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OXFOR D M EDIC AL PU B LIC ATION S
Oxford Handbook
of Obstetrics and
Gynaecology
ii
Obstetrics and
Gynaecology
FOURTH EDITION
edited by
Sally Collins
Consultant Obstetrician and Subspecialist in Maternal and Fetal
Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, and Professor of
Obstetrics, Nuffield Department of Women’s and Reproductive
Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Sabaratnam Arulkumaran
Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Nicosia
Medical School, Cyprus, Professor Emeritus, St George’s,
University of London, and Visiting Professor, Imperial College
London, London, UK
Kevin Hayes
Consultant Obstetrician and Gynaecologist, St George’s
University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
Kirana Arambage
Consultant Gynaecologist, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford,
and Honorary Senior Clinical Lecturer, Nuffield Department
of Women’s and Reproductive Health, University of Oxford,
Oxford, UK
Lawrence Impey
Consultant Obstetrician and Subspecialist in Maternal and Fetal
Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK
iv
Contents
Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
Symbols and abbreviations xi
Contributors xvii
Normal pregnancy
2 Pregnancy complications 47
3 Fetal medicine 03
4 Infectious diseases in pregnancy 59
5 Medical disorders in pregnancy 25
6 Labour and delivery 297
7 Obstetric anaesthesia 36
8 Neonatal resuscitation 373
9 Postnatal care 383
0 Obstetric emergencies 407
Maternal and perinatal mortality 439
2 Benign and malignant tumours in pregnancy 475
3 Substance misuse and psychiatric disorders 499
4 Gynaecological anatomy and development 529
5 Normal menstruation and its disorders 573
6 Early pregnancy problems 597
7 Genital tract infections and pelvic pain 625
8 Subfertility and reproductive medicine 65
9 Sexual assault 695
20 Contraception 703
2 Menopause 723
vi Contents
22 Urogynaecology 74
23 Benign and malignant gynaecological conditions 777
24 Miscellaneous gynaecology 889
Index 99
vii
Preface
Since the previous edition of the Oxford Handbook of Obstetrics and
Gynaecology there has been significant growth within the specialty, with
new reports and guidelines that have changed the approaches involved in
delivering the best-quality care for patients. In writing and developing this
new edition, we have taken the latest evidence-based practice as well as
our own clinical experience to help those of you who are embarking on the
challenging yet rewarding field of obstetrics and gynaecology.
We are grateful to our past and present contributors, who have given
both their time and expertise in writing and updating this Handbook, as well
as to our readers. We hope that the information, which we have tried to
present in a digestible format, will prove useful to you on the wards as well
as at your desk. Where possible, we have tried to align our chapters with
the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists curriculum, but we
have also included clinical tips gleaned from our practical experience. Please
do let us know any suggestions or criticism related to the content of the
book, and we will make every effort to improve the delivery of the content
even more in the next edition.
Sally Collins
Sabaratnam Arulkumaran
Kevin Hayes
Kirana Arambage
Lawrence Impey
April 2022
vii
ix
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all our second and third edition authors on whose
sterling work this latest edition is built. We would also like to thank the
doctors of all grades who anonymously reviewed some of the text, pro-
viding valuable feedback and further fine-tuning of the finished manuscript.
To conform to the Oxford Handbook style and to avoid overlap and repe-
tition, some contributions have been considerably edited and we thank all
our authors for their understanding. We are most grateful to Prof. Basky
Thilaganathan for providing many of the ultrasound images and Ms Penny
Trotter for the colposcopy pictures. We cannot fail to mention the mar-
vellous team at Oxford University Press including Elizabeth Reeve, Helen
Liepman, and Caroline Smith, but especially Sylvia Warren without whose
incredible patience, kindness, and expert guidance this fourth edition would
not have happened. Last, but definitely not least, we would like to thank
our partners and families who continue to remain so patient and supportive
throughout this project, especially Berni O’Connor, ‘for doing all the real
work on the home front’ and David, Lexi, and Bea Reynard ‘for all their love
and support throughout M’s mad projects’.
