanas.
• Existing chapters have been revised and updated with musical developments from the last
decade. For example, I have added sections on axé and rap music to the Brazil chapter.
There are also new sections on musical traditions in Bolivia, Ecuador, Uruguay, and
Paraguay.
• A new chapter on transnational styles examines the pan-continental development of two
important genres: nueva canción and Latin rock.
• Important or unfamiliar terms appear in bold font throughout the text, and these are
explained in the Glossary at the end of the book.
• Bibliographic suggestions appear at the end of each chapter, reflecting the latest English-
language scholarship on various musical cultures and styles.
• A new companion website—www.routledge.com/cw/brill—offers resources for both
students and instructors that are specifically linked to the text.
xxiv
Preface
Instructor Resources
Whether you are a student or an instructor, you should approach the textbook as a cultural
and historical narrative. These are interesting stories, tales of tragic love songs, courtship dances,
religious hope, human despair, and nationalist pride. Some of them have been on-going for
more than half a millennium. I have attempted to tell them in interesting and accessible ways,
and I hope readers will be able to discern the humanity that is at their core. A more academic
focus can be drawn from the musical examples, listening guides and glossary terms, all of which
underline some of the more important concepts under discussion.
xxv
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the following individuals for their invaluable assistance in this project:
Richard Carlin, Margot Acosta, Paul Christiansen, Caryn Connelly, Eduardo Garcia, Carol
Hess, John Koegel, Kurt Mosser, Robyn Reed, Juan Santamarina, the late Maureen Tilley,
and the leaders and participants of the 2011 NEH Summer Institute on Maya Culture. A special
thanks to Jerry Kwashie Djokoto and Michael Mixtacki for their assistance with African
and Afro-Cuban drumming traditions. I am also grateful to the scholars who reviewed and
commented on the text, including Drew Stephen, Juanita Ulloa, Daniel Sheehy, and Eric
Bindler. I am particularly indebted to Brenda M. Romero from the University of Colorado at
Boulder for her proof-reading of the entire manuscript, for her countless comments and
corrections that led to many important improvements in both the organization and the content
of the text, and especially for her insightful foreword, which summarizes many of the important
issues the text attempts to convey.
I would also like to acknowledge the students who participated in the pilot use of this
text at the University of Texas at San Antonio in Spring 2009 and 2010, at the University of
Colorado at Boulder in 2008–2010 (under Professor Brenda M. Romero), and at Texas State
University at San Marcos in 2008 and 2009 (under Professor Juanita Ulloa). Critical changes
in the manuscript resulted from their responses and helped to shape the contents for con-
temporary students.
At Taylor & Francis, I would like to thank Peter Sheehy, Sarah Collins, Sarah Barnes,
Amy Kirkham, Mhairi Bennett, and especially my tireless and very patient editor Constance
Ditzel. At Florence Production, I would like to thank Susan Leaper, Lorna Wilkinson, Grace
Williams, and Mark Hanna.
Finally, I am grateful, as ever, to Mia, Lucy, and Oliver, to whom this book is dedicated.
Mark Brill
July 2017
xxvi
The American Continent
Credit: dikobraziy/Shutterstock.com
CHAPTER
1
Music of Latin America
and the Caribbean
An Overview
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Introduction
Indigenous Cultures Before 1492
• Pre-Columbian Music
1492 and the Advent of Syncretism
• The White Legend and the Black Legend
• The Emergence of Mestizo Culture
• Mestizo Music
• European Cultures in America
• The Emergence of African Culture
• Religious Syncretism
Modern Native Societies
• Indigenous Music Today
Latin America Today
Further Reading
Introduction
If you have cracked open the pages of this book, you have undoubtedly, at some point in your
life, been intrigued, moved, or even excited by the sounds and rhythms of Latin America and
the Caribbean. You may also be aware, by the same measure, of the vast diversity of musical
styles and genres that pervade the Western hemisphere. The study of Latin American music
can be tremendously fulfilling, though a one-semester study can only begin to do the subject
1
Music of Latin America and the Caribbean: An Overview
any justice. The vastness of Latin American music can be appreciated by considering the
aesthetic, cultural, and geographic range of the following genres, all of which fall under its
designation: Argentine tango, Jamaican reggae, eighteenth-century Latin Masses, Tex-Mex
ballads, Peruvian panpipe melodies, Afro-Brazilian drumming, and any number of hip-
hop–derived urban dances that have emerged throughout the continent. These varied styles
have in common their creators, Latin Americans all, recipients and transmitters of a particular
mix of cultures that defines them and provides them a sense of identity.
Music is the expression of people’s lives. It is many other things, too. But at its core, music
serves as the conduit for humans to express themselves, to identify to themselves and to others
who they are, and to establish a sense of belonging. Through music, humans are able to say:
“Amidst this huge, imposing world, among this complex set of relationships that make up human
civilization, this is who I am.” This reality is no more apparent than in the thousands of musical
cultures that have emerged and evolved in Latin America. The slave recalling her ancestral
spirits on a far away continent; the Aztec warrior who saw his ancient civilization crumble to
dust; the guajiro farmer, forsaken in a distant island, longing nostalgically for the Spanish
homeland he would never again see; the marginalized youth eking out a living in modern urban
ghettos; all these individuals were able to say through their music: This is who I am.
The study of Latin American and Caribbean music, like that of all music, requires stylistic
and aesthetic considerations. But it also requires reflection on issues of history, geography,
religion, and ethnicity. A theme that seems to emerge in virtually every Latin American culture
is the tension between the “refined” music of the elite and the “coarse” music of the underclass.
Latin American society in general has well-defined social classes that are rarely upset, except
by violent political upheavals. The Spanish conquistadors, in their characterization of Aztec
and Inca music as “barbaric” and “uncivilized,” were taking their own worldview as an absolute
standard for musical artistry. In so doing, they were also establishing a long tradition of musical
intolerance—quickly adopted by the Portuguese, French, Dutch, English, and others—that has
pervaded the continent (including the northern part) until modern times. Prejudices have been
around for half a millennium and are still present in many Latin American societies. Even today,
many consider certain styles, such as Brazilian forró or Puerto Rican reggaetón as “low-class”
music. Add to that racial prejudices: “This music is too Black (or too Indian)” is an implied—
and occasionally verbalized—judgment often rendered by a country’s elite who are usually of
European descent. Yet attitudes change, and another constant seems to be that what one
generation considers objectionable, future generations will embrace.
To complicate matters, the accepted distinctions between art, folk, and popular music are
often problematic in Latin America, where cross-pollination between styles and genres have
sometimes rendered their categorization meaningless. Folk music is generally defined as the
music of the people, often anonymous and steeped in tradition and community ritual, and
associated with the uneducated working classes, usually in rural areas. Popular music typically
emerges in urban settings, composed by known individuals and circulated throughout the
community at all levels, often with commercial considerations. Art—or classical—music has
traditionally been defined as the music of the elite and educated members of a society, a music
that is studied, written down and performed in more formal settings. But what is one to make,
for example, of the Martinican kwadril, a dance derived from the classical balls of the eighteenth-
century French salons, integrated into the Afro-Caribbean folk drumming traditions, and one
of the source components of the decidedly popular zouk of recent years? Attempting to classify
the kwadril in terms of art, folk, or popular music seems a rather artificial endeavor, though it
does illustrate the process of transformation the style, like so many others, has undergone.
2
This process of transformation is the result of intricate social and economic factors that affect
composers, performers, and audiences. Much of the music of Latin America began as folk music,
typically learned at a young age by a member of the community, and perhaps tied to a ritual
that emerged in the context of the church, the village, the farm, the plantation, or the slum.
