Booklet On Energy Efficiency in Electrical Assets

CAMTECH/E/12-13/EE-Assets/1.
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(For Official Use Only)
Hkkjr ljdkj GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

jsy ea=ky; MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS
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BOOKLET ON ENERGY EFFICIENCY
IN ELECTRICAL ASSETS
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TARGET GROUP – All ELECTRICAL STAFF
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CAMTECH/E/12-13/ EE-Assets / 1.0
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February, 2013
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Maharajpur, GWALIOR - 474 005
Booklet on Energy Efficiency in Electrical Asset February, 2013
2 CAMTECH/E/12-13/EE-Assets/1.0
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ÅtkZ laj{k.k gekjk
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Conserving Energy
is our Collective
Responsibility
for
Better Tomorrow
February, 2013 Booklet on Energy Efficiency in Electrical Assets

CAMTECH/E/12-13/EE-Assets/1.0 3
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BOOKLET ON ENERGY EFFICIENCY
IN ELECTRICAL ASSETS
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QUALITY POLICY
“To develop safe, modern and cost effective
Railway Technology complying with Statutory
and Regulatory requirements, through
excellence in Research, Designs and
Standards and Continual improvements in
Quality Management System to cater to
growing demand of passenger and freight
traffic on the railways”.
Booklet on Energy Efficiency in Electrical Assets February, 2013
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25-02-
02-2013
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FOREWORD
Limited resources and growing demand of energy poses a

clear need for energy conservation in all sectors of economy.
Today 85% of primary energy comes from non-renewable and

fossil sources (coal, oil, gas etc.). These reserves are continually
diminishing with increased consumption and will not exist for future
generation.
CAMTECH has prepared this handbook on “Energy

Efficiency in Electrical Assets” with the objective of creating
awareness and to disseminate knowledge on the subject.
I am sure that this handbook will be useful to users in

conserving energy and efficient use of electrical energy.
CAMTECH Gwalior A.R.Tupe

Date : 25.02.2013 Executive Director

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IykaV dh 'kq} n{krk ¼baZ/ku Toyu ls ysdj fctyh mRiknu rd½ dsoy
16 Áfr’kr gh gksrh gSA vr% 1 okV dh cpr 6 okV ds thok’e baZ/ku
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02- 2013
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PREFACE
Efficient use of energy and its conservation is essential to
cater the increasing demand of electrical power and save reserves
of continuously diminishing fossil-fuels stocks.
A considerable amount of energy can be saved by

implementing end-use energy efficiency and demand side
management measures. The net efficiency (from burning of fuel
to power generation) of thermal power plant is only 16%.
Therefore 1 watt saved equals 6 watt of equivalent fossil fuel.
CAMTECH has prepared this handbook on “Energy

Efficiency in Electrical Assets” with the objective to use energy
efficient assets and to take measures to conserve energy.
It is clarified that this handbook does not supersede any

existing provisions laid down by RDSO or Railway Board/Zonal
Railways. This hand book is for guidance only and it is not a
statutory document.
I am sincerely thankful to all field personnel who helped us

in preparing this handbook.
Technological up-gradation & learning is a continuous

process. Please feel free to write to us for any addition/
modification in this handbook.
CAMTECH, Gwalior Peeyoosh Gupta

Date: 22.02.2013 Jt. Director Electrical

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1 ÁLrkouk 01
1-1 ÅtkZ 01
1-2 fo|qr ÅtkZ dh ewy tkudkjh 01
1-3 fo|qr 'kqYd@nj 04
1-4 ÅtkZ laj{k.k D;k gS 05
1-5 fof’k"V ÅtkZ [kir 06
1-6 ÅtkZ laj{k.k D;ksa 07
1-7 ÅtkZ laj{k.k dk egRo 07
1-8 ,d ;wfuV cpr = nks ;wfuV dk mRiknu 07
1-9 ÅtkZ laj{k.k vf/kfu;e 2001 08
1-10 ÅtkZ laj{k.k Hkou lafgrk 11
2 vf/kdre ekax ,oa ikoj QsDVj dk Áca/ku 13
2-1 ÁLrkouk 13
2-2 vf/kdre ekax dks fu;U=.k esa j[kus ds fy,s
Øec} ;kstuk 14
2-3 ikoj QsDVj dk lq/kkj ,oa Qk;ns 16
3 Ádk’k O;oLFkk esa ÅtkZ dh cpr 24
3-1 ÁLrkouk 24
3-2 fofHkUu Ádkj ds ysEiksa dh fo’ks"krk,sa 26
3-3 mPp n{krk ysEiksa ls cpr 26
3-4 LVªhV ykbfVax esa lEHkkfor ÅtkZ cpr 26
CONTENTS
Chapter No. Description Page No.
Foreword v
Preface vii
Contents ix
Correction Slip xiii
1. INTRODUCTION 01
1.1 Energy 01
1.2 Electrical Energy Basics 01
1.3 Electricity Tariff 04
1.4 What is Energy Conservation 05
1.5 Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) 06
1.6 Why Energy Conservation 07
1.7 Importance of Energy Conservation 07
1.8 One Unit Saved = Two Units Generated 07
1.9 Energy Conservation Act 2001 08
1.10 Energy Conservation Building
Code (ECBC) 11
2. MONITORING OF MAXIMUM DEMAND

& POWER FACTOR 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Step-By-Step Approach for
Maximum Demand Control 14
2.3 Power Factor Improvement and
Benefits 16
3. ENERGY SAVING IN LIGHTING SYSTEM 24

3.1 Introduction 24
3.2 Features of Different Types of Lamps 24
3.3 Saving by Using High Efficacy Lamps 26
3.4 Energy Saving Potential in Street
Lighting 26

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3-5 ykbfVax dh dqN vPNh i}fr;ka 26

3-6 ykbV forj.k 28
3-7 ykbV fu;U=.k 29
4 lEihfMr
lEihfMr gok Á.kkyh esa lqvolj 32
4-1 ÁLrkouk 32
4-2 jsYos esa lEihfMr gok dk Á;ksx 32
4-3 dEÁsljksa dk p;u 33
4-4 laEihfMr gok Á.kkyh esa ÅtkZ {kerk
ds fy;s tkap lwph 36
5 ÅtkZ {kerk ds fy;s fofHkUu Á.kkfyvksa esa lqvolj 39
5-1 ÁLrkouk 39
5-2 d"kZ.k forj.k 39
5-3 jksfyax LVkWd 41
5-4 lkekU; lsok;sa 42
6 ÅtkZ laj{k.k ij lq>ko 49
6-1 Ádk’k O;oLFkk 49
6-2 d{k okrkuqdwfyr ;wfuV 50
6-3 fQzt 51
6-4 okVj ghVj 52
6-5 ekbØksoso vksou ,oa fo|qr dsryh 52
6-6 deI;wVj 53
7 vDlj iwNs tkus okys Á’u 54
lanHkZ 60

Chapter No. Description Page No.
3.5 Some Good Practices in Lighting 26

3.6 Light Distribution 28
3.7 Light Control 29
4. OPPORTUNITIES IN COMPRESSED
AIR SYSTEM 32
4.1 Introduction 32
4.2 Use of Compressed Air in Railways 32
4.3 Selection of Compressors 33
4.4 Checklist for Energy Efficiency in
compressed Air System 36
5. OPPORTUNITIES IN VARIOUS SYSTEMS

FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY 39
5.1 Introduction 39
5.2 Traction Distribution 39
5.3 Rolling Stock 41
5.4 General Services 42
6. TIPS ON ENERGY CONSERVATION 49

6.1 Lighting System 49
6.2 Room Air Conditioners 50
6.3 Refrigerators 51
6.4 Water Heater 52
6.5 Microwave Ovens & Electric Kettles 52
6.6 Computers 53
7. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 54
References 60

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dh la[;k rkjh[k ,oa en la[;k

ISSUE OF CORRECTION SLIP
The correction slips to be issued in future for this

handbook will be numbered as follows:
CAMTECH/E/12-13/EE-Assets/1.0/ C.S. # XX date--------
Where “XX” is the serial number of the concerned

correction slip (starting from 01 onwards).
CORRECTION SLIPS ISSUED
Sr. No. Date of Page no. and Item Remarks

issue no. modified

CAMTECH/E/12-13/EE-Assets/1.0
v/;k; 1 CHAPTER 1
ÁLrkouk
INTRODUCTION
1.1 ÅtkZ ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work and work is the

transfer of energy from one form to another. Energy comes in
different forms – heat (thermal), light (radiant), mechanical,
electrical, chemical, nuclear energy etc.
In this handbook, energy means electrical energy or
the form of energy, which utilizes electrical energy as a
primary source. Electrical energy is the movement of
electrons.
1.2 fo|qr ÅtkZ dh ewy tkudkjh

