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OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS
Edited by
Miriam Berry
Consultant Nephrologist, University Hospitals
Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Imran Yusuf
Ophthalmology Specialist Trainee and
MRC Research Fellow, Oxford University, UK
Aisha Janjua
Obstetrics and Gynaecology Specialist Trainee
and NIHR Clinical Lecturer,
Warwick University, UK
Chris Bird
Consultant in Paediatric Emergency Medicine,
Oxford, UK
Consultant Editors
David Metcalfe
Clinical Research Fellow in Musculoskeletal Trauma,
Oxford University, UK
Harveer Dev
Urology Specialist Trainee and Wellcome Trust PhD
Fellow, Cambridge University, UK
Sri Thrumurthy
General Surgical Specialist Trainee,
University College London Hospitals, UK
1
iv
1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Oxford University Press 2019
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2019
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018954692
ISBN 978–0–19–968190–7
Printed and bound in China by
C&C Offset Printing Co., Ltd.
Oxford University Press makes no representation, express or implied, that the
drug dosages in this book are correct. Readers must therefore always check
the product information and clinical procedures with the most up-to-date
published product information and data sheets provided by the manufacturers
and the most recent codes of conduct and safety regulations. The authors and
the publishers do not accept responsibility or legal liability for any errors in the
text or for the misuse or misapplication of material in this work. Except where
otherwise stated, drug dosages and recommendations are for the non-pregnant
adult who is not breast-feeding
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
v
Dedication
We would like to wholeheartedly thank the following people for their con-
stant support, efforts, and faith in us, in helping to realize this handbook
after 7 years.
Sincere and heartfelt thanks to the following:
• The publishing team from Oxford University Press, especially Mr
Michael Hawkes (Senior Assistant Commissioning Editor for Medical
Books) for his patience, negotiation, and expertise. You have been there
every step of the way and your efforts are very much appreciated.
• All members of the editorial team and the consultant reviewers for
giving up so much of their personal time to assist the contributors and
ensuring quality control of the content. Thank you for working so well
as a team and bringing such superb ideas to the table.
• Our plethora of devoted contributors and educators from every field
of medicine and surgery. Thank you for submitting work of such high
calibre, your insights, and expert advice.
• Our colleague publishing houses for offering permission to use their
images.
• Our internal reviewers for taking the time out to review, critique, and
appraise our entire book and offering your constructive criticisms to
improve the content.
• Our families for their love, encouragement, and motivation. Thank you
for compromising and sacrificing quality time with us, once again, so that
we could write this handbook for every medical student everywhere.
Needless to say, we will be striving to make up for the lost time.
• Our international audience for wanting a book like this and supporting
the project from the very beginning. This handbook has been written
for you. We all hope that it will serve as a useful companion throughout
your exciting time at medical school that will ultimately lay the strong
foundations for a lifetime of clinical practice.
vi
vi
Foreword
This superb guide to the neophyte doctor ranges from one’s first approach
to medical school and how to cope with such a complex process right
through to a doctor’s decision on which specialty career to follow eventu-
ally. As always this Oxford Handbook covers a vast range of useful, relevant
material, and this particular one will be of great value to anyone seriously
considering medical school for their future career choice.
The contributors are a talented group of doctors whose expertise and
interests span many different clinical specialties as well as having, between
them, a vast experience in clinical academic research as well as a huge com-
mitment in the modern complex process of medical education.
I am sure this book, where the nuts and bolts of virtually every specialty
are most clearly laid out, will be a most useful guide worldwide for those
not only considering a career in the medical profession but even those
midway through their medical careers.
Peter Abrahams MBBS FRCS(ED) FRCR DO(Hon) FHEA
Prof. Emeritus of Clinical Anatomy
Warwick Medical School, Gibbet Hill
National Teaching fellow 2011–14
Life fellow, Girton college, Cambridge
Visiting Professor LKC School of Medicine NTU Singapore
vii
Preface
viii PREFACE
and conduct in the operating theatre, on wards, and in the emergency de-
partment) where you are likely to find yourself over the next few years
until retirement.