But in the first half of the twentieth century, these traditions were greatly affected by the
economic development that engulfed the continent and the pronounced urban migration that
ensued. Time and again, we find examples of rural people migrating to urban areas, bringing
their music with them. Invariably, the result is a new style of music, distinct from that of the
city dwellers who were already there, but also different from the country dances and ballads
the migrants left behind. For whenever rural folk traditions transform into urban styles, its
performers often abandon the ritual and religious context of the music. The urban samba of
Brazil, the Andean huayno, the Argentine cuarteto, and countless others are examples of urban
styles associated with those recently arrived who now constitute a poor, urban underclass.
At about the same time that the great urban migrations were occurring—and not coinci-
dentally—many countries began adopting a distinctly nationalist outlook. Nationalism, a
movement that took hold in political, artistic, and literary circles in Europe in the nineteenth
century, became an important factor in the Americas in the twentieth century, as countries
across the hemisphere began embracing rural folk music and art as the truest expression of culture,
nation, or ethnic background. One result was that the art music establishment often adopted
these folk styles, and one began finding in the concert hall the tangos, sambas, sones, and rumbas
that had previously been the domain of the village, the barrio, the nightclub, or the carnival
parade.
Perhaps more importantly, the folk traditions often also became the preferred form of popular
music. Over and over, one can trace the transformation of a given folk music tradition, first
into the sophisticated art music of the upper classes, and subsequently into the popular music
of the middle classes. By the second half of the twentieth century, dozens of folk music traditions
were being transformed radically by the forces of modernization and globalization, undergoing
a process of popularization that usually included the infusion of foreign elements, the use of
modern electric instruments (usually borrowed from rock and roll), and the adoption of a modern
pop beat. In the process, many of the traditional elements were abandoned, particularly those
that pertained to African or native elements, as commercial entrepreneurs attempted to
modernize and “sanitize” the music in order to appeal to wider middle-class audiences. Almost
simultaneously, in different parts of the continent, the Cuban son tradition led to salsa, Jamaican
Rastafarian drumming yielded reggae, Andean rhythms infused the Peruvian chicha, the Mexican
corrido engendered tejano, and the Trinidadian calypso brought about soca.
Yet the process of transformation is often mysterious, its causes frequently left unexplained.
Thus, for reasons still unclear, the 1980s and 1990s saw a hemispheric confluence of accordion-
based popular styles. The simultaneous rise of the Colombian vallenato, Mexican tejano, Brazilian
forró, Argentine chamamé, Louisiana zydeco, and other folk styles into national popularity and
even international prominence occurred for reasons that cannot be entirely explained by social,
economic, political, or aesthetic factors. The accordion, formerly a quintessential folk instru-
ment, all at once seemed to conquer the realm of popular music in Latin America.
Another mystery is the often-irrelevant effect of political borders on the evolution of the
continent’s music. Through processes that are hard to distinguish, styles as disparate as the
Cuban bolero, the Colombian cumbia, the Argentine tango, and Mexican música ranchera have
spread virtually unencumbered across the continent. Many of these styles are nationalistic in
nature, with features that Cubans, Colombians, Argentines, or Mexicans proudly identify as
3
uniquely theirs. Yet there is also perhaps something “Latin American” about these styles that
transcends their places of origin and that appeals to inhabitants of the entire continent, and in
some cases, of the entire world. It is tempting to attribute this phenomenon to the fact that
adjacent countries have similar cultures and languages. Yet the same process applies to countries
that do not share a historical or cultural past. Thus, Jamaican reggae beats, the product of African
and English culture, quickly spread through the Spanish, French, and Dutch Caribbean, and
thereafter to the rest of the world. Moreover, dozens of Latin American and Caribbean styles
have been adopted at some point by the Anglo-dominated United States, most famously during
the “Latin Craze” of the 1930s and 1940s.
Much of Latin America’s folk music has been transformed and re-created outside of its original
context, often in some commercial venue or as an attempt to recover a lost tradition. This
transformation does not in any way invalidate the music or even render it somehow
“inauthentic.” In recent years, Latin America has been a major contributor to the emergence
of so-called “world music,” a phenomenon to which some critics and academics have reacted
negatively, objecting to its pop orientation, its homogenous uniformity, its mass-media
dissemination, and its Western influences. By contrast, they regard forms that originate in
community rituals as sacred and “authentic” representations of a pure and unadulterated culture.
This supplanting of the traditional by the popular is often blamed on the forces of globalization
and modernization. In truth, this is undoubtedly so. The meaning of the music in terms of its
function and social representation is unquestionably altered by this transformation, and in the
process, much of the individuality that brought it about is unquestionably lost. (In reviewing
this manuscript, I myself was amazed—and somewhat saddened—to notice how many times I
have related that a traditional folk style is now played by electric guitars, bass, synthesizers, and
drum sets. The incredible diversity of Latin American music is diminished when all the styles
adopt essentially the same instrumentation.)
Yet attempting to stop the forces of globalization by rejecting the music they engender seems
a fruitless—even counterproductive—endeavor. For Latin America, globalization began in
1492, and the current trends are only the latest in an evolutionary process that is now more
than half a millennium old. For better or for worse, “world music” is here to stay, and should
be recognized and evaluated on its own merits, not excluded from serious study because of its
mass-media orientation.
Moreover, the issue of authenticity is one that must be treated carefully. To say that a santería
drumming ritual in a remote area of Cuba is “authentic,” whereas a glossy, pop-oriented reggaetón
performance at the Latin Grammy Awards is “inauthentic” is to miss the point of the meaning
of music. Both extremes—and everything in between—are real music, performed by real
musicians in front of real audiences. There is nothing fake—or inauthentic—about either. They
are simply different musical expressions of people’s lives, derived from vastly different social
contexts. One may, of course, aesthetically prefer one to the other, but they must both be
recognized and respected as equally valid musical expressions. They are both important parts
of the vast panoply that we call “Latin American Music,” and to ignore one in favor of another
is to paint only half of the picture.
But does this mean one cannot make educated judgments as to the inherent quality of certain
types of music? Most critics and musicologists have reached the conclusion, based not on
subjective predilection but on the analysis of objective musical evidence, that Wolfgang Mozart
was a “better” composer than, say, Antonio Salieri. Can one apply the same informed judgment
to the vast array of folk, classical, and popular styles in Latin America? Only, I submit, if these
judgments are rendered within a style, not between styles. Clearly, some reggae songs are
4
“better” than others, and some salsa tunes are also “better” than others, based on objective
criteria as to what constitutes a good reggae or salsa piece. But there is no valid rationale—
certainly not the issue of authenticity—to conclude that reggae is a better (or worse) style of
music than salsa. Similarly, there is no basis, other than personal aesthetic preference, to declare
that any of the three major categories of music—art, folk, and popular—is better or worse than
the others.
As you study the various styles and genres found in Latin America, you would do well to
temporarily withhold judgment of the musics you encounter, particularly those you are
unfamiliar with. Learn as much as you can within each style. Study the music, listen to the
recordings, learn about the customs and rituals that led to the style’s emergence and the social
or religious contexts that influenced it. Understand why the music emerged and what function
it serves. Most importantly, understand what the music means to the performers and their
audiences. Then—and only then—can you start making qualitative judgments about the music
you hear; only then will you be able to say “this samba is better than that samba.”
Indigenous Cultures Before 1492