ELECTRICAL ENERGY BASICS
Electric current is divided into two types: Directional

Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC).
Directional (Direct) Current
A non-varying unidirectional electric current
(Example: Current produced by batteries).
Alternating current
A current which reverses in regularly recurring of
time and which has alternately positive and negative values,
and occurring a specified number of times per second.
Booklet on Energy Efficiency in Electrical Asset February, 2013

(Example: Household electricity produced by generators,

Electricity supplied by utilities)
Ampere (A)
Current is the rate of flow of charge. The ampere is
the basic unit of electric current.
Voltage (V)
The volt is the International System of Unit (SI)
measure of electric potential or electromotive force. A
potential of one volt appears across a resistance of one ohm
when a current of one ampere flows through that resistance.
Resistance
Resistance = Voltage/ Current
The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
Frequency
The supply frequency tells us the cycles at which

alternating current changes. The unit of frequency is hertz
(Hz: cycles per second).
Kilovolt Ampere (kVA)
It is the product of kilovolts and amperes. This

measures the electrical load on a circuit or system. It is also
called the apparent power.
For a single phase electrical circuit,

Apparent power (kVA) = Voltage x Amperes
1000

For a three phase electrical circuit,
Apparent power (kVA) = √ 3 x Voltage x Amperes

1000
KVAr (Reactive Power)
KVAr is the reactive power. Reactive power is the

portion of apparent power that does no work. This type of
power must be supplied to all types of magnetic equipment,
such as motors, transformers etc. larger the magnetizing
requirement, larger the kVAr.
Kilowatt (kW) (Active Power)
kW is the active power or the work-producing part of

appearent power.
For single phase, Power(kW)
= Voltage x Ampere x Power factor

1000
For three phase, Power (kW)
= √ 3 x Voltage x Amperes x Power factor

1000
Power Factor
Power Factor (PF) is the ratio between the

active power (kW) and apparent power (kVA).

Power Factor (CosΦ )

= Active Power (kW)
Apparent Power (kVA)
= kW
√(kW) + (kVAr)2
2
= 1.0 (when kVAr = 0)
When current lags the voltage like in inductive loads,

it is called lagging power factor and when current leads the
voltage like in capacitive loads, it is called leading power
factor.
Lower the power factor; electrical network is loaded

with more current. It would be advisable to have highest
power factor (close to 1) so that network carries only active
power which does real work.
Kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Kilowatt-hour is the energy consumed by 1000 Watts

in one hour. If 1kW (1000 watts) of a electrical equipment is
operated for 1 hour, it would consume 1 kWh of energy (1
unit of electricity).
1.3 fo|qr 'kqYd@nj ELECTRICITY TARIFF
Calculation of electric bill for a H.T. consumer

Electrical utility or power supplying companies
charge industrial customers not only based on the amount of
energy used (kWh) but also on the peak demand (kVA) for
each month.

Contract demand
Contract demand is the amount of electric power that

a customer demands from utility in a specified interval. Unit
used is kVA. It is the amount of electric power that the
consumer agreed upon with the utility. This would mean that
utility has to plan for the specified capacity.
Maximum demand
Maximum demand is the highest average kVA

recorded during any one-demand interval within the month.
The demand interval is normally 30 minutes, but may vary
from utility to utility from 15 minutes to 60 minutes. The
demand is measured using a tri-vector meter/ digital energy
meter.
PF measurement
A power analyzer can measure PF directly, or

alternately kWh, kVAh or kVArh readings are recorded from
the billing meter installed at the incoming point of supply. It
would be advisable to have higher power factor (close to 1).
An incentive is given for higher power factor and a penalty is
imposed for lower power factor by utility in billing of user.
1.4 ÅtkZ laj{k.k D;k gS

WHAT IS ENERGY CONSERVATION
Energy conservation means “Reducing energy
consumption by adopting energy consuming efficient
measures in various sectors”. It means
• Reducing energy consumption
• Avoiding wastage of energy.

Energy conservation is achieved when growth of

energy consumption is reduced, measured in physical terms. It
can also be achieved by efficient use of energy i.e. energy
efficiency. Energy efficiency is achieved when energy
intensity in a specific product, process or area of production
or consumption is reduced without affecting output,
consumption or comfort levels.
1.5 fof’k"V ÅtkZ [kir

SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION (SEC)
This is the amount of energy used in producing a unit

amount of product.
It is therefore a ratio of energy input to the output.

Here the product is the output of the establishment, which is
the source of revenue.
The best means of measuring and comparing energy

use is by comparing the SEC of several years.
The other way, SEC relates to the output of machines

or a plant to its electricity consumption.
For example,
• kW / tonne of refrigeration
• kW / CFM of compressed air,
• kW / LPS of water pump.
Energy efficiency can be increased by reducing

energy consumption for the same level of production or
increasing production for same level of energy consumption.

1.6 ÅtkZ laj{k.k D;ksa

WHY ENERGY CONSERVATION
Limited resources and growing demand of energy
poses a clear need for energy conservation in all sectors of
economy.
Today 85% of primary energy comes from non-
renewable and fossil sources (coal, oil, gas etc.). These
reserves are continually diminishing with increasing
consumption and will not exist for future generation.
1.7 ÅtkZ laj{k.k dk egRo

IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY CONSERVATION
• It is estimated that over 30% of energy in the economy as
a whole can be saved by utilizing energy more efficiently.
• Energy efficiency/ conservation and demand side
management measures can reduce peak and average
demand.
• One kWh of energy saved at consumer end is equal to 2 to
2.5 kWh of energy generated at the generation end.
• Investment in energy efficiency/ energy conservation is
highly cost effective. Saving of energy equivalent to 1
MW generation can be achieved by investing Rs. 1 crore
as against 4 to 5 crores required for generation of 1MW.
• Additional investment in fuel, mining & transportation is
also saved.
1.8 ,d ;wfuV cpr = nks ;wfuV dk mRiknu

ONE UNIT SAVED = TWO UNITS GENERATED
After power generation at the plant it is transmitted
and distributed over a wide network. The standard technical
losses are around 17% in India (Efficiency = 83%).
When the power reaches the industry, it meets the

transformer. The energy efficiency of the transformer is
generally very high. Next, it goes to the motor through
internal plant distribution network. A typical distribution
network efficiency including transformer is 95% and motor
efficiency is about 90%. Another 30% (Efficiency = 70%) is
lost in the mechanical system which includes coupling/ drive
train, a driven equipment such as pump and flow control
valves/ throttling etc. Thus the overall energy efficiency
becomes 50%. (0.83 x 0.95 x 0.9 x 0.70 = 0.50% efficiency)
Hence one unit saved in the end user is equivalent to
two units generated in the power plant (1Unit/ 0.5 Eff = 2
Units).
1.9 ÅtkZ laj{k.k vf/kfu;e 2001

ENERGY CONSERVATION ACT 2001
The “Energy Conservation Bill 2001” was passed
unanimously by both the houses of Parliament during the
Monsoon Session 2001 and has become an Act for promoting
and enforcing a progressive regime of energy conservation in
country.
It became effective from 01.03.2002.
1.9.1 Salient Features
• Formation of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)
Under the provisions of act, Bureau of Energy
Efficiency has been established with effect from 1st March
2002. The Bureau would be responsible for
implementation of policy programmes and co-ordination
of implementation of energy conservation activities.

• Implementation of Mandatory Energy Audit w.e.f.

01.04.2006 onwards
Every industry with connected load of 5 MW and

above and every building (individual installation) with
connected load of 0.5 MW (500kW) will be required to
get energy audit by the Energy Managers/ Auditors. These
Energy Managers/ Auditors will be certified by Bureau of
Energy Efficiency through National Productivity Council
by conducting National Certification Examination
regularly.
In the schedule of energy conservation Act 2001,

Railways has been listed at Sr.No. 10 as energy intensive
industry and hence various workshops and installations of
the Railways having a load of 5 MW and 500 kW will
have to monitor/ audit energy consumption through
certified Energy Managers/ Auditors.
• Lay down energy consumption norms and standards for

industrial process of energy incentives.
• Specify energy consumption standards and mandatory

labeling of selected appliances/ equipments. Prohibit
manufacture, sale and import of such equipment, which
does not confirm to the standards.
• Energy Conservation Building Code
Formulate energy conservation building code. Energy

audit of specific designated commercial building consumers
would also be prescribed.