The Oxford Handbook for Medical School will provide you with succinct,
precise, and accurate facts about medicine and surgery that are bound to
come up on a daily basis whether in or out of your time in hospital. The
core motivation was to bequeath all the important lessons about the med-
ical course and subject matter to the next generation of NHS leaders, pi-
oneers, and consultants as well as to reflect on what we would like to have
known back when we were medical students. Whether you are in the cardi-
ology clinic, on the surgical wards, in theatre, or witnessing emergency care,
this handbook includes carefully selected clinical scenarios that will explain
the logic behind the management plans as well as improve your confidence
in explaining it to your examiners. With aide-memoires, mnemonics, pic-
tures, and seminal research accompanied by concise text you will be able
to easily deconstruct abstract principles into digestible and memorable in-
formation. Since medical school is not only about clinical attachment as it
encroaches into your personal life too, there is plenty of useful information
on managing finances, health issues, planning electives, and career guidance
to improve your chances of professional success from an early stage. Not
many other books, at least known to us, can say the same. We have also
ensured that the handbook does not preach or lecture but communicates
with its audience on an informal and conversational level.
Needless to say, writing this compendium has been one of the biggest
professional challenges to the editorial team but if it means that we manage
to improve the quality of medical education globally, uplift the competence
of medical students in all corners of the world, and give you another reason
to fall in love with this vocation, then all the personal sacrifices, comprom-
ises, and struggles will have been all the more worthwhile. Medicine is
obviously voluminous and it is sometimes discouraging when the sudden
realization dawns on you that there is much work to be done in order to
carry out the responsibilities for your vulnerable patients. Hopefully the
Oxford Handbook for Medical School will serve as a friendly companion to
ease your stress throughout your studies as well as introduce you to other
speciality-specific Oxford Handbooks for further information with our
cross-referencing style.
The Oxford Handbook for Medical School is the result of efforts from eight
doctors from a range of specialities to offer a one-stop survival guide for
every medical student to make the most of their course from the very first
day to the very last. There was a vision and intention to pose the com-
monest clinical scenarios, how to excel at medical school, and improve
career potential early on. There are clearly many textbooks available on
the market with too little or too much information, written formally as if
you were being lectured, and with dense data that risk losing your attention.
This survival guide synthesizes advice from over 100 doctors. It has been
said that ‘you should learn from the mistakes of others as you do not have
time to make them all yourself ’. The time you spend reading this handbook
could well be one of the best investments you make at medical school.
PREFACE ix
Finally, on behalf of the editorial team, we would like to take this op-
portunity to wholeheartedly thank everyone involved in the success of this
handbook. We welcome your feedback to constantly improve the con-
tent of this handbook in subsequent editions and we hope that the Oxford
Handbook for Medical School will serve you well.
David Metcalfe and Kapil Sugand
Members of the Editorial Team
Oxford Handbook for Medical School
May 2018
x
xi
Contents
Contributors xiv
Symbols and abbreviations xxi
Part 1 Preclinical
1 Starting as a medical student 3
2 Studying at medical school 23
3 Preclinical medicine 41
4 Preparing for preclinical exams 71
5 Intercalated degrees and special study modules 85
xii CONTENTS
22 Neurology 437
23 Obstetrics and gynaecology 461
24 Oncology 485
25 Ophthalmology 499
26 Paediatrics 521
27 Palliative medicine 547
28 Pathology 557
29 Psychiatry 567
30 Respiratory medicine 589
31 Rheumatology 609
Index 1067
xvi
xiv
Contributors
xvi CONTRIBUTORS
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
xx CONTRIBUTORS
Imran Yusuf
(Chapter 1: Starting as a med-
ical student; Chapter 2: Studying
at medical school;
Chapter 6: Going clinical;
Chapter 25: Ophthalmology;
Chapter 50: Clinical examinations;
Chapter 56: Career planning)
Ophthalmology Specialist
Registrar and MRC Research
Fellow, Oxford University, UK
xxi
~ approximately
E cross-reference
d decreased
i increased
l leading to
n normal
M website
± with or without
2D two-dimensional
3D three-dimensional
5HT 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin)
AAA abdominal aortic aneurysm
AAGBI Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and
Ireland
ABG arterial blood gas
ACEI angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor
ACJ acromioclavicular joint
ACL anterior cruciate ligament
ACR albumin:creatinine ratio
ACS acute coronary syndrome
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone
ADP adenosine diphosphate
ADPKD autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease
AF atrial fibrillation
AFP Academic Foundation Programme
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
AKI acute kidney injury
