Bohr’s postulates:

According to Bohr’s theory of atomic model, the following are the postulates
a) ‘ The electrons moves round the nucleus in a circular path under the
electrostatic force of attraction’
𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝟏 𝒁𝒆.𝒆
= Where, 𝝐𝟎 = permittivity of free space
𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐

𝒁 = 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓
b) The electron revolving round the nucleus only in certain definite circular
orbits without radiation energy the possible orbit called the stationary of the
atom.
The allowed states are those for which the orbital angular momentum of the
electron mvr is equal to an integral multiple of h/2π
ℎ
.i.e. mvr = n n = 1,2,3….are integers
2𝜋
Where r is the radius of the possible orbit m is
the mass of electron revolving in that orbit, v is the velocity of the electron.
This condition is called Bohr’s quantization condition.
c) An electron revolving in any stationary orbit doesn’t radiate energy at all.
The electron emits the energy when it jumps from outer orbit to inner orbit.
Similarly, it absorbs radiation energy when it jumps from inner orbit to the
outer orbit.
If E2 and E1 are the energies associated with excited and ground state
energy level respectively then
hf = E2 - E1
This condition is called Bohr’s frequency condition.
Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom
A hydrogen atom which has positive charge +ze in the nucleus and negative –e
moving round in an orbit of the radius r. Suppose the electron
revolving in the nth orbit whose radius is rn with a velocity vn.
For circular motion,
F e = Fc
 𝟏 𝒁𝒆.𝒆 𝒎𝒗𝒏 𝟐
= …………(1)
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝒏 𝟐 𝒓𝒏

From Bohr’s quantization condition,

ℎ
m 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = n
2𝜋

Or, 𝑣𝑛 = (𝑛 ℎ)/(2𝜋 𝑚 𝑟𝑛 ) …………..(2)

From equation 1 and 2
𝑚 𝑛ℎ 𝟏 𝒁𝒆.𝒆
( )2 =
𝑟𝑛 2𝜋 𝑚 𝑟𝑛 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝒏 𝟐

𝒏𝟐 ∈𝟎 𝒉𝟐
𝒓𝒏 = ………………..(3)
𝝅 𝒎 𝒁𝒆𝟐
This gives the radius of an electron in nth orbit.
Putting the value of rn in equation 2 we get
𝑍𝑒 2
𝑣𝑛 = ………….(4)
2∈0 𝑛ℎ

This gives the velocity of an electron in nth orbit.

Energy of an electron in nth orbit
The total energy of an electron is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of
the electron. i. e
𝐸𝑛 = 𝐾. 𝑒𝑛 + 𝑝. 𝑒𝑛
1
Kinetic energy is given by k.e = m 𝑣𝑛 2
2

1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚 𝑍2𝑒 4
= m( )2 =
2 2∈0 𝑛ℎ 8∈0 𝑛2 ℎ2

𝟏 𝒁 𝒆 ( −𝒆)
Potential energy is given by p. e =
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝒏
𝑚 𝑍2𝑒 4
=-
4∈0 𝑛2 ℎ2

Putting these values we get

𝑚 𝑍2𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛 = -
8∈0 𝑛2 ℎ2

This is the required expression for the energy of an electron in nth orbit.
Origin of spectral series of hydrogen atom:
The emitted light radiation when electron jumps from higher state to the lower
state are called spectral linear.
A group of spectral lines are said to form spectral series if electrons jump from
different excited states to a fixed lower state. The various spectral series of H are:
a. Lyman series: The spectral series formed when electrons jump from different
higher states n2 = 2, 3, 4, 5,,,,as to a fixed lower state n1 = 1 i.e. ground state in
called Lyman series. The wave length of this series for H – atom is given as:
1 1 1
or, =R( - ) 𝑛2 =2,3,4,5….
𝜆 12 𝑛2 2
b. Balmier series: The spectral lines of this series correspond to the transition of an
electron from some higher energy state to an orbit having n = 2. The wavelength of
this series for H – atom is given by:
1 1 1
or, =R( - ) 𝑛2 = 3,4,5,6
𝜆 22 𝑛2 2

The spectral line of this series corresponds to visible region.

c. Paschen series: The spectral lines of this series correspond to the transition of an
electron from some higher energy state to an orbit n = 3. Therefore for Paschen
series n1 = 3, n2 = 4,5,6….. The wavelength of this series for H – atom is given by:
1 1 1
or, =R( - ) 𝑛2 = 4,5,6,7
𝜆 32 𝑛2 2
Paschen series lies in the infrared region of the spectral and it’s invisible.
d. Brackett series: The spectral lines of this series corresponds to the transition of
an electron from a higher energy stare to the orbit n = 4.
Therefore, this series n1 = 4 and n2 = 5,6,7….The wavelength of this series for H –
atom is given by
1 1 1
or, =R( - ) 𝑛2 = 5,6,7
𝜆 42 𝑛2 2

This series also lies in the infrared region of the spectrum.

e. P – fund series: The spectral lines of this series correspond to the transition of
electron from a higher energy state to the orbit having n = 5.
Therefore, for this series, n1 = 5 and n2 = 6, 7, 8….The wavelength of this series for
H – atom is given as
1 1 1
or, =R( - ) 𝑛2 = 6,7,8….
𝜆 52 𝑛2 2
The principle of laser:
The laser light is a source that produces a beam of highly coherent and a very
monochromatic light as a result of a co – operative emission from many atoms.
Principle of laser: Let is consider an assembly of atoms of some kind ‘hf’. If we
somehow raise the atoms of the metastable level and let a light of frequency ‘f’ fall
upon them, there will be more induced emission from the metastable level than that
of induced absorption by the lower level. As a result an amplification of the
original light is obtained. This is the principle of laser.