x
xi
Contributors
Editors
Sally Collins Kevin Hayes
Consultant Obstetrician and Consultant Obstetrician and
Subspecialist in Maternal and Gynaecologist, St George’s
Fetal Medicine, John Radcliffe University Hospital NHS Foundation
Hospital, Oxford, and Professor of Trust, London, UK
Obstetrics, Nuffield Department of
Women’s and Reproductive Health, Kirana Arambage
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Consultant Gynaecologist, John
Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, and
Sabaratnam Arulkumaran Honorary Senior Clinical Lecturer,
Professor of Obstetrics and Nuffield Department of Women’s
Gynaecology, University of Nicosia and Reproductive Health, University
Medical School, Cyprus, Professor of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Emeritus, St George’s, University
of London, and Professor, Imperial Lawrence Impey
College London, London, UK Consultant Obstetrician and
Subspecialist in Maternal and Fetal
Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital,
Oxford, UK
Dr Katy Vincent
John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK
Miss Cara Williams
University College London
Hospital, UK
Dr Niraj Yanamandra
St Peter’s Hospital, Chertsey, UK
xxi
Chapter 1
Normal pregnancy
Obstetric history: current pregnancy 2
Obstetric history: other relevant features 4
Obstetric physical examination 6
Engagement of the fetal head 8
Female pelvis 0
Diameters of the female pelvis 2
Fetal head 4
Diameters and presenting parts of the fetal head 6
Placenta: early development 8
Placenta: later development 9
Placenta: circulation 20
Placenta: essential functions 22
Physiology of pregnancy: endocrine 24
Physiology of pregnancy: haemodynamics 26
Physiology of pregnancy: cardiorespiratory 27
Physiology of pregnancy: genital tract and breast 28
Physiology of pregnancy: other changes 30
Preparing for pregnancy 3
Supplements and lifestyle advice 32
General health check 34
Diagnosis of pregnancy 36
Dating of pregnancy 37
Ultrasound assessment of fetal growth 38
Booking visit 40
Antenatal care: planning 42
Antenatal care: routine blood tests 44
Antenatal care: specific blood tests 45
Antenatal care: preparing for delivery 46
2
An obstetric history
Should include:
• Current pregnancy details.
• Past obstetric history.
• Past gynaecological history.
• Past medical and surgical history.
• Drug history and allergies.
• Social history, including:
• recreational drug use
• domestic violence
• psychiatric illness especially in the postnatal period.
• Family history especially with regard to:
• multiple pregnancy
• diabetes
• hypertension
• chromosomal or congenital malformations.
General examination
• Body mass index (BMI) calculated [weight (kg)/height (m)2].
2 Pregnancy complications are i with a BMI <8.5 and >25.
• Blood pressure (BP) measured in the semi-recumbent position
(45° tilt).
2 Use an appropriate size cuff; too small a cuff gives a falsely i BP.
• Auscultation of the heart and lungs:
• flow murmurs are common and are not significant
• cardiac murmurs may be detected for the st time.
• Thyroid gland (exclude a goitre).
• Breasts (exclude any lumps).
• Varicose veins and skeletal abnormalities (kyphosis or
scoliosis): pregnancy associated with i lumbar lordosis: i lower
backache.
40 weeks
36 weeks
22 weeks
16 weeks
12 weeks
Engagement
• A head that is only two-fifths palpable is usually considered to be
engaged (and therefore fixed in the pelvis; see Fig. .2).
• Put simply, an easily palpable head is not engaged, whereas a head
more difficult to palpate is more likely to be deeply engaged.
2 Care must be taken, as a breech presentation can sometimes be
mistaken
for a deeply engaged head.
Engagement of the fetal head 9
Pelvic cavity
Sinciput Sinciput Sinciput Sinciput None of
Completely high easily felt felt felt head
above Occiput Occiput Occiput Occiput
easily felt felt just felt not felt palpable
Fig. .2 Clinical estimation of descent of the fetal head and engagement.
Occipitoposterior (OP)
ROP LOP
Mother’s Mother’s
right side left side
ROA LOA
Occipitoanterior (OA)
Front
Fig. .3 Fetal position. Reproduced from Collier J, Longmore M, et al. (2008).
Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties, 8th edn. Oxford: OUP. By permission of
Oxford University Press.