• Central Energy Conservation Fund.
The fund would be set up at the center to develop

the delivery mechanism for large-scale adoption of energy
efficiency services such as performance contracting and
promotion of energy service companies.
• Penalties and adjudication
If any person fails to comply with the provisions

of this bill, applicable penalties and provisions for
adjudication has been made. Provision also has been made
for Appellate Tribunal for the appeals for any aggrieved
person.
The objective of this bill is to improve the quality

of all the electrical equipments and appliances mainly to
ensure manufacture and use of high quality equipments
and appliances to minimize the energy used.
1.9.2 The Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2010
Main Amendments are:
• The Central Government may issue the energy savings

certificate to the designated consumer whose energy
consumption is less than the prescribed norms and
standards in accordance with the procedure as may be
prescribed.
• The designated consumer whose energy consumption is
more than the prescribed norms and standards shall be
entitled to purchase the energy savings certificate to
comply with the prescribed norms and standards.

• The Central Government may, in consultation with the

Bureau, prescribe the value of per metric ton of oil
equivalent of energy consumed.
• Commercial buildings which are having a connected load
of 100 kW or contract demand of 120 kVA and above
come under the purview of ECBC under EC Act.
1.10 ÅtkZ laj{k.k Hkou lafgrk

Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC)
• The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was
launched by the Government of India on 27th May, 2007.
• The purpose of energy conservation building code (ECBC)
is to provide minimum requirements for energy efficient
design and construction of buildings and their system.
• The ECBC sets minimum energy standards for new
commercial buildings having a connected load of 100 kW
or contract demand of 120 kVA in terms of Energy
Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2010.
• Harmonization of ECBC with National Building Code
(NBC) is also under progress by including a chapter on
"Approach to Sustainability" in NBC-2005.
• BEE has developed ECO-NIRMAN conformance check
tool with an objective of helping architects and design
professionals to assess the conformance of their designs
with code requirements.
1.10.1 Applicable building systems
The provisions of the code apply to:

• Building envelopes, except for unconditioned storage
spaces or warehouses.

• Mechanical systems and equipment, including heating,

ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC).
• Service hot water heating
• Interior and exterior lighting
• Electrical power and motors.
1.10.2 Exemptions
The provisions of this code do not apply to:
• Buildings that do not use either electricity or fossil fuel.

• Equipment and portions of building systems that use
energy primarily for manufacturing processes.
1.10.3 Safety, Health and Environmental codes take precedence
Where this code is found to conflict with safety, health, or

environmental codes, the safety, health or environmental
codes shall take precedence.

v/;k; 2 CHAPTER 2
vf/kdre ekax ,oa ikoj QsDVj dk Áca

Áca/ku
MONITORING OF MAXIMUM DEMAND &
POWER FACTOR
2.1 ÁLrkouk INTRODUCTION
The electricity billing by utilities for medium & large

enterprises, in high tension (HT) category is often done on
two part tariff structure i.e. one part for capacity (or contract
demand) drawn and the second part for actual energy drawn
during the billing cycle. Accordingly utility charges for
contract demand, maximum demand, active energy and
reactive power drawn (as reflected by the power factor) in its
billing structure. In addition other fixed and variable expenses
are also levied.
The detailed electric tariff, definitions of contract

demand, maximum demand and power factor are given in
section 1.3 of chapter 1.
If maximum demand exceeds contract demand, utility

will have to pay extra amount to electricity supplier.
Similarly if power factor falls down to a certain value
(generally less than 0.90) a penalty will be imposed and if it
improves up to a certain value (generally more than 0.95)
some rebate is given to user by supplier.

2.2 vf/kdre ekax dks fu;U=.k esa j[kus ds fy,s Øec

Øec} ;kstuk
STEP-BY-STEP APPROACH FOR MAXIMUM
DEMAND CONTROL
2.2.1 Load Curve Generation
Presenting the load demand of a consumer against
time of the day is known as a load curve. If it is plotted for
the 24 hours of a single day, it is known as a hourly load
curve. A typical hourly load curve for an engineering industry
is shown in figure 3.1 load curve is useful in predicting
patterns of drawl, peaks and valleys and energy use trend in a
section or in an industry.
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 2.1 Maximum Demand (Daily load curve, hourly kVA)
2.2.2 Rescheduling of Loads

Rescheduling of large electric loads and equipments
operations, in different shifts can be planned and
implemented to minimize the simultaneous maximum
demand. For this purpose, it is advisable to prepare an
operation flow chart and a process chart. Analyzing these
charts and with an integrated approach, it would be possible
to reschedule the operations and running equipment in such a

way as to improve the load factor which in turn reduces the

maximum demand.
2.2.3 Shedding of Non-Essential Loads
When the maximum demand tends to reach preset

limit, shedding some of non-essential loads temporarily can
help to reduce it. It is possible to install direct demand
monitoring systems, which will switch off non-essential loads
when a preset demand is reached. Simple systems give an
alarm, and the loads are shed manually. Sophisticated
microprocessor controlled systems are also available, which
provide a wide variety of control options.
2.2.4 Operation of Captive Generation and Diesel Generation

Sets
When diesel generation sets are used to supplement

the power supplied by the electric utilities, it is advisable to
connect the D.G. sets for durations when demand reaches the
peak value. This would reduce the load demand to a
considerable extent and minimize the demand charges.
2.2.5 Reactive Power Compensation
The maximum demand can also be reduced at the

plant level by using capacitor banks and maintaining the
optimum power factor. Capacitor banks are available with
microprocessor based control systems. These systems switch
on and off the capacitor banks to maintain the desired power
factor of system and optimize maximum demand thereby.

2.3 ikoj QsDVj dk lq/kkj ,oa Qk;ns

POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT AND BENEFITS
2.3.1 Power Factor Basics
In all industrial electrical distribution systems, the

major loads are resistive and inductive. Resistive loads are
incandescent lighting and resistance heating. In case of pure
resistive, loads the voltage (V), current (I), resistance (R)
relations are linearly related.
i.e. V = I x R and Power (kW) = V x I
Typical inductive loads are A.C. Motors, induction

furnaces, transformers and ballast type lighting. Inductive
loads require two kinds pf power. A) active (or working)
power to perform the work and b) reactive power to create
and maintain electro-magnetic fields.
Active power is measured in kW (Kilo Watt).

Reactive power is measured in kVAr (Kilo-Volt-Amperes
Reactive).
The vector sum of the active power and reactive
power make up the total (or apparent) power used. This is the
power generated by the SEBs for the user to perform a given
amount of work. Total power is measured in kVA (kilo-
Volts-Amperes)
The active power (shaft power required or true power

required) in kW and the reactive power required (kVAr) are
90° apart vectorically in a pure inductive circuit i.e. reactive
power kVAr lagging the active kW. The vector sum of the
two is called the apparent power or kVA, as illustrated below

and the kVA reflects the actual electrical load on distribution

system.
KW (Active Power)
φ
KVAR
KVA (Reactive Power)
(Total Power)
Figure 2.2 kW, kVAr and kVA Vector
The ratio of kW to kVA is called the power factor,

which is always less than or equal to unity.
2.3.2 Improving Power Factor
The solution to improve the power factor is to add

power factor correction capacitors to the plant power
distribution system. They act as reactive power generators,
and provide the needed reactive power to accomplish kW of
work. This reduces the amount of reactive power, and thus
total power (kVA) or the demand.
Example
A Railway installation had installed a 1500 kVA

transformer. The initial demand of the plant was 1160 kVA
with power factor of 0.70. The % loading of transformer was
about 78% (1160/1150 = 77.3%). To improve the power
factor and to avoid the penalty, the unit had added about 450
kVAr in motor load end. This improved the power factor to
0.91, and reduced the required kVA to 896 which is the
vector sum of kW and kVAr.