X –ray

Introduction
X – Rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength in the range of 10A° to
0.05𝐴0
The discovery of X – rays goes to 1895 when W. Roentgen discovered while
working with a discharge tube. The production of x ray is the inverse process of
photoelectric effect. When fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped by a target,
X – ray is produced.
Different between X-ray and Ordinary light:
Ordinary light x-ray
These are visible These are invisible
They have heating effect They have no heating effect
The wavelength of ordinary light The wavelength of x-ray range from
range from 4 x 10-7m to 7.6 x 10-7m. 10-9m to 10-12m.
It does not have high penetrating They have high penetrating power
power. Ordinary light penetrates only and power of transparency for
transparent substance not opaque. opaque substance

The important properties of X – rays are:

(i) The X – rays are the electromagnetic wave of wavelength 10A° to 0.5𝐴0
(ii) The X – ray travels in vacuum with the speed of light ie. 3 ×108 m/s.
(iii) They affect high penetrating power.
(iv) They have photographic effect.
(v) They are not deflected by electric and magnetic field.

Production of X – ray (Modern x –ray tube)

When fast moving electron having sufficient energy strikes the metal surface of
high atomic number, it knock out the some electron from the inner orbit of the
target metal due to vacancies are created so, to fill the vacant space electron from
the higher energy level jump into these spaces emitting the radiation whose energy
is equal to the difference in the energy of two orbits .thus obtained radiations by
the heavy metals are X –ray.
The tube is exhausted to the beast possible vacuum of the order of 10 -5mm of Hg.
The cathode consist of a tungsten filament (F) heated by a low tension battery.
Thermionic electrons emitted by the filament are accelerated toward the target (T)
by high P.D. maintained between F and T. The filament is placed inside a metal
cup G to focus the electrons on the target. The target must be cooled to remove the
heat generated in it by continuous electron- bombardment. The usual method is to
mount the target material on a hollow copper tube through which cold water is
continuously circulated. The target is made of material like tungsten or
molybdenum having a high m.p. and high atomic no. metal with atomic no. give
more energetic and intense X-rays when used as target. In the Coolidge tube the
intensity and frequency of x-ray can be easily controlled.
The intensity of X-ray is depending upon the no. of electrons striking the target per
second. The no. of the electrons give out by filament is directly proportional to its
temperature, which can adjust by varying the current in the filament circuit.
Therefore the intensity of X-ray varies with the filament current.
The frequency of X-ray emitted depends on the voltage between cathode and
anode. Let V be the accelerating potential across the tube. If e be the charge on the
the electron the the work done on the electron in moving from cathode to
anticathode is eV. Then the electron thus gains K.E. which is converted into x-ray
when the electron strikes the target.
If υmaxbe the maximum frequencies of the x-ray produce
Then h υmax=eV
 or, hC/λmin=eV
or, λmin=hC/eV where C= velocity of light and h= Planck’s constant .

Bragg’s law:
Statement: when a monochromatic X-rays impinge upon the atom in the crystal
lattice, each atom acts as source of scattering radiation of the same wavelength.
The crystal acts as a series of parallel reflecting plane. Then the intensity of the
reflected beam at certain angle will be maximum when the path difference between
two reflected waves from two different planes is an integral multiple of λ
Explanation of law:

Let us consider a set of parallel plane of atom point at a spacing d between the
successive plates. Let a narrow monochromatic X-ray beam of wavelength λ be
incident on the first plane at a glance angle ɵ consider the ray PQ incident on the
first plane. The corresponding reflected ray QR must be also be incident at the
same angle ɵ to the plane. Since X-ray are must more penetrating then that of
ordinary light there is only partial reflected at each plane The complete absorption
take place only after penetrating several layers. Consider two parallel rays PQR
and P’Q’R’ in the beam which reflected by two atom Q and Q’. is vertically below
Q. the ray P’Q’R’ has longer path than the ray PQR, To compute the path
difference between the two rays from Q draw normal QT and QS on P’Q’ and
Q’R’ respectively. Then the path difference =TQ’ +Q’S=d sin𝜃 +d sin𝜃= 2dsin𝜃
Hence the two ray will reinforce each other and produce maximum intensity, if
2dsin𝜃=nλ where n=1, 2, 3, 4,……………
The integer n gives the order of the scattered beam; λ is the length of X-ray used.
This equation is called Bragg’s law