Chapter 7

Transmission Media

+
Fiber Optics

7.1
 Figure 7.1 Transmission medium and physical layer
Which medium should be used?
*Maximise data rate
*Maximise distance
*Minimise bandwidth
*Minimise transmission impairments
*Minimize cost

Transmission medium is the physical path between

transmitter and receiver.
 Characteristics of both the signal and medium determine the
quality of data transmission.
 Key concern in data transmission systems: data rate and
distance, the greater the better.

7.2
  Computers and other telecommunication devices use signals
to represent data. These signals are transmitted from one
device to another in the form of electromagnetic energy, which
is propagated through transmission media.

 The Figure (in the next slide) depicts the electromagnetic

spectrum and indicates the frequencies at which various guided
media and unguided transmission techniques operate.

 Not all portions of the spectrum are currently usable for

telecommunications.

 The media to harness those that are usable are also limited
to a few types.

7.3
 International and national organizations regulate the usage of
electromagnetic spectrum .
Aim: minimize interference between applications/users.

c=fλ
535-1605 kHz 87.5-108 MHz

ITU: International telecommunication union. Headquarter: Geneva, Switzerland.

7.4 BTRC= Bangladesh telecommunication regulatory commission
 from 2.402 GHz to
5 GHz: 867 Mbps
2.48 GHz.
Around 2.45 GHz 2.4 GHz: 400 Mbps

Consumer oven
WiFi router
Bluetooth speaker
Mobile communication

http://net-informations.com/q/diff/generations.html
900 MHz (Expiry:2026)
6G?
Grameen phone
1800 MHz (Expiry:2026) Expected: 2030
1800 MHz (Expiry:2033) Frequency: > 95 GHz
2100 MHz (Expiry:2028) Speed: up to 1Tbps
In 2022, GP bought 60 MHz bandwidth from
7.5 2.6GHz band for 5G. Cost: about Tk 3,360 crore.
 Figure 7.2 Classes of transmission media
 In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad
categories: guided and unguided.

 Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and

fiber-optic cable.

Unguided medium is free space.

7.6
 7-1 GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit

from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Topics discussed in this section: Conduit: a tube for protecting

electric wiring.
Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable
Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)
conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of
electric current.
 Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports
signals in the form of light.

7.7
 0 to 1 MHz
Figure 7.3 Twisted-pair cable
 Consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together.
 One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used
only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
 More twist: better quality, reduces EMI and crosstalk.
 Least expensive and widely used.

7.8
  In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires,
interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create
unwanted signals.
 If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not
the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to
the noise or crosstalk sources (e,g., one is closer and the other is
farther).
 This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a
balance is maintained.
 Suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the
other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true. Twisting makes it
probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences
(noise or crosstalk).
 This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference between
the two, receives no unwanted signals. The unwanted signals are mostly
canceled out.
 It is clear that the number of twists per unit of length
(e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable.

7.9
 Figure 7.4 UTP and STP cables

UTP is Commonly used

Produced by IBM
Bulkier and more expensive than UTP
Seldom used outside of IBM

Unshielded twisted pair

7.10
 Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
T-1 line can carry 24 digitized voice channels, Each channel’s capacity is 64 kbps.

T-1 line’s capacity is 1.544 Mbps

AWG=American Wire Gauge

7.11
 2000

https://www.techtarget.com/searchdatacenter/definition/Categories-of-twisted-pair-cabling-systems

7.12
 ChatGPT CAT 9?

(question asked on 26 March 2023@11:50 am)

7.13
 Figure 7.5 UTP connector

The most common twisted-pair connector is an 8-position, 8-contact

(8P8C) modular plug and jack commonly referred to as an RJ45 connector.

Registered jack=RJ

Keyed connector-> can be

inserted only in one way.

7.14
 Figure 7.6 UTP performance
 One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare attenuation
versus frequency and distance.
 Can pass a wide range of frequencies. With increasing frequency, the attenuation,
measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km), sharply increases with frequencies above 100
kHz.
Applications:
Gauge: measure of LAN
thickness of the wire Telephone line
DSL
American Wire
0000 AWG= 0.46 inch. Gauge (AWG) is
36 AWG= 0.005 inch. the standard way to
denote wire size in
North America.
The larger the
number, the smaller
the wire diameter
and thickness.
Largest:0000 AWG
Smallest: 36 AWG

7.15
 Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable 5 MHz to 1.2 GHz

 Coaxial cable, like twisted pair, consists of two conductors, but is

constructed differently to permit it to operate over a wider range of
frequencies.
 Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of
solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath,
which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two.
 The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and
as the second conductor, which completes the circuit.
 This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the
whole cable is protected by a plastic cover
7.16
 RG=Radio Government rating denotes a unique set of physical
specification: wire gauge of inner conductor, thickness and type of inner
insulator, construction of the shield, size and type of the outer casing.
 Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function,
as shown in the table below.