Prior to the first major encounter between Europeans and Americans in 1492, the continent
was home to thousands of different cultures whose diversity was as widespread as its
geographical landscape. From the tundra of the arctic to Tierra del Fuego in southern Argentina,
in arid deserts, steamy jungles, and some of the highest mountain ranges in the world, Americans
made their homes, raised their families, and constructed civilizations. They also made music,
in spiritual ceremonies, in rites of passage, and for their pleasure and entertainment.
Most current theories hold that the continent was populated during the last ice age, between
fifteen and twenty thousand years ago. As much of the water froze into glaciers, the ocean level
fell, revealing a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska called Beringia. Nomadic hunter-
gatherers crossed this land bridge from Asia onto the American continent—or perhaps sailed
along the coast—finding an uninhabited new land whose rich bounty ensured not only survival
but also prosperity. Within a millennium, the entire continent had been populated. Countless
hunter-gatherer societies emerged, each developing in time its customs, rituals, and musical
traditions. As in most—perhaps all—aboriginal societies, the first music-making undoubtedly
revolved around either makeshift percussion instruments—perhaps as basic as striking a rock
with a stick—or involved the human voice: a mother singing a lullaby to her child, a young
hunter imitating the song of a bird, a family mourning the death of a parent, or an entire village
chanting to unseen forces. The earliest known instruments in the Americas consist of percussion
instruments made from gourds, seeds, and animal claws or hooves, as well as flutes made from
wood, cane, and animal and even human bones.
Many of these hunter-gatherer societies died out as the result of war, famine, or migration.
Others persisted for millennia, adapting to changing conditions, sometimes surviving the
European invasion even into the twenty-first century (such as the famous Yanomamo who still
live in the Venezuelan rainforest, much as their ancestors did for untold generations). Around
3000 BCE, still others evolved into agrarian societies, domesticating important New World
crops—notably potatoes and maize (corn)—which would in time revolutionize the eating habits
and the economic development of the entire world. It is from some of these agrarian societies
that emerged a few prominent and powerful civilizations whose achievements rivaled and often
surpassed those in other parts of the world.
5
The three leading civilizations on the American continent prior to the arrival of the
Europeans were the Mayas from Mesoamerica (a term that literally means “middle America”
and that refers to southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras); the Aztecs from
central Mexico; and the Incas who lived in the Andean region of what is today Peru, Ecuador,
Bolivia, and surrounding areas. These societies created massive architectural monuments,
dominant political organizations, and lucrative economic systems. They achieved a high level
of military prowess and governed complex social structures and religious beliefs—usually
enforced by powerful clergy—that dictated the everyday life of their inhabitants. They also
contained the majority of the population of the Americas, though the exact number remains
unknown—and controversial. The number of inhabitants of the American continent in 1492
has been estimated as low as 20 million and as high as more than 100 million.
Pre-Columbian Music
Modern students of pre-colonial cultures are hampered by a scarcity of primary documents and
artifacts. Any conclusions drawn from these studies, particularly in relation to music, must be
taken with caution at the outset, since the record is often incomplete and misleading. Historical
events have made the study of native societies in pre-Columbian times a challenging task. The
first wave of destruction came with the conquistadors, who readily seized as much gold and
silver and as many precious objects as they could, in the process destroying many artifacts and
monuments. Subsequent European settlers, fearing indigenous uprisings and preoccupied with
forcefully establishing their political and religious dominance, often systematically destroyed as
many elements of native culture as they could and attempted to change the mindset and
philosophies of the natives, including their musical tendencies. Much of the knowledge that
pertained to native music disappeared, including written manuscripts that described musical
ceremonies, carvings of instruments on temple walls, and even a large number of musical instru-
ments. Almost completely lost was the music itself, for pre-Columbian America probably had
no system of musical notation, relying instead on oral transmission. Those elements that did
survive tended to be filtered through the eyes of European writers, creating an outlook that
was rarely complimentary. Since the Conquest, centuries of neglect have further contributed
to the demise of cultural elements to the point where only a small fraction of the native
patrimony survives. Thus while historians, archaeologists, and anthropologists have sometimes
been able to reconstruct ceremonies and musical instruments, what the music actually sounded
like remains mostly a mystery.
Modern understanding of native musical cultures is thus derived from the following sources:
• a few surviving pre-Columbian codices, as well as several post-Conquest volumes written