10
Female pelvis
The bony ring of the pelvis is made up of two symmetrical innominate
bones and the sacrum. Each innominate bone is made up of the ilium, is-
chium, and the pubis, which are joined anteriorly at the symphysis pubis and
posteriorly to the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints.
The female pelvis has evolved for giving birth, and differs from the male
pelvis in the following ways:
• The female pelvis is broader, and the bones more slender than those of
the male.
• The male pelvic brim is heart-shaped and widest towards the back,
whereas the female pelvic brim is oval-shaped transversely and widest
further forwards; the sacral promontory is less prominent.
• The female pelvic cavity is more spacious and has a wider outlet than
the male pelvis.
• The subpubic angle is rounded in a female pelvis (like a Roman arch)
and more acute in the male pelvis (like a Gothic arch).
Pelvic muscles and ligaments
The pelvis gains its strength and stability through numerous muscles and
ligaments. The inner aspect of the pelvic bones is covered by muscles.
Above the pelvic brim are the iliacus and psoas muscles; the obturator
internus and its fascia occupies the side walls; the posterior wall is covered
by the pyriformis; and the levator ani and coccygeus, with their opposite
counterparts, constitute the pelvic floor.
Pelvic ring stability is provided by the following ligaments:
• Sacrospinous ligament: extending from the lateral margin of the sacrum
and coccyx to the ischial spine.
• Sacrotuberous ligament: extending from the sacrum to the ischial
tuberosity.
• Iliolumbar ligament: extending from the lumbar spine to the iliac crest at
the back of the pelvis.
• Dorsal sacroiliac ligament: a heavy band passing from the ilium to the
sacrum posterior to the sacroiliac joint.
• Ventral sacroiliac ligament: bridging the sacroiliac joint anteriorly, and is
an important stabilizing structure of the joint.
• Inferior and superior pubic ligament: a band across the lower and upper
part of the symphysis respectively, providing further strength to
the joint.
• Inguinal ligament: running from the anterior superior iliac spine of the
ilium to the pubic tubercle of the pubic bone.
• The remaining ligaments that surround the pelvis are ligaments that do
not provide stabilization of the pelvis.
Pelvic boundaries
The pelvis is divided by an oblique plane passing through the prominence
of the sacrum, the arcuate and pectineal lines, and the upper margin of
the symphysis pubis, into the greater and the lesser pelvis. The circum-
ference of this plane is termed the pelvic brim. This pelvic brim separates
the false pelvis above from the true pelvis below. The plane of the pelvis
is
at an angle of 55° to the horizontal.
Female pelvis 11
Pelvic shapes
There are four basic shapes of the female pelvis, as illustrated in Fig. .4.
• Gynaecoid: the classical female pelvis with the inlet transversely oval
and a roomier pelvic cavity.
• Anthropoid: a long, narrow, and oval-shaped pelvis due to the
assimilation of the sacral body to the fifth lumbar vertebra.
• Android: the inlet is heart-shaped and the cavity is funnel-shaped with a
contracted outlet.
• Platypelloid: a wide pelvis flattened at the brim with the sacral
promontory pushed forward.
Name %
women
Android
20
Anthropoid
25
Gynaecoid
50
Platypolloid
Fig. .4 Basic shapes of the female pelvis. Reproduced from Abitbol M,
Chervenak F, Ledger WJ. (996). Birth and human evolution: anatomical and
obstetrical mechanics in primates. New York: Bergin & Garvey.
12
Sacrum
et
Inl
lvis
d pe
Mi
Outlet Coccyx
Fig. .5 Median sagittal section of the female pelvis showing the pelvic inlet and
outlet. Reproduced from Collier J, Longmore M, et al. (2008). Oxford Handbook of
Clinical Specialties, 8th edn. Oxford: OUP. By permission of Oxford University Press.
14
Fetal head
Anatomy of the fetal skull
The fetal cranium is made up of five main bones, two parietal bones, two
frontal bones, and the occipital bone. These are held together by mem-
branous areas called sutures, which permit movement during birth (Fig. .6).
• Coronal suture: separates the frontal bones from the parietal bones.