ALF Access to Learning Fund
ALP alkaline phosphatase
ALS advanced life support
AMD age-related macular degeneration
ANA antinuclear antibody
AP anteroposterior
APTT activated partial thromboplastin time
ARB angiotensin receptor blocker
ARDS acute respiratory distress syndrome
AS aortic stenosis or ankylosing spondylitis
xxi
PA posteroanterior
PBC primary biliary cholangitis
PBL problem-based learning
PC presenting complaint
PCA patient-controlled analgesia
PCI percutaneous coronary intervention
PCL posterior cruciate ligament
PCOS polycystic ovarian syndrome
PCR polymerase chain reaction
PE pulmonary embolism
PEFR peak expiratory flow rate
PEP post-exposure prophylaxis
PET positron emission tomography
PhD Doctor of Philosophy
PICC peripherally inserted central catheter
PID pelvic inflammatory disease
PIPJ proximal interphalangeal joint
PMHx past medical history
PMR polymyalgia rheumatica
PNS peripheral nervous system
PO orally
PPI proton pump inhibitor
PR per rectum (rectally)
PSA prescribing skills assessment
PSC primary sclerosing cholangitis
PTH parathyroid hormone
PV per vaginam (vaginally)
PVD peripheral vascular disease
RA rheumatoid arthritis
RAPD relative afferent pupillary defect
RAS renin–angiotensin system
RBC red blood cell
Rh rhesus
RIF right iliac fossa
ROM range of movement
RRT renal replacement therapy
RSM Royal Society of Medicine
RTC road traffic collision
RUQ right upper quadrant
RV residual volume
SAH subarachnoid haemorrhage
xxivi
Preclinical
2
Chapter 1 3
Starting as a medical
student
Congratulations! 4
Before you start 5
Top 10 things to buy 8
Buying a stethoscope 9
Paying for medical school 11
Sources of funding 13
Your first week 16
Work–life balance 18
Ten responsibilities of medical students 20
Ten tips on being a successful student doctor 21
4
Congratulations!
Well done and congratulations on entering medical school! It has taken
some blood, sweat, and possibly tears to get here, and you should feel
proud of what you have achieved. You are about to enter a course of
training from which you will emerge a highly skilled individual. You have
tremendous potential to positively impact the lives of others, sometimes
with compassionate words, other times with your intelligence or practical
skills, and even through making new discoveries or forging new treatments.
You are going to touch the lives of many people in a way that they will re-
member and be immensely grateful for. Remember this throughout your
training, especially if at times things seem tough. You should expect that
your time at medical school might sometimes be challenging for all sorts
of reasons. But always remember the goal, what you said in your per-
sonal statement, and the immense privilege that lies in store during medical
school, and after you qualify.
Medical school is a marathon instead of a sprint, so organization and time
management are paramount to make the most of your course.
Before you start 5
Halls of residence
These are usually guaranteed for first-year students. You will be given a
tour of the halls on open days. Preference might be given to those coming
from other cities. Important considerations when ranking your preferences
include:
• price per term
• distance from main campus and hospitals
• access links (e.g. walking, cycling, buses, trains, and driving)
• catering services (some may be self-catering)
• facilities (kitchen and bathroom-to-student ratio or en suite etc.)
• neighbourhood (distance to city centre, and adjacent shops/services)
• atmosphere and personality fit with current residents.
Private accommodation
(See E Oxford Handbook for the Foundation Programme, second edition
(OHFP2) p. 47).
Properties are listed in local newspapers, in shop windows, with estate
agents, or on dedicated websites; but always see the accommodation be-
fore making your decision. If you decide to rent accommodation privately,
ensure that the duration of your contract includes term time at least. All
paperwork should be in order prior to starting the course including realistic
estimates of water, gas, and electricity bills, and council tax. The websites
listed in Box 1.1 specializing in university student accommodation may be
useful.
Buying a property
Buying a property will require you to seek assistance from estate agents and
mortgage advisers. Few students are in a position to consider buying a prop-
erty in the region of their university, but willing parents/guardians looking
for an investment opportunity might consider this option. Depending on
your down-payment, mortgage loans and interest rates will vary according
to your earnings and savings. Do not forget to account for associated costs
including stamp duty, solicitor fees, and conveyancing fees. A fixed rate
mortgage may provide some predictability regarding the repayment amount
per month (versus tracker mortgages).
Buying a stethoscope
Invented by René Laennec at Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital in Paris
(1816), the hallmark of medicine is the stethoscope. However, there are
literally hundreds of choices available. Some are internationally renowned
and some are disposable and for short-term use. It is worth investing in a
quality stethoscope, which, if durable, will stay with you until the day you re-
tire. You will require a stethoscope for most clinical examinations, in order
to auscultate heart, breath, and bowel sounds, blood vessels, and measure
blood pressure.