ThickNet: 10BASE5
10 Mbps, 500 meter, Thinnet:10BASE2
Base=baseband transmission,
200 meter
7.17
Figure 7.8 BNC connectors
The BNC connector is used to
connect the end of the cable
to a device, such as a TV set.

The BNC T connector is used in

Ethernet networks to branch out to The BNC terminator is used at the
a connection to a computer or other end of the cable to prevent the
device. reflection of the signal.

7.18
 Figure 7.9 Coaxial cable performance

Attenuation is higher
Twisted pair: 0 to 1 MHz than twisted pair
Coax: 5 MHz to 1.2 GHz
Although coaxial cable
has a much higher
bandwidth, the signal
weakens rapidly and
requires the frequent use
of repeaters.

Applications:
Telephone
LAN
Cable TV

Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a

single coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
 Later in digital telephone networks: single coaxial cable could carry
digital data up to 600 Mbps. However, coaxial cable in telephone networks
has largely been replaced today with fiber-optic cable.
7.19
 Figure 7.11 Optical fiber 1014 to 1015 Hz

 A standard optical fiber consists of a solid glass cylinder called a core.

The core is the region in which light propagates along the fiber.
 This is surrounded by a dielectric cladding, which has a different material
property from that of the core in order to achieve light guiding in the fiber.

 A standard cladding diameter is 125 μm for most types of fibers.

 A polymer buffer coating with a nominal 250 μm diameter surrounds
these two layers to protect the fiber from mechanical stresses and
environmental effects.
 Finally an outer protective polymer jacket with a nominal 900 μm
diameter encapsulates the fiber.
7.20 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)
7.21 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)
 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)
7.22
 Figure 7.10 Bending of light ray

 Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single

uniform substance.
 If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters
another substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.
 Below figure shows how a ray of light changes direction when going
from a more dense to a less dense substance.

7.23
 From Snell’s law: n1sinФc=n2sin 900 or, sinФc=n2/n1
 Rays striking the core-to-cladding interface at angles less than Фc will
refract out of the core and be lost in the cladding, as the dashed line
shows.
Acceptance angle(θA) = maximum entrance angle= θ0,max.
7.24 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)
 n= refractive
index of air=1

n sin θ0,max i.e., n sin θA = n1sin θc = n1sin(π/2-Фc) = n1 [sin (π/2)cos Фc-

cos(π/2)sin Фc] = n1cos Фc= n1√(1-sin2 Фc)=n1√(1-n22/n12)= √(n12-n22)
 Those rays having entrance angles θ0 less than θA will be totally
internally reflected at the core–cladding interface. Thus θ A defines an
acceptance cone for an optical fiber.
NA= numerical aperture of a step-index fiber for meridional ray

(n1+n2)(n1-n2)
From previous discussion, n2=n1(1-Δ), or Δn1 =(n1-n2) =2n1 Δn1 = n122 Δ
7.25
 We can indirectly measure NA
SLED=surface light emitting diode
Power coupled
from SLED to
step index
fiber:
Pin= Po(NA)2.

SLED Po

Short fiber
SLED Pin

NA=√(Pin/Po)
7.26 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)
 QUIZ
Fiber with larger
core diameter will
have higher values
of NA.
Agree/Disagree?

7.27 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)

 Figure 7.12 Propagation modes
V=normalized
Total number of modes (M) frequency/V number/V
supported parameter
in step index multimode fiber:

Step index fiber’s single mode condition:

a= radius of the fiber core

 The propagation of light along a waveguide can be described in terms of
a set of guided electromagnetic waves called the modes of the waveguide.

 Only a certain discrete number of modes are capable

of propagating along the guide. These modes are those electromagnetic
waves that satisfy the homogeneous wave equation in the fiber and the
electromagnetic field boundary conditions at the core-cladding interface of
the waveguide.
7.28
  Multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different paths
 In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the
center to the edges.
 In multimode graded-index fiber, the density is highest at the center of the core
and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.

Graded index phenomenon

7.29
 Electric field amplitude profiles for
the guided linearly polarized (LP)
modes of a step index fiber.
Single mode fiber supports only
LP01 mode which is also called the
fundamental mode.
If a single mode fiber displays
multimode propagation, what the
possible reason could be? Clue:
check the V number.

https://www.rp-photonics.com/modes.html
7.30 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Cross-section-and-mode-profiles-
for-LP-01-mode-LP-11-mode-and-LP-21-mode-of-the FMF_fig1_267249996
 Table 7.3 Fiber types POF=plastic optical fiber:
Core diameter 1 mm, high
NA, low cost, loss 1 dB/m

For long distance and

Multimode optical fiber:
Cheap (core size is bigger, easy fabrication)  Intermodal dispersion can be
Can be used in short distance communication
7.31
high-speed
communication
Single mode fiber is used
 Multimode fibers make it
easier to launch optical power
into the fiber and facilitate the
connecting together of similar
fibers.
 A limitation of multimode
fibers for high-speed long-
distance transmission is that
the bandwidth is restricted by
intermodal dispersion.
reduced by using a graded-
index profile in a fiber core.
 Koike, Y., Asai, M. The future of plastic optical fiber. NPG Asia Mater 1, 22–28 (2009)
7.32
7.33 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)
 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)
7.34
7.35 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)
 Figure 7.15 Fiber-optic cable connectors
ST= straight tip
SC=subscriber connector Connecting cable to networking devices
Used for Cable TV  more reliable than SC, bayonet locking
Push pull locking system system.