by native Americans;
• writings by conquistadors and missionaries who encountered native cultures;
• modern studies of pre-Columbian and colonial native languages, literature, art, and history;
• archaeological studies of pottery, sculptures, murals, tombs, structures, and original musical
instruments; and
• anthropological studies of musical practices of modern native groups, many of whom still
speak aboriginal languages and maintain traditions only partially modified by five centuries
of contact with Europeans.
6
Another random document with
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CONSTANCE
CONWAY.
FROM MRS. ROMILLY TO MISS CONWAY.
May 7.
MY DEAREST CONSTANCE,—I have persuaded

my watchful Nellie, with great difficulty, to let
me send a few words in answer to yours. I
cannot get out of my head a haunting fear that
somehow you do not quite appreciate my
precious Maggie. It would grieve sue intensely if
things were so.
Maggie is like me, reserved as to her deepest

feelings: and it may be that you have scarcely
read as yet her true nature. She is capable of
giving such devoted love. Dear Constance, have
you won it yet? Forgive me for asking the
question. Forgive a mother's anxieties. I can
scarcely judge from Maggie's letters, but I have
had doubts, and your letter has awakened real
fear. Your mention of her is so slight, compared
with all that you say of my other dear girls.
Does that—can it—betoken indifference?
I know well how terribly my sweet Maggie is

suffering at my absence, though she will bear
up courageously for the sake of others. And I
want you to see below the surface with her. I
want you to know my child's real worth and
depth. She is so humble, so tender-spirited,—I
could not bear, dear Constance, to think that
you and she should not fully understand one
another.
It rejoices me to hear that darling Elfie is

really trying to be brave. She is, as you say, a
sensitive little puss—not with the acute
sensibilities and intense feeling of dear Maggie,
so seldom allowed to appear,—but excitable,
nervous, fanciful, and soon overwrought. Miss
Jackson had not quite the right method of
managing Elfie. I was compelled at one time to
make a strong stand, and to insist on no
spoiling. I trust to you for more firmness.
Nona's powers will develop. I am not at all

afraid for that dear girl. She is capable of
anything: but sixteen is very young, and the
high spirits which seem to you such a
disadvantage, I should call quite a blessing. I
wish I could look forward as hopefully for
Thyrza as for Nona. I do find there a strange
hardness, which exists in no other of my
children. If you are able to influence her for
good, so much the better. But, dear friend, do
think over what I have said about my precious
Maggie. I have so depended on your loving
companionship for her, now in her time of trial
and loneliness. If you knew how that dear girl
has always clung to me and depended upon
Nellie, you would realise a little of what she
must now be suffering. Try to win her heart,
dear Constance,—for my sake! I can assure you
my Maggie's love is worth having.
I must not write more. I shall suffer severely
for this.—Believe me, your warmly-attached
friend—
GERTRUDE
ROMILLY.
CHAPTER XIV.
SUBLIMITY AND MAGGIE.
CONSTANCE CONWAY'S JOURNAL.
May 12. Tuesday.
IF ever anybody managed to write a harmless and non-

exciting letter, I should have said that mine to Mrs. Romilly
came under that description. Her answer fell upon me like a
small thunder-clap.
Of course I showed Mrs. Romilly's letter to nobody:

though, equally of course, I was expected to pass the sheet
round the breakfast-table. That very bad habit prevails in
this house to an unfortunate extent. Mr. Romilly labours
under a ludicrous belief that anything written by any near
relative of his own must be intended for his eyes: and
nobody is supposed ever to receive a letter or note which
cannot be regarded as common property. Hence arises an
occasional necessity for objectionable little private slips and
secret postscripts, as the only possible mode of saying what
must be said, and avoiding betrayed confidences.
All eyes were on me as I read, and when I put the letter

into my pocket glances of meaning were exchanged. Mr.
Romilly, who had just appeared, sighed in an audible and
appealing fashion, while Maggie remarked that "Mother
could write so seldom and only to one at once, and tell all
the news."
"Mrs. Romilly tells me really no news," I said.
"And no messages to any of us!" exclaimed Nona,—