• The diaphragm (larger circle in inset in Fig. 1.1) is designed for detecting
high-pitched sounds with firm skin contact, while the bell (smaller circle)
is intended for detecting low-pitched sounds with light skin contact.
• Shorter tubing minimizes sound loss and transmits a better sound
quality.
• Pressing more firmly will enhance sound transmission.
• You can switch from diaphragm to bell by twisting the chest piece.
• The holes within the eartips should face you when inserted into
your ears.
Uses
• Auscultation : listening to breath, heart, blood vessel, and bowel sounds
(including murmurs, abnormal breath sounds, bowel obstruction/ileus,
and bruits).
• Counting: heart and breathing rates.
• Manually measuring blood pressure : listening for Korotkoff sounds using a
manual sphygmomanometer.
• Hearing aid: if you put the eartips in the patient’s ears and speak into the
chest piece.
• Measuring size of the liver: if you place the chest piece below the nipple
and start scratching from the waist upwards until the sound becomes
dull, this indicates the lower border of the liver.
The basics of stethoscopes
Brand
The most popular option is to buy a Littman stethoscope, but other brands
include Welch Allyn, Tytan Merlin, and Reister, to name just a few.
Model
The commonest option is the ‘standard’ or ‘classic’ model. Stethoscopes
can either be analogue, which is the standard choice, or digital, which are
more expensive and usually reserved for specialists. By converting acoustic
sounds into electrical signals, electronic stethoscopes (or stethophones)
amplify volume, reduce ambient noise, differentiate between high-and low-
frequency sounds, and are pressure sensitive. Many have Bluetooth com-
patibility to record, analyse, and store audiovisual data on your smartphone
and laptop. While there are many stethoscopes available for clinical use, all
that is required for your exams and clinical practice is the standard model of
stethoscope with a bell and a diaphragm.
10
Specialist
There are dedicated stethoscopes for various medical specialities including
cardiology, paediatrics, and respiratory medicine. Again, at this stage it is
worth being aware of novel types of stethoscopes, to know what to avoid
when purchasing your generic ‘standard’ model stethoscope.
Tips
• Colour: almost every colour is available but many consider traditional
colours (e.g. black) more appropriate than fluorescent pink.
• Engraving: you may request an engraving when purchasing a stethoscope
(e.g. name, email address/contact details if lost).
• Offers: you may receive a good quality stethoscope or a substantial
discount when signing up to the freshers’ fair. Also, look out for special
offers from your medical school shop and professional bodies.
• Price: there is no need to buy a very expensive stethoscope that is
designed for specialities (e.g. cardiology) this early on in medical school.
Most doctors use the standard model for their entire careers.
• Infection control: it is good practice to sterilize your stethoscope after
every use with alcohol wipes to prevent cross-infection between
patients. Also clean the eartips regularly and avoid sharing them to
prevent infection between users.
stem drum
et
ds
a
he
binaural spring
• Rent
• Utility bills and council tax
• Food
• Travel
• Textbooks and stationery
• Entertainment
• Clothes
• Electronic appliances (e.g. laptop)
• Miscellaneous (e.g. laundry, holidays, toiletries, and sundries).
Rent
Depends on halls of residence versus private accommodation, catering fa-
cilities, size of place, en suite, suburb, and city. This is generally a fixed cost
and therefore is easy to include in your estimates of monthly expenditure.
Utility bills
May vary again depending if you live in halls of residence (usually included in
fees) or private accommodation (usually excluded), number of room/flat/
housemates, but on average will come to £50–£75/month. Other bills such
as a TV licence, Internet connection, and landline/mobile costs also need to
be taken into account. As a full-time student, you may apply for council tax
exemption through your university or GOV.UK (M www.gov.uk). Again,
this represents a fixed sum which can be accurately included in your esti-
mates of monthly expenditure.
Food
You can still eat and drink well as a student as long as you spend sens-
ibly. If your halls of residence have catering, you will receive breakfast and
dinner included in the fees. You might consider bringing packed lunches
to save money. A reasonable budget would be £30–£50/week which in-
cludes treating yourself to the odd takeaway or restaurant meal. Do not
forget to find out which food outlets/restaurants offer a student discount,
and be sure to register with an online voucher company for two-for-one
and 50% discounts on meals (e.g. M www.vouchercodes.co.uk, M www.
moneysavingexpert.com/deals/cheap-restaurant-deals).