• Sagittal suture: separates the two parietal bones.
• Lambdoid suture: separates the occipital bone from the parietal bones.
• Frontal suture: separates the two frontal bones.
2 When two or more sutures meet, there is an irregular membranous area
between them called a fontanelle (Fig. .6):
• Anterior fontanelle or bregma: is a diamond-shaped space at the
junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures; this measures about 3cm
in anteroposterior and transverse diameters, and usually ossifies at
~8mths after birth.
• Posterior fontanelle or lambda: is a smaller triangular area that lies at the
junction of the sagittal and lambdoid sutures.
2 The positions of the sutures and fontanelles play a very important role in
identifying the position of the fetal head in labour.
Regions of the fetal head
The fetal head has different regions assigned to help in the description of
the presenting part felt during vaginal examination in labour.
• Occiput: the bony prominence that lies behind the posterior fontanelle.
• Vertex: the diamond-shaped area between the anterior and posterior
fontanelles, and between the parietal eminences.
• Bregma: the area around the anterior fontanelle.
• Sinciput: the area in front of the anterior fontanelle, which is divided into
the brow (between the bregma and the root of the nose) and the face
(lying below the root of the nose and the supraorbital ridges).
Fetal head 15
Posterior fontanelle ( λ)
Anterior
fontanelle
(bregma)
Fig. .6 Fontanelles, sagittal suture, and biparietal diameter. Reproduced from
Collier J, Longmore M, et al. (2008). Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties, 8th edn.
Oxford: OUP. By permission of Oxford University Press.
16
1
4
2
5
1 Suboccipitobregmatic 9.5cm
flexed vertex presentation
2 Suboccipitofrontal 10.5cm
partially deflexed vertex
3 Occipipitofrontal 11.5cm
deflexed vertex
4 Mentovertical 13cm brow
5 Submentobregmatic 9.5cm face
Fig. .7 Different presenting diameters of the fetal head. Reproduced from Collier
J, Longmore M, Turmezei T, et al. (2008). Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties, 8th
edn. Oxford: OUP. By permission of Oxford University Press.
Placental villi
• Functional units of the placenta.
• There are ~60 stem villi in human placenta with each cotyledon
containing 3–4 major stem villi.
• Despite their close proximity (0.025mm), there is no mixing of
maternal and fetal blood.
• Placental barrier is made of outer syncytiotrophoblast, which is
in direct contact with maternal blood, the cytotrophoblast layer,
basement membrane, stroma containing mesenchymal cells, and the
endothelium and basement membrane of fetal blood vessels.
Placenta: circulation
The placental circulation consists of two distinctly different systems—the
uteroplacental circulation and the fetoplacental circulation.
Uteroplacental circulation
• Uteroplacental circulation is the maternal blood circulating through the
intervillous space (Table .).
• Intervillous blood flow at term is estimated to be 500–600mL/min, and
blood in the intervillous space is replaced 3–4 times/min.
• Pressure and concentration gradients between fetal capillaries and
intervillous space favours placental transfer of oxygen and other
nutrients to the fetus.
Arterial system
• Spiral arteries respond to the i demand of blood supply to the
placental bed by becoming low-pressure, high-flow vessels.
• They become tortuous, dilated, and less elastic by trophoblastic
invasion, which starts early in pregnancy and occurs in two stages:
• in st trimester, the decidual segments of the spiral arterioles are
structurally modified
• in 2nd trimester, 2nd wave of trophoblastic invasion occurs, resulting
in invasion of myometrial segments of spiral arteries.
2 Failure of this physiological change, particularly 2nd wave of tropho-
blastic invasion, is implicated in development of pre-eclampsia and fetal
growth restriction.
Venous system
• Blood entering the intervillous space from the spiral artery becomes
dispersed to reach the chorionic plate and gradually the basal plate,
being facilitated by mild movements of villi and uterine contractions.
• From basal plate, uterine veins drain the deoxygenated blood.
• Venous drainage only occurs during uterine relaxation.
• Spiral arteries are perpendicular and veins are parallel to uterine wall,
making large volumes of blood available for exchange at the intervillous
space even though the rate of flow is d during contraction, i.e. the
veins are blocked for a longer time to allow pooling of blood in the
retroplacental area.