pertly, I thought.
"None," I replied. "Perhaps she was tired with writing,

for she ends abruptly."
"Jackie always showed her letters from mother!" These

words in a subdued whisper reached my ears. Of course I
paid no regard to the sound.
Mr. Romilly sighed afresh, and observed that his dear

wife was really not in a state to write at all—er, just before
a journey—er. He hoped, however, that she must be feeling
a little stronger—er, as she ventured on the exertion—er.
"I am afraid it was not very prudent of Mrs. Romilly," I

said.
Then the Prayer-bell rang, and the subject had to be

dropped.
My thoughts have dwelt a good deal on that letter to-

day, as is perhaps natural. Mrs. Romilly has never before
said or done anything to make me really uncomfortable,
and to be made uncomfortable by friend is a trial. One must
allow for the weakened fancies of illness. But what could
induce her to suppose that I objected to Nona's high spirits?
I would not, if I could, lower them by a single half-inch.
Certainly I should be glad to find something in Nona besides
the love of fun.
I am wondering, too, what more I can do with respect

to Maggie. True it is, no doubt, that I have not yet
succeeded in winning her love. Is this my fault? Everybody
cannot suit everybody else: and the winning of another's
affection must surely depend in some degree on natural
compatibility of temper and of tastes. I hope in time to
possess Maggie's trust and esteem. But suppose I never
succeeded in gaining her love,—should I be necessarily to
blame? Surely I need not count myself so lovable a person,
that all with whom I come in contact must needs care for
me!
Again, what about Mrs. Romilly's estimate of Maggie?

Are there really such hidden depths beneath that childish
manner? It might, of course, be so: yet somehow I cannot
help thinking with a smile of the famous Chicken's soliloquy,
as he views the empty egg-shell whence his little body has
just emerged—
"And my deep heart's sublime imaginings

In there!!"
One might almost as soon credit a newly-hatched

chicken with "sublime imaginings" as Maggie Romilly with
hidden depths of profound affection and acute suffering.
Maggie grieving terribly over the parting! Maggie hiding
intense sorrow under an appearance of cheerfulness! I
could laugh as I write the words, remembering the high
glee with which two or three hours ago she and Nona were
racing round the schoolroom, trying to catch the little ones.
Quite right too. I am only glad to see them so happy. But
certainly I detect no symptoms in Maggie of severe self-
control, of concealed depression, of overmastering anxiety.
And with one so quick to betray each passing mood, pain
and sorrow could scarcely be held under continuously.
It seems to me that Maggie is rather gratified than

otherwise with her present position in the house; and is
very much preoccupied with out-of-door engagements,
especially tennis. She likes an unbroken course of such
amusements as Glynde can afford, and is rather apt at
present to let duty wait upon pleasure. Care has not fed yet
upon her damask cheek. She looks well, is plump and rosy,
and at times she strikes me as quite pretty. Indeed, I
should say that she and all the girls, except Elfie, are
unconsciously rejoicing under the sudden cessation of the
strain which always comes upon a household with long
illness.
Now and then I see Maggie to be greatly put out with

me, when I have to take some decisive step in opposition to
Miss Millington.
One odd phase of affairs is Maggie's devotion to Miss

Millington. It is odd, because in some respects Maggie is
proud. She will not brook a hint or suggestion from any one
as to the management of things and she has an extremely
good notion, transparently shown, of her own reflected
honours as the daughter of Mr. Romilly, owner of a big
house in the south and a fine estate in the north. But pride
does not come between her and "Millie."
Certainly I will allow that Miss Millington is quite
ladylike, as well as almost pretty. Still, it is a little droll and
out of place to see Maggie, the eldest daughter at home and
present head of the establishment, running perpetually after
the little nursery governess, fondling her, making much of
her, holding long consultations with her late at night,
behaving, in short, as if Miss Millington were her most
intimate personal friend and most trusted adviser. I am
wrong to say that Maggie will take hints from nobody; for
she will receive any number from Miss Millington.
The most singular part of this devotion is its novelty. I

suppose Maggie has been fond of Miss Millington before, but
by no means to the same extent. "Maggie always allowed
Millie to call her by her name," Thyrza observed a day or
two ago, "so of course she has done the same to me. I
know Nellie didn't think it a good plan. But they were very
little together. Maggie was always dangling after mother and
Nellie,—it didn't matter which: and she was the same to
Jackie as to Millie. But now Jackie is gone, and mother and
Nellie are away, there's only Millie; and Maggie always must
have somebody!"
Does the clue lie in those words,—that Maggie "always

must have somebody!" Woodbine must cling to something.
If one prop be removed, it will find a second.
What to write to Mrs. Romilly, I do not know. For I must

comfort her: and yet I cannot say what is not true.
Something vaguely kind and cheering will be best. I shall
tell her how pretty Maggie's eyes are, and how fond she
seems of her sisters—not mentioning poor Thyrza. Then I
might perhaps generalise a little—abstractedly—about the
deepest natures not being always the most quickly won. Not
that I believe in that theory, but it will do as well as
anything else just now for my poor friend: and it is safe
enough to assert that a thing is "not always" this or the
other. But I shall have to be very careful. She is so quick to
read "between the lines."
May 14. Thursday.—My letter to Mrs. Romilly has gone

off. I feel rather "quaky" as to results.
Maggie will scarcely speak to me to-day. She is looking

her prettiest, not sulky and disagreeable, like most people
when they are vexed, but pensively grave, with just a little
heightening of colour, and a shy serious droop in her grey
eyes which suits them to perfection. Nona, taking her cue
from Maggie, is blunt, almost pert: and Elfie looks pinched
and miserable.
Of course I know the reason. Yesterday afternoon I