12
Travel
Halls of residence are normally close to campus but you may need to make
travel arrangements to hospitals. Universities near city centres have ex-
cellent public transport access so research your local amenities, and con-
sider all the discounted options available, especially for regular predictable
commutes e.g. travel pass, student rail card. Many students save money by
choosing to cycle between sites. Occasionally, universities may offer some
funding towards travel costs, particularly if you are required to travel a sig-
nificant distance away from campus. For those with cars, applications for
parking permits may be required for hospital sites or residential parking.
Textbooks and stationery
Most textbooks can be borrowed from the university library but popular
textbooks on the recommended reading list may be worth buying. Set aside
around £100 for books and stationery per year. Big savings can be made by
buying used books from students in the years above or online. Universities
may have online access to journals, textbooks, and databases. Be cautious
about buying any scientific text that is more than a few editions old, as the
material can be quite dated. Some useful websites include:
• Amazon: M www.amazon.co.uk
• eBay: M www.ebay.co.uk
• Used Books: M www.usedbooksearch.co.uk/UK.htm
• Waterstones Marketplace: M www.waterstonesmarketplace.com.
Entertainment
Work hard but also play hard. It is important to remember that while you
have many years of important work ahead of you, relaxation and socializing
are as fundamental to your success as learning medicine. A great deal of
this should come without a price tag, as friends often make the best (and
cheapest) distraction from studying. Be sure to broaden your horizons be-
yond the nightlife, explore the new city you have moved into, join clubs and
societies at your student union, or just socialize with your new friends. You
do not have to spend large sums of money to relax or enjoy yourself, and a
sensible budget would be £40–£80/week depending on your location and
financial circumstances.
• The National Union of Students (NUS) offer the NUS card which
entitles students to a wide range of discounts from restaurants, cinemas,
high street shops, electronics, and travel.
• Student Beans (M www.studentbean.com) advertise the top 20 offers
of the month as well as the offer of the week, saving you money on
entertainment, food, clothes, and more. Surveys that pay you for
participating are also advertised.
Sources of funding 13
Sources of funding
Many students are financially independent and there are numerous re-
sources available to fund your living expenses:
loans; these can be offered as ‘fast cash’ with ludicrous (but often very well
hidden) interest rates of >1000%.
It is very rare, but not unheard of, for medical students to be declared
bankrupt, often precipitated by a series of these short-term loans, with ser-
ious personal and professional ramifications. Be cautious, and seek inde-
pendent financial advice wherever necessary.
Overdrafts
These are also very helpful, especially if within a student account. You may
also be offered lower interest rates and other incentives such as vouchers
and discounts. Again, you should think very carefully about taking on add-
itional unnecessary debts for short-term benefits, realizing that any expend-
iture will need to be returned (and often with significant additional cost to
yourself ).
Employment
You might be able to earn a little extra with part- time employment.
Consider positions in the student union, local shops, gyms, telephone
centres, or tutoring. Temporary employment during long summer holidays
is also a popular option. You must be careful not to stretch yourself too
thinly, as medicine is a demanding course and should remain your priority.
Allowance from parents or guardians
Offers a safety net in case you need funds in an emergency. If they have
agreed to provide you with some financial support, it is probably sensible
to receive the money by regular standing orders or direct debits rather than
infrequent lump sums, which will also help you to budget.
Access to Learning Fund (ALF)/hardship funds
These are interchangeable terms in which the finance department of your
university may be able to lend you small amounts (usually a couple of hun-
dred pounds) in an emergency or due to unseen circumstances. This help is
typically reserved for students from low-income families who need financial
support to remain on the course. These are usually loans (repayable) and
may become grants (non-repayable) at their discretion. Applications are
assessed on an individual basis. You might be asked to provide evidence
of parental income and your bank statements for the past few months to
see if you are eligible for fiscal support. ALF is referred to as the Financial
Contingency Fund (FCF) in Wales, Support Funds in Northern Ireland, and
Discretionary Funds in Scotland.
State benefits
These are available on a means-tested or non-means-tested basis to select
groups including students with dependents, disabilities, or long-term illness,
for instance. The following websites may be helpful:
• Turn2us: M www.turn2us.org.uk
• Citizens Advice: M www.adviceguide.org.uk.
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