KW 812
Cosθ =.70 KVAR = 828
PF = 812/1160 = 0.70
KVA = 1160
Figure 2.3a Power factor before correction
KW 812
Cosθ =.91 KVAR = 828-450 = 378
KVA = 896
PF = 812/896 = 0.91
Figure 2.3a Power factor after correction

After improvement the plant had avoided penalty and
the 1500 kVA transformer now loaded only to 60% of
capacity. This will allow the addition of more load in the
future to be supplied by the transformer. Accordingly contract
demand can be reduced.
2.3.3 Advantages of PF Improvement by Capacitor Addition
a. Reactive component of the network is reduced and so
also the total current in the system from the source end.
b. I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of
reduction in current.
c. Voltage level at the load end is increased.
d. kVA loading on the source generators as also on the
transformers and lines upto the capacitors reduces
giving capacity relief. A high power factor can help in
utilizing the full capacity of your electrical system.
2.3.4 Cost benefits of PF Improvement
While costs of PF improvement are in terms of

investment needs for capacitor addition, the benefits to be
quantified for feasibility analysis are :
a. Reduced kVA (maximum demand or contract demand)

charges in utility bill.
b. Reduced distribution losses (kWH) within the plant
network.
c. Better voltage at motor terminals and improved
performance of motors.
d. A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed
when operating with a low power factor.
e. Investment on system facilities such as transformers,
cables, switchgears etc for delivering load is reduced.
2.3.5 Selection of Capacitors Capacity
Direct relation for capacitor sizing is:
kVAr Rating = kW [tan φ1 – tan φ2]
Where kVAr rating is the size of the capacitor needed,

kW is the average power drawn, tan φ1 is the trigonometric
ratio for the present power factor, and tan φ2 is the
trigonometric ratio for the desired PF.
φ1 = Existing (Cos –1 PF1) and φ2 = Improved (Cos-1 PF2)

Example :
The utility bill shows an average power factor of 0.72

with an average KW of 627. How much kVAr is required to
improve the power factor to .95 ?
Using formula
Cos φ1 = 0.72, tan φ1 = 0.963

Cos φ2 = 0.95, tan φ2 = 0.329
kVAr required
= P (tanφ1 – tan φ2) = 627 (0.964 – 0.329)
= 398 kVAr
2.3.6 Location of Capacitors
The purpose of capacitors is to reduce the maximum

demand and to improve power factor. Additional benefits are
derived by capacitor location. Maximum benefit of capacitors
is derived by locating them as close as possible to the load. At
this location, its kVAr are confined to the smallest possible
segment, decreasing the load current.
This, in turn will reduce power losses of the system

substantially. Power losses are proportional to the square of
the current. When power losses are reduced, voltage at the
motor increases; thus, motor performance also increases.
Locations C1A, C1B and C1C of fig. 2.4, given on

next page, indicate three different arrangements at the load.
Note that in all three locations extra switches are not required,
since the capacitor is either switched with the motor starter or
the breaker before the starter.

Fig. 2.4
Case C1A is recommended for new installation, since

the maximum benefit is derived and the size of the motor
thermal protector is reduced.
In case C1B as in case C1A, the capacitor is energized

only when the motor is in operation, case C1B is
recommended in cases where the installation already exists
and the thermal protector does not need to be re-sized.
In position C1C, the capacitor is permanently
connected to the circuit but does not require a separate
switch, since capacitor can be disconnected by the breaker
before the starter.

It should be noted that the rating of the capacitor

should not be greater than the no-load magnetizing kVAr of
the motor. If this condition exists, damaging over voltage or
transient torques can occur. This is why most motor
manufacturers specify maximum capacitor ratings to be
applied to specific motors.
The next preferences for capacitor as illustrated by

figure 2.4 are at locations C2 and C3. In these locations, a
breaker or switch will be required. Location C4 requires a
high voltage breaker. The advantage of locating capacitors at
power centers of feeders is that they can be grouped together.
When several motors are running intermittently, the
capacitors are permitted to be on line all the time, reducing
the total power regardless of load.
From energy efficiency point of view, capacitor

location at receiving substation only helps the utility in loss
reduction. Locating capacitors at tail end will help to reduce
loss reduction within the plants distribution network as well
and directly benefit the user by reduced consumption.
2.3.7 Capacitors for Other Loads
The other types of load requiring capacitor application

include induction furnaces, induction heaters and arc welding
transformers etc. The capacitors are normally supplied with
control gear for the application of induction furnaces and
induction heating furnaces. The PF of arc furnaces
experiences a wide variation over melting cycle as it changes
from 0.7 at starting to 0.9 at the end of the cycle. Power
factor for welding transformers is corrected by connecting
capacitors across the primary winding of the transformers as
the normal PF would be in the range of 0.35.

2.3.8 Checks for Capacitors

Some checks that need to be adopted in use of capacitors are:
i Nameplates can be misleading with respect to ratings. It
is good to check by charging currents.
ii. Capacitors boxes may contain only insulated compound
and insulated terminals with no capacitor elements
inside.
iii. Capacitors for single phase motor starting and those
used for lighting circuits for voltage boost, are not power
factor capacitor units.
2.3.9 Checks for Automatic Power Factor Correction Panels

APFC equipment are being manufactured by L&T,
Schneider etc. Until specification for the same is issued by
RDSO, minimum following items shall be ensured:
a. kVAr rating required.
b. Voltage rating
c. Voltage variation
d. Step ratings – for example if we have 100 kVAr APFC
panel, we can have many step configurations such as 50
kVAr x 2 steps or 25 kVAr x 4 steps, or 12.5 kVAr x 8
etc. this depends on load pattern.
e. Harmonic distortion – If there are harmonic generating
loads, we may have to consider de-tuned reactors in
APFC panels.
f. Ambient temperature
g. Ventilation for APFC panel – this is critical as most of
the time the capacitor fails due to thermal stress.
h. IP protection required for the panel.

v/;k; 3 CHAPTER 3
Ádk’k O;oLFkk esa ÅtkZ dh cpr

ENERGY SAVING IN LIGHTING SYSTEM
3.1 ÁLrkouk INTRODUCTION
Lighting is an essential service in all the industries

and buildings. Innovation and continuous improvement in the
field of lighting has given rise to tremendous energy saving
opportunities in this area.
Lighting system comprises lamps, luminaires and

control gears. Energy efficiency may be achieved at the
design stage, by incorporation of modern energy efficient
lamps, luminaires and gears, apart from good operational
practices.
3.2 fofHkUu Ádkj ds ysEiksa dh fo’ks"krk,sa

FEATURES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LAMPS
Following table 3.1 shows the various types of lamps

along with their important features.
With the table given below it is clear that the lamp

efficiency of incandescent lamps (GLS) is lowest, but still
they constitute a major share of the lighting load. High
efficacy gas discharge lamps suitable for different types of
applications offer appreciable scope for energy conservation.

Table : Features of Different Types of Lamps
Lumens/ watt Color rendering Typical
Type of lamp Typical application
Range Avg index life (hrs)
Incandescent lamps 8-18 14 Excellent Homes, restaurants, general 1000
lighting, emergency lighting
Fluorescent lamps 46-60 50 Good w.r.t. Offices, shops, hospitals, homes 5000
coating
Compact fluorescent 40-70 60 Very good Hostels, shops, homes, offices 8000-
lamps (CFL) 10000
High pressure 44-57 50 Fair General lighting in factories, 5000
mercury vapour garages, car parking, flood
lamps (HPMV) lighting
Halogen lamps 18-24 20 Excellent Display, flood lighting, stadium 2000-
exhibition grounds, construction 4000
areas.
High pressure 67-121 90 Fair General lighting in factories, ware 6000-
sodium vapour houses, street lighting 12000
lamps (HPSV)
Low pressure 101-175 150 Poor Roadways, tunnels, canals, street 6000-
sodium vapour lighting 12000
lamps (LPSV)
Metal halide (MH) 64-105 85 Very good Flood lighting, studio lighting, 10000-
lamps street lighting. 15000

3.3 mPp n{krk ysEiksa ls cpr

SAVING BY USING HIGH EFFICACY LAMPS
Typical energy replacement options, along with the
percent energy saving are given below:
Sector Lamp type Power saving
Existing Proposed Watts %
Domestic/
GLS 100W *CFL 25W 75 75
commercial
Industry GLS 60W *CFL 13W 47 78
GLS 200W Blended 160W 40 20
TL 40W TLD 36W 4 10
Industry/ HPMV 250W HPSV 150W 100 37
commercial HPMV 400W HPSV 250W 150 35
*Wattages of CFL include energy consumption in ballasts.
3.4 LVªhV ykbfVax esa lEHkkfor ÅtkZ cpr
ENERGY SAVING POTENTIAL IN STREET LIGHTING
The energy saving potential, in typical cases of
replacement of inefficient lamps with efficient lamps in
street lighting is given below:
Existing lamp Replaced units Saving
Type W Life Type W Life W %
HPMV 125 5000 HPSV 70 12000 55 44
HPMV 250 5000 HPSV 150 12000 100 40
HPMV 400 5000 HPSV 250 12000 150 38
3.5 ykbfVax dh dqN vPNh i}fr;ka