refused permission for Popsie to practise in the schoolroom,
while I was giving a lesson on Grecian history to the twins
and Thyrza. Miss Millington had kept her upstairs during the
usual time for her scale-playing, and desired that she might
do it later instead. I sent a kind message, saying I was
sorry that it could not be. A small thunder-cloud has
brooded in the air ever since. "Millie" was doleful at tea, and
she and Maggie shared grievances till twelve o'clock at
night, in Miss Millington's room.
But for Miss Millington, I do think my difficulties here

would soon lessen. I do not wish to make too much of her
conduct. She is what some people wrongly call "sensitive;"
that is, she has a susceptible temper, and is always
imagining slights. I believe she had delicate health in
childhood, which too often means a more or less spoiling
preparation for after-life. Whether or no that is the chief
cause, I do find her a difficult little person to get on with
comfortably. The friction is incessant.
One cannot expect to go through life without some

rubs; and no doubt there are faults on both sides. Very
likely I am a trouble to her, as well as she to me. I do not
exactly see how I could follow any different line of conduct:
but perhaps nothing is harder than to weigh dispassionately
one's own conduct, above all one's own bearing, towards
another, in such a case as this. We are each in a somewhat
ticklish position: and then, is not compatibility of temper to
smooth matters down.
It often strikes me as remarkable how almost

everybody has to do with somebody else who is
incompatible, somebody more or less trying, vexing,
worrying; not, of course, always with only one. And I often
wonder whether this ought to be viewed at all as an
accidental circumstance; still less as a subject for regret
and complaint.
Trial must be trial, in whatever shape it comes; and I do

feel that one is always free to pray for its removal, if God so
wills. But this is our time of probation and battling. It is far
more essential for us to learn patience and forbearance
than to glide smoothly through life. And I cannot at all see
how, if there were nothing to try our tempers, we ever
could become patient or forbearing. Untried good-humour is
not patience: any more than the stillness of ocean on a
breezeless day is rigidity. And the very word "forbearance"
implies the existence of something which must be borne.
May it not be that our Father does deliberately so place

us one with another, side by side—those who are not suited,
not compatible—for this very reason, that we may have the
opportunity to conquer ourselves, to vanquish our hasty and
impatient tempers, as we never could if He allowed us to be
only among those who can become so intensely dear to us,
that yielding to them must become a pleasure, not a pain at
all?
I don't know whether this sentence would be quite clear

to anybody else reading my journal: but it is very clear to
myself what I mean. There are such different kinds and
degrees of love. So often we love or try to love another,
merely because of circumstances, because we ought,
because we are thrown together, because we are related.
So seldom we love soother with pure and heart-whole
devotion, entirely because of what he or she is.
If things be thus, "Millie" is certainly my foremost

opportunity for patience in life just now, and very likely I
am hers.
Looking upon the matter in such a light ought, I think,

to make a great difference to one. For, instead of feeling
annoyed and worried at everything she says and does, I
shall understand that my Father is setting me a lesson in
patience and quietness of spirit, which has to be learnt.
Then, too, I must think how my Master, Christ, had the

same trial to endure, only to such an overwhelming extent.
For what is the utmost incompatibility of character and
temper between us and those around us, compared with
the infinite incompatibility between His pure and holy Spirit,
and the dull grovelling thoughts of His disciples? Only—His
love for them was so great! But for that, He never could
have borne it all those years. And I am sure a more loving
spirit is what I need. If I cannot love Miss Millington for
what she is in herself, or for what she is to me, cannot I
love her at least with a kind and pitying love—and because
she is dear to my Lord and Master?
It is not easy, I know. In the learning of this lesson, I
have to spell out the words letter by letter, looking up for
Heavenly teaching.
For I have to be patient with her, yet not weakly

yielding. I have to do my duty, often in direct opposition to
her wishes, yet not be angry when she shows unjust
resentment. No light programme to carry out. But "help
sufficient" is promised.
June 1. Monday.—No answer has arrived from Mrs.

Romilly, and no notice has been taken of my letter. I fear
she has been hardly so well lately; and evidently there is no
idea of her return to England for many months.
Much talk goes on about our projected journey north, in

July. I am looking forward as keenly as anyone to the
beautiful surroundings of Beckdale. Mountains will be a new
delight to me. But I have my doubts whether we shall get
away before the beginning of Denham's holidays. He would
be obliged to board with somebody in Glynde if we left
earlier. The same difficulty will not exist another year, for
after the summer holidays, he goes to Eton. Time he should
too; for of all spoilt boys—! Yet there is something winning
about the lad too.
Also we have much discussion at meal-times about the

future career of Eustace. Poor Mr. Romilly cannot keep any
worry to himself: and every day we wander with him round
and round the same hazy circles. I never realised before the
wearisomeness of a man who is unable to come to any
decision, without somebody to lead him by the hand. A
woman of that kind is bad enough, but a man is worse. He
talks and talks on, in his thin monotonous tones, reviewing
all the perplexities of a subject, pulling up first one side and
then the other, meekly opposing every suggestion,
mournfully refusing to accept any solution of the puzzle.
And if by dint of some happy hit, you really think he is at
last brought to some more hopeful point—suddenly he slips
out of your fingers, and starts the whole question again
from the very commencement.
It seems singular that Eustace Romilly should have

reached the age of twenty-two, and be still in uncertainty as
to his course in life.
He has not been home this half-year, except for three

nights at the time of my first arrival, and for one week at
Easter. Having finished his University career before
Christmas, he is now acting temporarily as tutor to the son
of an old friend. This gives umbrage to his father, and is
matter for never-ceasing complaint. It seems that Mr.
Romilly is bent upon seeing Eustace enter the Church, and
that Eustace is at present opposed to the step.
I do not know the ins and outs of the affair, nor am I

acquainted with Eustace's motives, but certainly I have a
very strong feeling against any man being pressed to take
so solemn a charge upon himself, unless distinctly called to
it.
All the girls except Thyrza unite in blaming their brother,