Mechanical transfer
registered jack: MT-RJ

Same size as RJ45

7.36
 SC ST

MT-RJ

7.37
 Figure 7.16 Optical fiber performance
The current lowest loss of optical fiber is 0.1419 dB/km at 1560 nm,
which was reported in 2017.
In 1960 the loss was 1000 dB/km. ( no practical use)
First low loss fiber: 20 dB/km at 632.8 nm in 1970
A group of three Corning
scientists invented the first
low loss fiber:
Dr. Robert Maurer
Dr. Peter Schultz
Dr. Donald Keck
NY, U.S.A.

374.74 THz c=fλ c = speed of light

f=c/λ = 3 x 108 m/sec 166.55 THz

Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable

and coaxial cable.
 The performance is such that we need fewer (actually 10
times less) repeaters when we use fiber-optic cable.
7.38
 Inventors of first low loss fiber

1970

7.39
 Father of fiber optics Godfather of broadband/ father of fiber optics

Narinder Singh Kapany (1926 – 2020)
Fortune named him one of seven
'Unsung Heroes of the 20th century' for
his Nobel Prize-deserving invention.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany
7.40
Sir Charles Kao Kuen (1933 –2018)
Nobel Prize in Physics (2009) for
"groundbreaking achievements
concerning the transmission of light in
fibers for optical communication".
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_K._Kao
7.41 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)
7.42 Ref.: Gerd Keiser, Fiber optic communications(2021)
 Applications
 Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks
because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective.
 Today, with wavelength division multiplexing (WDM),
we can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps.
 Some cable TV companies use a combination of
optical fiber and coaxial cable, thus creating a hybrid
network. Optical fiber provides the backbone structure
while coaxial cable provides the connection to the user
premises. This is a cost-effective configuration since the
narrow bandwidth requirement at the user end does not
justify the use of optical fiber.
 Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network
(Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also use fiber-optic
cable.
7.43
 Major elements of an optical fiber transmission link

Ch. 1 , Sec. 1.3, p 9-13, ‘optical

fiber communications’, 2/e,
Gerd Keiser.

7.44
7.45 Ref. Xavier Fernando @Ryerson Communications Lab
 Ch. 10 , p 340-345 ‘optical fiber communications’, 4/e, Gerd Keiser
7.46 Ref. Xavier Fernando @Ryerson Communications Lab
 By providing channel spacings of 50
GHz (0.4 nm), 100 GHz (0.8 nm) or
200 GHz (1.6 nm), several
hundreds of wavelengths can be
placed on a single fiber. Most
typical DWDM systems use 40 or
80 channels, although this number
can be as high as 160.

7.47
 O:first region used for single mode fiber link
E: link use can extend to this region for fibers
with low water content.
S: lambda<C and >E
C: used by conventional EDFA
L: EDFA gain decreases gradually
U: beyond the response capability of an EDFA

7.48
7.49
 Submarine cable
 Used in rivers, lakes and ocean
environments. Usually exposed to high
Underground water pressure.
 So they have much more stringent
fiber-optic cable requirements than underground optical
fiber cables.

7.50
 https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/the-setting-of-global-transportation-systems/
global-submarine-cable-network/

Global Submarine Cable Network

7.51
 Bangladesh Submarine Cable Company Limited (BSCCL)
http://www.bsccl.com/
Kuakata Cox’s Bazar

South East Asia–Middle East–Western Europe 4 (SEA-ME-WE 4): 18,800 km long

1.28 Tbit/s (2005)
2.8 Tbit/s (2010) Technology: DWDM
4.6 Tbit/s (2015)

7.52
 South East Asia–Middle East–Western Europe 5 (SEA-ME-WE 5): 20,000 km
long

Construction beginning 6th June 2014

Construction finished December 2016
Design capacity 24 Tbit/s
Area served South East Asia, Middle East Asia, Western Europe

The cable connects Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand,

Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, United Arab
Emirates, Oman, Qatar, Djibuti, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Italy,
Turkey and France via 19 landing points.

An official launch event was held in Honolulu, Hawaii on 16 January

2017.

Technology: DWDM
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEA-ME-WE_5
7.53
7.54