SOME GOOD PRACTICES IN LIGHTING
• Installation of energy efficient fluorescent lamps in
place of “Conventional” fluorescent lamps
Energy efficient lamps are based on highly
sophisticated tri-phosphor fluorescent powder

technology. They offer excellent colour rendering

properties in addition to the very high luminous
efficacy.
• Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs)

in place of incandescent lamps.
Compact fluorescent lamps are generally

considered best for replacement of lower wattage
incandescent lamps. These lamps have efficacy
ranging from 55 to 65 lumens/Watt. The average rated
lamp life is 10,000 hours, which is 10 times longer
than that of a normal incandescent lamp. CFL’s are
highly suitable for places such as living rooms, hotel
lounges, bars, restaurants, pathways, building
entrances, corridors, etc.
• Installation of metal halide lamps in place of

mercury/ sodium vapour lamps.
Metal halide lamps provide high color

rendering index when compared with mercury &
sodium vapour lamps. These lamps offer efficient
white light. Hence, metal halide is the choice for
colour critical applications where, higher illumination
levels are required. These lamps are highly suitable for
applications such as assembly line, inspection areas,
painting shops, etc.
• Installation of high pressure sodium vapour

(HPSV) lamps for applications where colour
rendering is not critical
High-pressure sodium vapour (HPSV) lamps
offer more efficacies. But the colour rendering

property of HPSV is very low. Hence, it is

recommended to install HPSV lamps for applications
such street lighting, yard lighting etc.
• Installation of LED panel indicator lamps in place

of filament lamps.
Panel indicator lamps are used widely in

industries for monitoring, fault indication, signaling,
etc. Conventionally filament lamps are used for the
purpose, which consume much high energy
(15W/lamp) and lamp operating life is less and also
very sensitive to the voltage fluctuations.
Recently, the conventional filament lamps are

being replaced with light emitting diodes (LEDs).
The LEDs have the following merits over the

filament lamps.
− Lesser power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp)

− Withstand high voltage fluctuation in the power
supply.
− Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours)
It is recommended to install LEDs for panel

indicator lamps at the design stage.
3.6 ykbV
ykbV forj.k
LIGHT DISTRIBUTION
Efficient luminaires along with the lamp of high

efficacy achieve the optimum efficiency. Mirror optic
luminaires with a high output ratio and bat-wing light
distribution can save energy.

For achieving better efficiency, luminaires that are

having light distribution characteristics appropriate for the
task interior should be selected. The luminaires fitted with
a lamp should ensure that discomfort glare and veiling
reflections are minimized. Installation of suitable
luminaires, depends upon the height – low, medium &
high Bay.
System layout and fixing of the luminaires play a

major role in achieving energy efficiency. Hence, fixing
the luminaires at optimum height and usage of mirror optic
luminaires leads to energy efficiency.
3.7 ykbV fu;U=.k LIGHT CONTROL

The simplest and the most widely used form of
controlling a lighting installation is “On-Off” switch. The
initial investment for this set up is extremely low, but the
resulting operational costs may be high. This does not
provide the flexibility to control the lighting, where it is
not required.
Hence, a flexible lighting system has to be

provided, which will offer switch-off or reduction in
lighting level, when not needed. The following light
control systems can be adopted at design stage.
• By grouping of lighting systems, which can be

controlled manually or by timer control.
• By use of microprocessor/ infrared controlled

dimming or switching circuits lighting control can be
obtained. Advanced lighting control system uses
movement detectors or lighting sensors, to feed signals
to the controllers.

• Optimum usage of day lighting
Whenever the orientation of a building permits,

day lighting can be used in combination with electric
lighting. This should not introduce glare or an
imbalance of brightness in visual environment. Usage
of day lighting in air conditioned offices/ halls should
be very limited, because the air conditioning load will
increase on account of the increased solar heat
dissipation into the area.
• Installation of “exclusive” transformer for lighting
Most of the problems faced by the lighting

equipment and the “gears” is due to the “voltage”
fluctuations. Hence, the lighting equipment has to be
isolated from the power feeders. This provides a better
voltage regulation for the lighting. This will reduce the
voltage related problems, which in turns increases the
efficiency of the lighting system.
• Installation of servo stabilizer for lighting feeder
Wherever, installation of exclusive transformer

for lighting is not economically attractive, servo
stabilizer can be installed for the lighting feeders. This
will provide stabilized voltage for the lighting
equipment. The performance of “gears” such as
chokes, ballasts will also improve due to the stabilized
voltage.

• Installation of high frequency (HF) electronic

ballasts in place of conventional ballasts
New high frequency (28-32 kHz) electronic

ballasts have following advantages over the traditional
magnetic ballasts:
− Energy saving up to 35%
− Less heat dissipation, which reduces the air
conditioning load
− Lights instantly
− Improved power factor
− Operates in low voltage
− Less in weight
− Increases the life of lamp
The life of the electronic ballast is high especially

when, used in a lighting circuit fitted with a automatic
voltage stabilizer.

v/;k; 4 CHAPTER 4
lEihfMr
lEihfMr gok Á.kkyh esa lqvolj
OPPORTUNITIES IN COMPRESSED AIR
SYSTEM
4.1 ÁLrkouk
INTRODUCTION
Compressed air is widely used in Railway
workshops, sheds, coaching depots & production units for
various tasks. Its use has found preference in many
applications due to its convenience and relative safety.
Since the cost of compressed air usage is not commonly
known, there is general tendency for increasing installed
capacity of compressors and also expanding the
distribution system.
For point of view of energy conservation, the

utility of compressed air, efficiency of its use and
available alternative options require careful study.
4.2 jsYos esa lEihfMr gok dk Á;ksx

USE OF COMPRESSED AIR IN RAILWAYS
In Railways, the compressed air is used for
following works at different locations:
1. Testing of brake power
2. Cleaning of equipments, loco body filters, bogies
etc.
3. Painting of loco body, coaches and wagons etc.

4. Riveting by pneumatic method.

5. Grinding of material with pneumatic grinder.
6. Air jet cleaning.
7. Testing of pneumatic valves, equipments of locos.
8. Cleaning of pneumatic valves of locos.
Some other works are also carried out with the
help of compressed air.
4.3 dEÁsljksa dk p;u

SELECTION OF COMPRESSORS
Normally at the selection stage, attention is paid to
aspects of floor space, foundation requirement, cooling
water requirement, personnel attendance cost,
maintenance cost, availability of spares. Information on
power consumption is also important. Manufacturers are
now providing on request, specific consumption figures
(kW/100 CFM). The actual power consumption of
compressors depends on type, size and method of capacity
control adopted. Prior to selection of compressors,
reasonably accurate information on the end-use
requirements may be collected. This helps in selection of
the appropriate size and types of compressors.
The factors to be considered are:

i. Air pressure and flow requirement (intermittent/
continuous)
ii. Quality of air at end use point.
iii. Details of utilization of the end use requirement.
The quality of air, which is used at end points,
should be clean, dust free and at required pressure.

The likely frequency including time of use and

running hours should be estimated. This will give the
average air requirement as well as the peak demand. This
will help in deciding the type of compressor, capacity and
control to be provided taking leakage and future
expansions into account.
As in case of higher rating of compressor, shut
down period required for maintenance is more and during
this period the production/ working of whole unit will
suffer if stand by compressor is not available.
Considering this factor, it is proposed that inspite
of using of higher rating of compressor, the compressor of
lesser size must be used to cater the requirement of
particular section.
The table given below explains the merits and
demerits between higher and smaller rating compressors.
S.No. Higher rating Lesser rating

1. No. of compressor is No. of compressor is
only one. more than one as per site
condition.
2. 100% stand by is Only one spare is needed
needed as stand by.
3. Higher contract Lesser contract demand
demand is required. is required.
4. Larger space is Lesser space at different
required at one place. locations is required.
5. One operator is No need of operator.
needed. User can operate it.

S.No. Higher rating Lesser rating

6. Spares are costly. Spares are cheaper.
7. During break down During breakdown only
complete unit will one section will suffer.
suffer.
8. Efficiency is very Efficiency is high as
low. compared to higher
rating machine.
9. Chances of air Chances of air leakage
leakage are more. are less.
10. For one work only, Users can run their own
complete machine machine according to
will have to run. their use.
11. Electric Electric consumption is
consumption is less.
more.
12. Wear and tear will Wear and tear will be
be less. more.
13. Less pressure at No question, because
farthest end. this will be provided
near to user.
14. Maintenance is Maintenance is easy and
difficult and requires requires less time.
more time.
From the above comparison, it is clear that in case

of smaller rating compressors the electric consumption
will be less and saving on account of operator cost will
also be saved.