Fetoplacental circulation
(See Table .2.)
• Two umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the fetus and
enter the chorionic plate underneath the amnion.
• Arteries divide into small branches and enter the stem of the
chorionic villi, where further division to arterioles and capillaries
occurs.
• The blood then flows to the corresponding venous channel and
subsequently to the umbilical vein.
• Maternal and fetal bloodstreams flow side by side, in opposite
directions, facilitating exchange between mother and fetus.
Placenta: circulation 21
— Paras lienen, koska ette ole nähnyt muita kuin minut ja hänet.
Teette minusta vain pilaa.
MAANALAISESSA KOPISSA.
Huone oli noin kolme metriä pitkä, kaksi metriä leveä ja korkea.
Muita huonekaluja siinä ei ollut kuin vuode ja tuoli, pieni siirrettävä
rautakamiini ja palava lamppu. Seinään oli taottu rautakahleet, joihin
nainen kuin kahlekoira oli oikeasta kädestään kytketty. Kahleet olivat
kuitenkin niin pitkät, että hän pääsi ovelle asti ja vielä sen
ulkopuolellekin.
— En ole mikään henki, vaan ihminen, joka olen auttava sinut pois
täältä taikka sinun kanssasi kuoleva tänne nälkään.
— Mikä on nimesi?
— Vai hän sinä olet. Tuo, joka tuossa makaa, on sinusta kertonut.
Olet rohkea nuorukainen… kuinka olet päässyt tänne?
— Vien.
— Vai viet minut täältä, tuonne ulos, ulos, jossa päivällä aurinko
paistaa taivaalla ja yöllä kuu ja tähdet! Vietkö todellakin? Kunpa et
vain valehtelisi?
— Luulen osaavani. Ellen minä osaa, niin hän, joka tuossa makaa,
on minua neuvova.
— Nyt huomaan olevani vapaa ja että täyttä totta aijot viedä minut
täältä. Nyt vasta oikein sen käsitän. Mutta mihin minut viet?
— Sinne juuri.
— Voi, älkää jättäkö minua tänne, rukoili v. Nit, joka jo oli vironnut
pyörryksistänsä, ehkä ei yksikään ihminen enään tule täällä
käymään, niin että minun täytyy kuolla tänne nälkään. Ja jos pidätte
sananne ja tulettekin huomenna minua noutamaan, niin ajatelkaa,
että yksi ainoa yökin on täällä kauhea. Varmaankin se minut tappaisi.
Tässä keskeytti hänet herra v. Nit, joka niin hiljaa kuin olisi
itsekseen puhunut, itseään soimaten sanoi:
Siinä kyllin, että hän pysyi sanassansa ja hänen kostonsa oli yhtä
julma kuin viekkaasti keksitty. Siitä syystä vain hän ei kieltänyt
minulta lämpöä ja valoa, ruokaa ja juomaa, että hän kauvan ja
kylliksensä saisi nauttia kostostaan… Hänen kostonhimonsa ei ollut
samaa laatua kuin rosvon, joka tyytyy tikarinpistoon… ei, hänen
antamansa pistot olivat yhtä monet kuin hiekka jyväset meren
pohjalla.
Tämä mies, joka istuu tässä minun vieressäni, oli hänen kätyrinsä
ja sitäpaitsi minun nöyrä palvelijani…kaikessa muussa, paitsi siinä,
mikä koski vapauttamistani.
Kuitenkin hänellä oli ihmisen sydän ja hänen käydessänsä täällä
yksin, minulla joskus oli hänestä vähän hauskuuttakin.
Vapaaherra oli toivonut minun pian kuolevan, jotta hän itse saisi
Ristilän haltuunsa. Kun mieheni sitten palasi, raukesi hänen kaikki
toivonsa tyhjiin, sillä veljeänsä hän kumminkin piti jonkinmoisessa
arvossa, taikka lieneekö hänessä ollut vähän veljellistä rakkautta,
koska ei sanonut tahtoneensa saattaa häntä pois hengiltä. Tämä
näyttikin olevan ainoa valokohta hänen mustassa sielussaan.