and Thyrza says nothing.
"So stupid of Eustace! Why can't he do what father

wishes?" Maggie said yesterday, and Thyrza's black eyes
flashed with silent indignation.
I am more and more convinced that Thyrza has a very

strong affection for her eldest brother, though she seldom
or never shows it in her manner when with him; and he is
uniformly the same to all his sisters.
CHAPTER XV.
THAT PUBLISHER!!
THE SAME.
June 16. Tuesday.
MAGGIE'S story has been returned, as any one might

have foretold. She has wondered much over the delay,
devising all sorts of extraordinary reasons for the same, and
she has written repeatedly to remonstrate with the
publisher. Poor man! No doubt he has cartloads of such
rubbish tilted upon his devoted head. I feel a certain sense
of satisfaction in having never contributed my quota to the
load,—though perhaps I could achieve a passable second-
rate story, if I chose.
Maggie's remonstrances having brought no result, she

persuaded her father to write. I believe Mr. Romilly
accomplished some six pages, to be fired by post at the
same luckless publisher, after a morning of dire effort and
mighty consultation. And the six pages, whether read or
unread, took effect. For within forty-eight hours a tied up
manuscript arrived; and—this being the "most unkindest cut
of all,"—no letter of explanation accompanied it; not even
one half-page.
The publisher's ears ought to have burned that

morning, with the things said of him at our breakfast-table.
Everybody, trying in affectionate family conclave to comfort
the crest-fallen Maggie, vied one with another in hot
indignation at his decision. Never was there living man so
lacking in taste, so utterly unappreciative. Such a sweet
pretty story,—and he not to want to bring it out! Well, then
he didn't deserve to have it! Maggie would soon find a more
sensible publisher. Of course it was well-known that all the
greatest authors always have the most difficulty at the
beginning, and all the best books are always refused by a
dozen publishers before one enlightened man consents to
bring them out! So being refused meant nothing at all: only
he might just have had the politeness to write and explain
exactly why he didn't want it, and what he disliked in the
tale. And of course he would have done so, if there were
anything really to dislike. But never mind, Maggie must just
try somebody else, and she would be sure to succeed, and
very likely would get twenty pounds after all, instead of only
fifteen.
I could not help remembering, as I listened in silent

amusement to all this, how Gladys had remarked, a day or
two before, "What kind pleasant people editors and
publishers seemed to be!" But it was not for me to remark
on the contrast. Maggie must, find her own level, through
the stern realities of failure.
June 17. Wednesday.—At last I have seen again my

travelling companion, Sir Keith Denham!
He and his mother, Lady Denham, have been absent
from The Park almost entirely since my arrival in Glynde. At
one time they were coming home, then suddenly changed
their plans and went abroad. Sir Keith has paid one or two
flying visits, I believe, lately, but he and I have not met.
I stood still to break off a small spray of may.

Now they will be at The Park for some weeks, and the
girls are quite excited,—Thyrza excepted, and Maggie
especially. But I fancy the chief source of their excitement is
the prospect of tennis there.
Thyrza and I had a walk alone together this afternoon,

the twins going by invitation to the Hepburns. I always
enjoy a ramble with Thyrza: for if no one else is present,
she opens out, shakes off the shackles of reserve, and
allows me some glimpses of her true self. It is an
interesting "self" to me, crude and unformed indeed, but
thoughtful, earnest, full of vague longings and high aims. If
only Mrs. Romilly could see her thus!
Coming homeward after a long round, we passed

through a pretty lane, arched over by trees. I stood still to
break off a small spray of may from the hedge, and Thyrza
knelt down on the bank for the better securing of a few
violets. She loves flowers almost as much as I do.
Footsteps drew near, and I looked up. Somebody

following in our rear had just overtaken us; and for a
moment I was under a puzzled sense of familiarity with the
face and form, though I could not recall who it might be.
Apparently he had not yet become aware of our presence.
He was walking swiftly, and gazing steadfastly downward.
"Miss Con, just smell these! How sweet they are!" cried
Thyrza.
Then two large brown eyes were lifted in a curious slow

fashion to meet mine, as if their owner had been very far-
away in thought; and at once I knew. I should not have
expected him to recognise me. The instant pause and the
raised hat were a surprise.
"Thyrza!" I said, for her back was turned.

She glanced round, and sprang up, freezing into her
usual unapproachable stiffness.
"How do you do?" Sir Keith said, giving her his ungloved
hand, or rather taking the rigid member which she poked
half-way towards him. "I hope you are all well at home.
Pleasant day, is it not?"
He looked towards me again, and Thyrza ungraciously

mumbled something about—"Miss Con—at least, Miss
Conway!"—which was doubtless intended for an
introduction.
Sir Keith's hat was lifted afresh, with his air of marked
and simple courtesy,—simple, because so absolutely
natural. I have never seen a more thoroughly high-bred
manner.
"I must supply Thyrza's omission," he said, smiling. "My

name is Denham, and we are near neighbours. We have
met before: and the name of Miss Conway is by no means
unknown to me, as Mrs. Romilly's friend."
"And governess," I said. I could not help noticing the

flash of his eyes, curiously soft and gentle eyes for a man.
It meant approval, certainly, and something else beyond
approval which I could not fathom. One never loses in the
end by claiming no more than one's rightful position. It is
rather absurd of me to care what Sir Keith does or does not
think about the matter. But I should say that he is a man
whose good opinion one could hardly help valuing.
"I hope you caught your train that day?" he said, after a
few remarks had passed between us.
"Thanks to you, I did," was my answer.