4.4 lEihfMr
lEihfMr gok Á.kkyh esa ÅtkZ {kerk ds fy;s tkap lwph
CHECKLIST FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM
1. Ensure air intake to compressor is not warm and
humid by locating compressors in well-ventilated
area or by drawing cold air from outside.
2. Clean air-inlet filters regularly.
3. Keep compressor valves in good condition by
removing and inspecting once every six months.
Worn out valves can reduce compressor efficiency
by as much as 50 percent.
4. Ensure periodic cleaning of inter-coolers since
fouled inter-coolers reduce compressor efficiency
and cause more water condensation in air receivers
and distribution lines resulting in increased
corrosion.
5. Compressor free air delivery test (FAD) must be
done periodically to check the present operating
capacity against its design capacity and corrective
steps must be taken if required.
6. Minimise low load compressor operation; if air
demand is less than 50 percent of compressor
capacity, consider change over to a smaller
compressor or reduce compressor speed
appropriately (by reducing motor pulley size) in
case of belt driven compressors.
7. Consider the use of regenerative air dryers, which
uses the heat of compressed air to remove
moisture.
8. Reduce compressor delivery pressure, wherever
possible, to save energy.

9. Provide extra air receivers at points of high cyclic

air demand, which permits operation without extra
compressor capacity.
10. Retrofit with variable speed drives in big
compressors, say over 100kW, to eliminate the
‘unload’ running condition altogether.
11. Keep the minimum possible range between load
and unload pressure settings.
12. Automatic timer controlled drain traps wastes
compressed air every time the valve opens. So
frequency of drainage should be optimized.
13. Check air compressor logs regularly for abnormal
readings, especially motor current, cooling water
flow and temperature, inter-stage and discharge
pressures and temperatures and compressor load-
cycle.
14. Compressed air leakage of 40-50 precent is not
uncommon. Carry out periodic leak tests to
estimate the quantity of leakage.
15. Check the air distribution system for leakages and
arrest the leakages.
16. The possibility of heat recovery from hot
compressed air or water for process application
must be economically analyzed in case of large
compressors.
17. Consideration should be given to two-stage or
multistage compressor as it consumes less power
for the same air output than a single stage
compressor.

18. If pressure requirements for processes are widely

different (e.g. 3 bar to 7bar), it is advisable to have
two separate compressed air systems.
19. Compressed air piping layout should be made
preferably as a ring main to provide desired
pressures for all users.
20. A smaller dedicated compressor can be installed at
load point, located far off from the central
compressor house, instead of supplying air through
lengthy pipelines.
21. All pneumatic equipment should be properly

lubricated, which will reduce friction, prevent wear
of seals and other rubber parts thus preventing
energy wastage due to excessive air consumption
or leakage.
22. Misuse of compressed air such as for body

cleaning, agitation, general floor cleaning, and
other similar applications must be discouraged in
order to save compressed air and energy.
23. Pneumatic tools such as drill and grinders consume

about 20 times more energy than motor driven
tools. Hence they have to be used efficiently.
Wherever possible, they should be replaced with
electrically operated tools.

v/;k;
v/;k; 5 CHAPTER 5
ÅtkZ {kerk ds fy;s fofHkUu Á.kkfyvksa esa lqvolj

OPPORTUNITIES IN VARIOUS SYSTEMS
FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY
5.1 ÁLrkouk
INTRODUCTION
There are various systems in Railways, which use

electrical energy as primary input. By carrying their
proper maintenance and adopting proper operational
techniques, we can save appreciable amount of electrical
energy and can reduce electrical billing. Opportunities in
some important systems for energy efficiency are
described in this chapter briefly.
5.2 d"kZ.k
.k forj.k
TRACTION DISTRIBUTION
• Dynamic shunt capacitor banks shall be provided at
traction sub-stations, where not done, to reduce
maximum demand and line losses. Priority should be
given to the sub-station feeding large marshalling
yards.
• Standby traction transformers should be kept de-
energized to save on no load losses.
• Demand monitoring equipment, wherever provided,
shall be maintained in the working order.

• Traction Power Controller should co-ordinate with the

Section Controller to avoid simultaneous starts of
trains, as far as practicable. Bunching of the train in the
event of breakdown has to be avoided to the extent
feasible.
• Wherever standby emergency power supply is also
derived from OHE, the associated auxiliary
transformer should be kept isolated from 25kV side to
avoid no load loss. This, however, shall not be
applicable for power supply to signals where
changeover has to be immediate.
• Ensure good electrical contact to attain low resistance
at conductor joints (splices) and parallel groove (PG)
clamps through periodical inspection and maintenance.
• Connections to buried rail opposite sub-stations for
return current are prone to corrosion leading to
increased resistance and loss of energy. These
connections should be inspected periodically and
maintained to obtain good electrical connection.
• Avoid/ remove unauthorized AT connections at
stations S&T installations.
• Use efficient light fittings in yard lights of
TSS/SP/SSP.
• By improving quality of supply effective earthing and
return path.
• Regular cleaning of insulators of traction installations
to avoid discharge due to leakage.
• By coordinating with electricity supply boards and
regulatory commissions for reasonable traction tariff
structure.

5.3 jksfyax LVkWd ROLLING STOCK
Drivers/Motormen are expected to be well –

conversant with the road to make the best use of down
gradients to effect maximum possible saving in energy
consumption.
In level sections and particularly in suburban sections,

coasting should be resorted to as much as possible and
brake applied only when essential to control the speed
or stop the train. To help drivers and motormen
“Coasting Boards” are fixed at appropriate points on
suburban sections. In some Railways, time totalizers
have been provided in EMUs.
In the undulating terrain, speed may be allowed to

drop down when going up a short up-gradient. After
passing over the crest, the train will automatically
pickup the speed with power off when going downhill,
so that it attains maximum permissible speed on the
section when it arrives at the foot of the next up-
gradient. This feature should receive special emphasis
during learning the road period.
Training of drivers on simulator can help drivers in

running of trains with optimum consumption of
energy.
Drivers should use regenerative braking where

provision exists on locomotives.
By de-energising locomotives in yards in case of

delayed start of trains.

By allowing sufficient time for releasing the brake

before notching up.
By de-energising rear loco in an empty load.
Avoid excessive application of brakes.
Switching off blower motors when train waits for

signal.
Switching off locomotives idling in yards loco sheds/

trip sheds.
5.4 lkekU; lsok;sa

GENERAL SERVICES
5.4.1 Pumping Systems
• Ensure availability of basic instruments at pumps like

pressure gauges, flow meters.
• Operate pumps near best efficiency point.
• Modify pumping system and pumps losses to
minimize throttling.
• Adapt to wide load variation with variable speed
drives or sequenced control of multiple units.
• Stop running multiple pumps- add an auto start for an
on line spare or add a booster pump in the problem
area.
• Use booster pumps for small loads requiring higher
pressures.

• Repair seals and packing to minimize water loss by

dripping.
• Balance the system to minimize flows and reduce
pump power requirements.
• Conduct water balance to minimize water
consumption.
• In multiple pump operations, carefully combine the
operation of pumps to avoid throttling.
• Provide booster pump for few areas of higher head.
• Replace old pumps by energy efficient pumps.
• In the case of over designed pump, provide variable
speed drive, or downsize/ replace impeller or replace
with correct sized pump for different operation.
• Optimize number of stages in multi-stage pump in
case of head margins.
• Reduce system resistance by pressure drop assessment
and pipe size optimization.
5.4.2 DG Sets
• Ensure steady load conditions on the DG set, and
provide cold, dust free air at intake.
• Improve air filteration.
• Ensure fuel oil storage, handling and preparation as
per manufacturers guidelines/ oil company data.
• Consider fuel oil additives in case they benefit fuel oil
properties for DG set usage.

• Calibrate fuel injection pumps frequently.

• Ensure compliance with maintenance checklist.
• Ensure steady load conditions, avoiding fluctuations,
imbalance in phases, harmonic loads.
• Consider parallel operation among the DG sets for
improved loading and fuel economy thereof.
• Carryout regular field trials to monitor DG set
performance, and maintenance planning as per
requirements.
5.4.3 Air conditioning

• Insulate all cold lines/ vessels using economic
insulation thickness to minimize heat gains, and
choose appropriate (correct) insulation.
• Optimize air conditioning volumes by measures such
as use of false ceiling and segregation of critical areas
for air conditioning by air curtains.
• Minimize the air conditioning loads by measures such
as roof cooling, roof painting, efficient lighting, pre-
cooling of fresh air by air to air heat exchangers,
variable volume air system, optimal thermo static
setting of temperature of air conditioned spaces, sun
film applications, etc.
• Minimize process heat loads in terms of TR capacity
as well as refrigeration level, i.e. temperature required
by way of:
i. Flow optimization.

