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Active Power, Reactive Power, Apparent Power, and the Role of Power Factor - Technical Articles
Active Power, Reactive Power, Apparent Power, and the Role of Power Factor - Technical Articles
Active Power, Reactive Power, Apparent Power, and the Role of Power Factor - Technical Articles
What is Power?
The diverse power terms in electrical power systems include active, reactive, and apparent power, all of which lead to the
introduction of ‘power factor’ effectiveness in an AC circuit. AC circuits transfer energy to resistive and reactive loads and, in the
case of purely resistive loads, the energy is dissipated in the same way direct current dissipates energy in a resistor.
Electric power is the rate at which energy is transferred to or from a part of an electric circuit. In an electrical circuit, the power is
equal to the voltage difference across the element times current V × I . The power is measured in watts 1W = 1J s /
2
P = I × R
2
V
P =
R
These equations are derived from Ohm’s law which is V = I × R where V = Voltage or potential difference in the circuit, I =
current, and R = Resistance in the circuit.
Figure 1. Measuring AC current is a major component of verifying power generation and dissipation in large loads. Image used courtesy of Canva
Instantaneous Power
Instantaneous power means the power at any instant of time or the power at any given moment of time and can be written as:
1. Resistive Load: where V and I are in phase and the power is always positive like braking resistors, heaters, and light bulbs.
2. Inductive load: current lags by voltage like motors, fans, and transformers.
3. Capacitive load: current leads by voltage (few examples of pure capacitive loads).
The phase-angle difference between the current and voltage has an important effect on the power supplied, as the instantaneous
voltage corresponding to any particular instantaneous current depends on the angle between them. Therefore, in the alternating
current circuits power cannot usually be obtained simply by multiplying the effective voltages and effective amperes as was done
in the case of DC. The effect on the power of the difference in phase angle between the current and voltage must be taken into
account.
Types of Power:
Figure 2 describes the famous example to understand the difference between the three powers. The glass filled with cocktail
represents the true power and the frothy foam on the top is reactive power and the sum of active and reactive is apparent power
in the system.
P = V × I f or DC circuits
Whereas in AC circuits, there is a phase angle between voltage and current expressed with the added component of cosθ.
P = V × I × cosθ
In a 3-phase AC circuit:
P = √ 3 × V × I × cosθ
In Figure 3, the current and voltage are in phase with each other making a +90 degree angle at the same time and the positive
voltage times positive current generates positive power. When both current and voltage are negative, the power is still positive
therefore in both cases the power is always positive this is called active power. The power curve will lie entirely above the
horizontal axis and reflects that all of the work done is positive.
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The real power (also called useful power or watt-full power) actually does the real work in the circuit and always flows from
source to load or is supplied to the load from the generator all of the time as in Figure 4.
Reactive Power
Reactive power occurs in AC circuits when voltage and current are not in phase. Its unit is VAR (voltage ampere reactive). In the
real world, loads are a combination of resistive, inductive, and capacitive elements and it is impossible to determine the nature of
the load (small/large, domestic/industrial inductive/capacitive). There are two types of reactance:
The power can be positive and negative. When the power is flowing from source to load then it's positive, and the power is
flowing from load to source then it’s called negative power. In general, reactive power is only defined for AC circuits and
continuously bounces back and forth between source and load and is symbolized with the letter Q as in Figure 5.
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Figure 5. Reactive power flows from source to load and back to the source
Q = V × I × sinθ
Transformers also need reactive power to generate a magnetic field in the primary coil and induce a voltage in the secondary coil.
Therefore, if the reactive power supply is not adequate, the transformer will not transform voltages and the motor will not rotate.
The synchronous alternators also generate or absorb reactive power depending upon DC excitation to its field winding. When the
generator is over-excited it generates the reactive power and absorbs reactive power when the generator is under-excited.
Apparent Power
This power is the combination of active and reactive power and is expressed in volt-ampere or kilovolt-amperes (kVA).
In fact, most of the loads in our routine daily life (electric fan, electric iron, induction motor) are a combination of resistive &
inductive loads. The resistive load consumes active power and the inductive load consumes reactive power and the total power
delivered by the source is the combination of active & reactive power is called apparent power.
2 2 2
S = P + Q
Where S = Apparent Power measured in kVA, Q = Reactive Power in kVAR and P = Active Power in kW
Features of Reactive Power
Power Triangle
The relationship between powers can be represented in the form of vectors called the “Power Triangle”. The active power is
represented as horizontal whereas reactive power is shown as a vertical vector and the apparent power connects the active and
reactive vectors. If the angle “θ” between active and apparent power increases, the reactive power increase.
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Figure 6. The power triangle describes the relationship between active, reactive, and apparent power.
Power Factor
The power factor is an important concept in an electrical system and a good power factor determines the design quality and
effective use of the supply in the electrical system. It shows the relation of the real power to the apparent power and is simply the
ratio of active (real) power in watts to apparent power in volt-amperes.
Active P ower
P ower F actor =
Apparent P ower
A power factor of 1.0 is called a “unity power factor” or 100 percent power factor, which means that the current and voltage is “in
phase”. It is impossible to obtain a 100% power factor at all parts of a power system. In transmission lines, high PF is necessary
which reduces transmission losses and is also better for an inductive load-like motor to run efficiently and avoid overheating.
The question is: what does the power factor actually indicate? Suppose the power factor is 0.8. This means that, out of 100%, the
system is consuming 80% of active power and 20% is reactive power. This is the significance of the power factor that indicates
the total amount of active power in the system. The power factor is an important term in an AC power system if the voltage and
power of the system are constant then the power factor is inversely proportional.
1
Line Current ∝
P ower F actor
P = √ 3 × V × I × cosθ
Therefore
P
I =
√ 3 × V × cosθ
Here the factors P , √3, and V are taken as constants, therefore current is inversely proportional to cosθ i.e. I ∝ 1 / cosθ. This
means that if the power factor of the system is low, the current of the system becomes large.
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Let’s look into another way when the voltage decreases, excitation decreases which means flux decreases and consequently
reactive power will decrease, and hence power factor leading (increases). The generator consumes reactive power from the load.
This reactive power is used to build the magnetic field required by the generator to work properly. So we can say that over
excited synchronize machine acts as a capacitor and under excited synchronize machine acts as an inductor.
It has become the practice to say that the power factor is lagging when the current lags the supply voltage and leading when the
current leads the supply voltage.
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