"Are you going home now? My way is identical with
yours, so far as the end of the next lane," he said, and we
walked side by side, Thyrza marching solemnly, a yard off,
declining to take any share in the talk.
Sir Keith had been ill in Bournemouth, I found, from the

effects of a chill, caught on the day of our first encounter, "A
touch of rheumatic fever," he said carelessly. Since then he
and his mother had been abroad, and he "would have liked
to go on to Italy, for a peep at Mrs. Romilly, had that been
practicable."
He seemed interested to find that I had never been out

of England; and soon the subject of Beckdale came up,
whereupon he spoke with warmth of Yorkshire scenery.
"That part of the West Riding is quite unique in style,"

he said; "I have never seen anything resembling it
anywhere else."
"Not in Scotland?" I asked.
"I am not comparing degrees of beauty," he said. "That

is another question. Mountains two thousand feet high
cannot vie with mountains four thousand feet high: and
there are views in Scotland which I don't think can be
rivalled anywhere. No, not even in Switzerland. The two are
so unlike in kind, one can't compare them. But the
Yorkshire dales are peculiar to Yorkshire. English people
don't half know the loveliness of their own country. I could
envy you the first sight of such surroundings."
He went on to describe briefly the lone heights and

passes, the long parallel valleys or "dales," the brawling
"tea-coloured" torrents, the extraordinary deep caves and
underground waterfalls, the heather colouring, the frank
kind simplicity and honesty of the "northeners." Thyrza
drew near, looking interested, and I was quite sorry when
we had to part.
"How is my particular pet, the Elf?" he asked, with a

smile, as we shook hands.
"Elfie is all right," Thyrza's brusque tone answered.
Sir Keith vanished, and I said, "He looks delicate."
"I don't think he ever is very strong," said Thyrza, at

once natural again. "He never makes any fuss about his
health; but Lady Denham fusses for him."
"Is Lady Denham like Sir Keith?"
"No. She is a little plain sort of person, and rather odd,

and she thinks nobody in the world is equal to him."
"He seems to be a general favourite," I said.
"Oh yes, of course he is. Everybody sings his praises.

And I hate general favourites," cried Thyrza, with sudden
heat. "I should like him fifty times as much, if—"
"If everybody else disliked him," I suggested, as she

came to a stop.
"Yes."
"Is that perversity, my dear?" I asked.
"I don't know. I hate running with the crowd."
"If the crowd is going in a wrong direction—yes. I would

never have you follow a path merely because others follow
it."
"If everybody thinks a thing, I am not bound to think
the same, I suppose," she said, hotly still.
"Certainly not. Never think a thing merely because

others think it. But always to disagree with the majority is
quite as illogical as never to disagree with the majority. And
to refuse a particular conclusion, only because many others
have reached that same conclusion, savours of weakness."
She blushed, but did not look annoyed. When alone

with Thyrza, I can say what I like to her.
"You must learn to take everything upon its own merits,

and to weigh it with an independent judgment," I said. "A
certain animal which always goes to the right if its tail be
pulled to the left is no more really independent than—"
She interrupted me with a laughing protest.
"But I can't make myself like Sir Keith," she added.

"Perhaps I ought because he is Eustace's great friend, and
Keith was so fond of him. If only one didn't get so tired of
hearing about his virtues. And Maggie puts me out of all
patience."
I suppose I looked the inquiry which I would not ask.
"Oh, I can't tell you exactly what I mean, it is nothing

particular, only she is so silly. I hate to see a girl make a
sort of idol of a man . . . and not an atom of reason . . . Of
course he is very kind and polite; . . . but he looks upon us
as a set of schoolgirls. It is so ridiculous of Maggie. I don't
mean that she does or says anything—particular—only she
is so absurd! I should like to give her a good shaking. I do
wish, girls had a little more common self-respect!" Thyrza
concluded fiercely, with burning cheeks.

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Introduction to 80×86 Assembly Language and Computer

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List of Listening Examples xvii

1 Music of Latin America and the Caribbean:

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The Borderland Region 84

5 The Caribbean: An Overview 119

6 The Spanish Caribbean 127

Historical Overview 128

7 The English Caribbean 169

8 The French and Dutch Caribbean, and the Guyanas 201

The Bossa Nova Phenomenon 253

10 Colombia and Venezuela 267

11 The Andean Region 307

12 The Southern Cone Region 355

13 Transnational Genres: Nueva Canción and Latin American Rock 395

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New to This Edition

Indigenous Cultures Before 1492

• a few surviving pre-Columbian codices, as well as several post-Conquest volumes written

FROM MRS. ROMILLY TO MISS CONWAY.

MY DEAREST CONSTANCE,—I have persuaded

Maggie is like me, reserved as to her deepest

I know well how terribly my sweet Maggie is

It rejoices me to hear that darling Elfie is

Nona's powers will develop. I am not at all

CONSTANCE CONWAY'S JOURNAL.

May 12. Tuesday.

IF ever anybody managed to write a harmless and non-

Of course I showed Mrs. Romilly's letter to nobody:

All eyes were on me as I read, and when I put the letter

"Mrs. Romilly tells me really no news," I said.

"And no messages to any of us!" exclaimed Nona,—

"None," I replied. "Perhaps she was tired with writing,

"Jackie always showed her letters from mother!" These

Mr. Romilly sighed afresh, and observed that his dear

"I am afraid it was not very prudent of Mrs. Romilly," I

Then the Prayer-bell rang, and the subject had to be

My thoughts have dwelt a good deal on that letter to-

I am wondering, too, what more I can do with respect

Again, what about Mrs. Romilly's estimate of Maggie?

"And my deep heart's sublime imaginings

One might almost as soon credit a newly-hatched

It seems to me that Maggie is rather gratified than

Now and then I see Maggie to be greatly put out with

One odd phase of affairs is Maggie's devotion to Miss

The most singular part of this devotion is its novelty. I

Does the clue lie in those words,—that Maggie "always

What to write to Mrs. Romilly, I do not know. For I must

May 14. Thursday.—My letter to Mrs. Romilly has gone

Maggie will scarcely speak to me to-day. She is looking

Of course I know the reason. Yesterday afternoon I