ii. Heat transfer area increase to accept higher

temperature coolant.
iii. Avoiding wastages like heating gains, loss of
chilled water, idling flows.
iv. Frequent cleaning/de-scaling of all heat
exchangers.
• Ensure regular maintenance of all A/C plant
components as per manufacturer guidelines.
• Ensure adequate quantity of chilled water and cooling
water flows, avoid bypass flows by closing valves of
the equipment.
• Minimize part load operations by matching loads and
plant capacity on line, adopt variable speed drives for
varying process load.
• Make efforts to continuously optimize condenser and
evaporator parameters for minimizing specific energy
consumption and maximizing capacity.
5.4.4 Lighting
• Reduce excessive illumination levels to standard levels
using switching, delamping, etc. (Know the electrical
effects before doing delamping)
• Control lighting with clock timers, delay timers,
photocells, and/or occupancy sensors.
• Install efficient alternatives to incandescent lighting,
mercury vapor lighting, etc. Efficiency (lumens/watt)
of various technologies range from best to worst
approximately as follows; low pressure sodium, high

pressure sodium, metal halide, fluorescent, mercury

vapor; incandescent.
• Select ballasts and lamps carefully with high power
factor and long-term efficiency in mind.
• Upgrade obsolete fluorescent systems to Compact
Fluorescents and electronic ballasts.
• Consider lowering the fixtures to enable using less of
them.
• Consider day lighting etc.
• Consider painting the walls a lighter color and using
less lighting fixtures or lower wattages.
• Use task lighting and reduce background illumination.
• Provision of 30%, 70% light circuits or 50%, 50%
light circuits at Railway platforms.
5.4.5 Ventilation System/ Fans
Maximum possible use should be made of wind-

induced natural ventilation. This may be accomplished
by following the design guidelines:
• Adequate number of circulating fans should be

installed to serve all interior working areas during
the summer months in the hot dry and warm humid
regions to provide necessary air movement at times
when ventilation due to wind action alone does not
afford sufficient relief.
• The capacity of a ceiling fan to meet the

requirement of a room with the longer dimension

D meters should be about 55D m3/min.
• The height of fan blades above the floor should

be (3H + W)/4, where H is the height of the
room and W is the height of the work plane.
• The minimum distance between fan blades and the

ceiling should be about 0.3 meters.
• Electronic regulators should be used instead of

resistance type regulators for controlling the speed
of fans.
• When actual ventilated zone does not cover the

entire room area, then optimum size of ceiling fan
should be chosen based on the actual usable area
of room, rather than the total floor area of the
room. Thus smaller size of fan can be employed
and energy saving could be achieved.
• Power consumption by larger fans is obviously

higher, but their power consumption per square
meter of floor area is less and service value
higher.
• Improper use of fans irrespective of the rooms

dimensions is likely to result in higher power
consumption.
• From the point of view of energy consumption,

the number of fans and the optimum sizes for
rooms of different dimensions are given in the
table on next page:

48
Room ROOM LENGTH

Width
m 4m 5m 6m 7m 8m 9m 10m 11m 12m 14m 16m
February, 2013
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
3 1200/ 1 1400/ 1 1500/ 1 1050/ 2 1200/ 2 1400/ 2 1400/ 2 1400/ 2 1200/ 3 1400/ 3 1400/ 3
4 1200/1 1400/1 1200/2 1200/2 1200/2 1400/2 1400/2 1500/2 1200/3 1400/3 1500/3
5 1400/1 1400/1 1400/2 1400/2 1400/2 1400/2 1400/2 1500/2 1400/3 1400/3 1500/3
6 1200/2 1400/2 900/4 1050/4 1200/4 1400/4 1400/4 1500/4 1200/6 1400/6 1500/6
7 1200/2 1400/2 1050/4 1050/4 1200/4 1400/4 1400/4 1500/4 1200/6 1400/6 1500/6
8 1200/2 1400/2 1200/4 1200/4 1200/4 1400/4 1400/4 1500/4 1200/6 1400/6 1500/6
9 1400/2 1400/2 1400/4 1400/4 1400/4 1400/4 1400/4 1500/4 1400/6 1400/6 1500/6
10 1400/2 1400/2 1400/4 1400/4 1400/4 1400/4 1400/4 1500/4 1400/6 1400/6 1500/6
Sizes (Source: NBC of India 2005)

11 1500/2 1500/2 1500/4 1500/4 1500/4 1500/4 1500/4 1500/4 1500/6 1500/6 1500/6
12 1200/3 1400/3 1200/6 1200/6 1200/6 1400/6 1400/6 1500/6 1200/9 1400/9 1400/9
13 1400/3 1400/3 1200/6 1200/6 1200/6 1400/6 1400/6 1500/6 1400/9 1400/9 1500/9
14 1400/3 1400/3 1400/6 1400/6 1400/6 1400/6 1400/6 1500/6 1400/9 1400/9 1500/9
CAMTECH/E/12-13/EE-Assets/1.0
Table : Optimum Size/ Number of Fans for Rooms of Different
Booklet on Energy Efficiency in Electrical Assets

v/;k; 6 CHAPTER 6
ÅtkZ laj{k.k ij lqq>ko

TIPS ON ENERGY CONSERVATION
6.1 Ádk’k O;oLFkk LIGHTING SYSTEM

• One of the best energy saving devices is the light
switch. Turn off lights when not required.
• Use natural day lighting as far as possible.
• Many automatic devices can help in saving energy
used in lighting. Consider employing infrared sensors,
motion sensors, automatic timers, dimmers and solar
cells wherever applicable, to switch on/off lighting
circuits.
• As for as possible use task lighting, which focuses
light where it’s needed. A reading lamp, for example,
lights only reading material rather than the whole
room.
• Dirty tube lights and bulbs reflect less light and can
absorb 50 percent of the light; clean your tube lights
and lamps regularly.
• Fluorescent tube lights and CFLs convert electricity to
visible light up to 5 times more efficiently than
ordinary bulbs and thus save about 70% of electricity
for the same lighting levels.
• Replace your electricity-guzzling ordinary bulbs
(incandescent lamps) with more efficient types.
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) use up to 75
percent less electricity than incandescent lamps.

• Use electronic chokes instead of conventional

electromagnetic ballasts.
• Use high reflectivity light fittings.
6.2 d{k okrkuqdwfyr ;wfuV ROOM AIR CONDITIONERS
Use ceiling or table fan as first line of defence against
summer heat. Ceiling fans, for instances, cost about 30
paise an hour to operate – much less than air
conditioners (Rs. 10.00 per hour).
You can reduce air-conditioning energy use by as
much as 40 percent by shading your home’s windows
and walls. Plant trees and shrubs to keep the day’s
hottest sun off your house.
One will use 3 to 5 percent less energy for each degree
air conditioner is set above 22°C (71.5°F), so set the
thermostat of room air conditioner at 25°C (77°F) to
provide the most comfort at the least cost.
Using ceiling or room fans allows you to set the
thermostat higher because the air movement will cool
the room.
A good air conditioner will cool and dehumidify a
room in about 30 minutes, so use a timer and leave the
unit off for some time.
Keep doors to air-conditioned rooms closed as often as
possible.
Clean the air-conditioner filter every month. A dirty
air filter reduces air low and may damage the unit.
Clean filters enable the unit to cool down quickly and
use less energy.
If room air conditioner is older and needs repair, it’s
likely to be very inefficient. It may work out cheaper

on life cycle costing to buy a new energy-efficient air

conditioner.
6.3 fQzt REFRIGERATORS

• Make sure that refrigerator is kept away from all
sources of heat, including direct sunlight, radiators and
appliances such as the oven, and cooking range.
When it’s dark, place a lit flashlight inside the
refrigerator and close the door. If light around the door
is seen, the seals need to be replaced.
• Refrigerator motors and compressors generate heat, so
allow enough space for continuous airflow around
refrigerator. If the heat can’t escape, the refrigerator’s
cooling system will work harder and use more energy.
• A full refrigerator is a fine thing, but be sure to allow
adequate air circulation inside.
• Think about what you need before opening refrigerator
door. You’ll reduce the amount of time the door
remains open.
• Allow hot and warm foods to cool and cover them well
before putting them in refrigerator. Refrigerator will
use less energy and condensation will reduced.
• Make sure that refrigerator’s rubber door seals are
clean and tight. They should hold a slip of paper
snugly. If paper slips out easily, replace the door seals.
• When dust builds up on refrigerator’s condenser coils,
the motor works harder and uses more electricity.
Clean the coils regularly to make sure that air can
circulate freely.
• For manual defrost refrigerator, accumulation of ice
reduces the cooling power by acting as unwanted

insulation. Defrost freezer compartment regularly for a

manual defrost refrigerator.
6.4 okVj ghVj WATER HEATER
• To help reduce heat loss, always insulate hot water

pipes, especially where they run through unheated
areas. Never insulate plastic pipes.
• By reducing the temperature setting of water heater

from 60 degrees to 50 degrees C, one could save over
18 percent of the energy used at the higher setting.
6.5 ekbØksoso vksou ,oa fo|qr dsryh

MICROWAVE OVENS & ELECTRIC KETTLES
Microwaves save energy by reducing cooking times.

In fact, one can save up to 50 percent on your cooking
energy costs by using a microwave oven instead of a
regular oven, especially for small quantities of food.
Remember, microwaves cook food from the outside

edge toward the center of the dish, so if you’re
cooking more than one time, place larger and thicker
items on the outside.
Use an electric kettle to heat water. It’s more energy
efficient than using an electric cook top element.
When buying a new electric kettle, choose one that has
an automatic shut-off button and a heat-resistant
handle.
It takes more energy to heat a dirty kettle. Regularly
clean your electric kettle by combining boiling water
and vinegar to remove mineral deposits.
Don’t overfill the kettle for just one drink. Heat only
the amount of water you need.
6.6 deI;wVj COMPUTERS
• Turn off your home/ office equipment when not in use.

A computer that runs 24 hours a day, for instance,
uses-more power than an energy-efficient refrigerator.
• If your computer must be left on, turn off the monitor;

this device alone uses more than half the system’s
energy.
• Setting computers, monitors, and copiers to use sleep-

mode when not in use helps cut energy costs by
approximately 40%.
• Battery chargers, such as those for laptops, cell phones

and digital cameras, draw power whenever they are
plugged in and are very inefficient. Pull the plug and
save the energy.
• Screen savers save computer screens, not energy.

Start-ups and shutdowns do not use any extra energy,
nor are they hard on your computer components. In
fact, shutting computers down when you are finished
them actually reduces system wear-and saves energy.

v/;k; 7 CHAPTER 7
vDlj iwNs tkus okys Á’u

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
Q. 1 Define one ‘Ton of Refrigeration (TR).

Ans. A ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat to
be removed in order to form one ton of ice in 24 hours
when the initial temperature of water is 0 °C. This is
equivalent to 50.4 Kcal/min or 3024 Kcal/h in metric
system.
Q. 2 What do you mean by kW/TR pertaining to
refrigeration?
Ans. “KW/TR” is the specific power consumption which is a
useful indicator of the performance of refrigeration
system. By measuring refrigeration duty performed
in TR and the Kilo Watt inputs measured, kW/TR is used
as a reference energy performance indicator.
Q.3 Define COP (Coefficient of performance) for
refrigeration.
Ans. COP (Coefficient of performance) is a standard measure
of refrigeration efficiency of an ideal refrigeration system
depends on two key system temperatures, namely,
evaporator temperature Te (absolute) and condenser
temperature Tc (absolute) with COP being given as ;
COP = Te / Tc - Te
Temperature in kelvin scale, kelvin scale starts at absolute
zero and water freezes at 273.15 degrees Kelvin.
Q.4 Ice is formed at 0°C from water at 30 °C. In the

refrigeration system, same temperature water is used for
condenser cooling and the temperature of the brine is-
15°C at evaporator. Consider the system as ideal
refrigeration; find the COP of the refrigeration system.
Ans. Evaporator temperature (Te) = -15 °C

Condenser temperature (Tc) = 30 °C
COP of ideal cycle = Te/(Tc-Te)
= (-15+273)
--------------------
(30+273) – (-15+273)
= 5.7
Q.5 What should be the criteria for selecting energy

efficient lamps replacement options?
Ans. The lamp efficacy i.e., the ratio of light output in lumens
to power input to lamps in watts should form the basis for
energy efficient replacement options. Over the years
development in lamp technology has led to improvements
in efficacy of lamps. However, the low efficacy lamps,
such as incandescent bulbs, still constitute a major share
of the lighting load. High efficacy gas discharge lamps
suitable for different types of applications offer
appreciable scope for energy conservation.
Q.6 Highlight advantages of CFL lamp (compact

fluorescent lamp) over incandescent lamps?
Ans. CFL lamps are generally used as replacement for

incandescent lamps. The following are the advantages of
CFL lamps over incandescent lamps:
a. Higher illumination level (55-65 lm/watt),

b. Longer life (typically 10,000 hours),

c. Higher energy savings and hence cost savings (nearly
80% saving),
d. Less heat generation.
Q.7 How ‘good lighting distribution’ can be achieved in a

plant?
Ans. For achieving better efficiency, luminaires that are having

light distribution characteristics appropriate for the task
interior should be selected. The luminaires fitted with a
lamp should ensure that discomfort glare and veiling
reflections are minimized. Installation of suitable
luminaires depends upon the height - Low, Medium &
High Bay.
System layout and fixing of the luminaires play a major

role in achieving energy efficiency. This also varies from
application to application. Hence, fixing the luminaires at
optimum height and usage of mirror optic luminaries leads
to energy efficiency.
Q.8 Highlight various ways of how the light can be

controlled efficiently in a facility?
Ans. Various ways of light control techniques available in a

facility are:
Grouping of lighting circuits which can be controlled
manually or timer based control.
Installation of microprocessor based controllers with
occupancy sensors, infrared sensors, movement
detectors etc.

Optimum usage of day-lighting and photovoltaic

controls.
Installation of exclusive transformer for lighting.
Installation of servo stabilizer for lighting feeder.
Q.9 Describe the advantages of providing transformer

exclusively for lighting?
Ans. Most of the problems faced by the lighting equipment and

the gears are due to the supply voltage fluctuations.
Hence, the lighting equipments have to be isolated from
the power feeders. This is carried out by installing lighting
voltage transformers, which regulate the voltage
exclusively for lighting circuits.
This reduces the voltage related problems in turn

increasing the efficiency of the lighting system. This also
results in energy saving during the periods when the
supply voltage levels are on higher side. In addition, it
increases the life and performance of the control gear units
of the lamps due to better voltage regulation
Q.10 What are advantages of electronic ballast over

conventional ballast?
Ans. Although more expensive, electronic ballasts offer

important advantages over conventional choke ballasts,
such as:
• Improved lamp and system efficacy.
• No flicker or stroboscopic effects.
• Instantaneous starting without the need for a
separate starter.

• Increased lamp life.

• Excellent light regulation possibilities.
• Higher power factor.
• Less temperature increase (due to lower losses).
• No hum or other noise.
• Lower weight, especially for big lamp sizes.
• Can also be used on d.c.
Q.11 Explain the principle of electronic ballast and its role

in achieving energy efficiency.
Ans. Electronic ballast consist an oscillator. This oscillator

frequency will be some where in the range of 15 kHz to 50
khz. Oscillator output power is amplified to the level
required. Now the source is ready at 20 khz (15-45Khz)
instead of 50hz. This high frequency source is used to
light the tube with a smaller choke in series.
The generation of high voltage at high frequency is

easy and possible even at very low supply voltages. As a
result the starting is instantaneous and enables the tube
light to operate at very low supply voltage.
By operating the light at higher frequency i.e. from

conventional supply of 50Hz to say 20,000 Hz, higher
luminous efficacy can be achieved.
This operates on a totally different principle and

hence the series loss in the conventional choke is
eliminated. But some small amount of power is required
{about 1.5W) for its own operation.

This ballast can withstand voltage range and

fluctuations because the current regulation is much better.
Electronic ballasts are ideal, for tube light application.
Good electronic ballast will have the radio

frequency suppression circuit, spike suppression circuit,
over load protection circuit as extra features. With these
facilities the reliability will improve at an extra cost.
The modern T5 fittings are coming with good

quality electronic ballast integral to the unit. The
ENERGY SAVING, higher power factor and low voltage
starting would out weigh the initial higher cost of the
electronic ballast
Q.12 What is the purpose of Energy Conservation Building

Code (ECBC)?
Ans. The purpose of Energy Conservation Building Code

(ECBC) is to provide minimum requirements for energy
efficient design and construction of buildings and their
systems.

lanHkZ
REFERENCES
1. IRIEEN journals issued by Indian Railways Institute of

Electrical Engineering, Nasik.
2. IEEMA journals issued by Indian Electrical & Electronics

Manufacturers Association,
3. Guidebook 1, 2 3 & 4 issued by Bureau of Energy

Efficiency for certification course of Energy Managers/
Auditors.
4. Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) User Guide

July, 2009 published by Bureau of Energy Efficiency,
New Delhi.
5. Field study and literature collected from various Railways

units.
6. Presentation by various participants during seminar held at

CAMTECH on dt. 31.08.2012.

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February, 2013 Booklet on Energy Efficiency in Electrical Assets

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February, 2013 Booklet on Energy Efficiency in Electrical Assets

Limited resources and growing demand of energy poses a

Today 85% of primary energy comes from non-renewable and

CAMTECH has prepared this handbook on “Energy

I am sure that this handbook will be useful to users in

CAMTECH Gwalior A.R.Tupe