Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Laboratory evaluation of different bio-oil recycled aged asphalts:

Conventional performances and microscopic characteristics
Xinghai Peng a, b, c, *, Nasi Xie a, b, c, Chengdong Xia a, b, c, d, Xianhao Zhou a, Pei Zhao a, b, c,
Shaojie Ma e, Chen Zhang f, Songtao Lv a, b, c
a
School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, 410114, Hunan, China
b
National Engineering Research Center of Highway Maintenance Technology, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, 410114, Hunan, China
c
National Key Laboratory of Green and Long-Life Road Engineering in Extreme Environment (Changsha), Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha,
410114, Hunan, China
d
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnical University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong
e
The Third Construction Engineering Co., Ltd. of China Construction Third Engineering Bureau, Wuhan, 430073, Hubei, China
f
Jiangsu JITRI Road Engineering Technology and Equipment Research Institute Co., Ltd., Xuzhou, 221000, Jiangsu, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Zhen Leng The performance of diverse types of bio-oils varies greatly from each other, which makes it arduous to apply
different bio-oils directly in engineering practice. This study is based on physical and microscopic properties,
Keywords: studying different types of bio-oil recycled asphalt and analyzing their differences. Five bio-oils (castor oil, straw
Road engineering oil, soybean oil, gutter oil, and vegetable oil) were used to regenerate asphalts after short-term and long-term
Aged asphalt
aging to prepare recycled asphalts. The physical performances of recycled asphalts with different bio-oils were
Recycled asphalt
assessed, including penetration, softening point, and ductility tests. In addition, scanning electron microscopy
Regeneration effect
Bio-oil was utilized to investigate the microscopic morphologies of recycled asphalts. Simultaneous thermogravimetry
and differential scanning calorimetry were applied to determine the thermal stabilities of recycled asphalts.
Finally, Gel permeation chromatography was employed to analyze the asphalt’s relative molecular masses. The
results revealed that vegetable and gutter oil have apparent adverse effects on temperature sensitivity and high-
temperature performance of aged asphalt. In contrast, they have positive effects on low-temperature perfor­
mance. All five bio-oils can repair cracks on the surface of aged asphalt. However, the surface wrinkles of
vegetable oil-recycled asphalt and castor oil-recycled asphalt are relatively less and have an outstanding recy­
cling effect. The slight thermal weight loss of recycled asphalts corresponding to castor oil, straw oil, and soybean
oil at high temperatures positively impacted the high-temperature stability of aged asphalt. The castor oil and
soybean oil recycled asphalts have significantly larger relative molecular masses and have advantages in high-
temperature performance. This paper reveals the impact of different bio-oils on asphalt regeneration, which
contributes a theoretical basis for promoting the practical implementation of bio-oil in road projects, with
obvious economic and social benefits.

opportunity for developing green and clean energy.

1. Introduction
Given that human society is significantly threatened by global
climate change, a multitude of nations are establishing a "carbon
neutrality" strategy and laying out a future vision without carbon
emissions (Yu et al., 2022). For example, a target vision for carbon
peaking and neutrality in China was declared in 2020. The carbon-free
goal is challenged by the significant demand of technological innova­
tion in the industry, while also, it simultaneously presents an
By far, the primary contributors to climate change are fossil fuels like
coal, oil, and gas. In the transport industry, asphalt is an indispensable
material in road infrastructure construction, which is sourced from
crude oil distillation residue. Numerous existing asphalt pavements have
mostly reached or are approaching their original design life because of
the significant expansion of traffic volume and the complexity of the
traffic service environment (Peng et al., 2022; Xie et al., 2023a). The
reconstruction or rehabilitation of pavements generates a large amount
of discarded asphalt mixture (Xie et al., 2023). The rebuilding of

* The corresponding author.

E-mail address: pengxinghsi@stu.csust.edu.cn (X. Peng).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139442
Received 28 April 2023; Received in revised form 27 August 2023; Accepted 20 October 2023
Available online 21 October 2023
0959-6526/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Peng et al.
Abbreviations list
SEM Scanning electron microscopy
TG Simultaneous thermogravimetry
GPC Gel permeation chromatography
CO Castor oil
GO Gutter oil
SO Soybean oil
STO Straw oil
VO Vegetable oil
NA Neat asphalt
BRA Bio-oil recycled asphalt
SA Short-term aged asphalt
LA Long-term aged asphalt
pavements will utilize up and squander a huge number of
non-renewable resources if this activity is not conducted responsibly,
contrary to the principle of carbon-free objectives. Hence, the promotion
of the reutilization and extensive use of waste asphalt materials is an
essential task to facilitate the development of the petroleum
derived-resources recycling industry and an indispensable means to
achieve in the future a carbon-free road industry.
To carry out the recycling of waste asphalt, four types of technologies
are commonly used, which are: in-situ cold regeneration (Z. Wang et al.,
2020), plant mixed cold regeneration (Wei et al., 2017), in-situ hot
regeneration (Li et al., 2020), and plant mixed hot recycling (Gong et al.,
2016a). Among them, plant mixes hot regeneration is now the main­
stream way of waste asphalt recycling activity due to its positive re­
covery effect and wide range of applications. The recycling agent plays a
paramount role in the process of plant mixed hot recycling. With the
evolution of regeneration technology, the development and use of
petroleum-based recycling agent products have become more mature.
Nevertheless, petroleum is a irreproducible fuels and it contributes to
environmental pollution(Lv et al., 2020). Hence, the above-mentioned
recycling agents may be restricted in the future, as environmental
preservation policies gain popularity (Boming T et al., 2019). At the
same time, the shared recycling agents are currently expensive, raising
the cost of recycled asphalt. As a result, creating affordable, sustainable,
and renewable recycling agents has become a hot research topic.
Bio-oil-based recycling agents have received widespread attention
due to their renewable nature, environmentally friendly, and cost-saving
advantages (Ye et al., 2021). An army of scholars has researched this
new material (Hill et al., 2013; Lv et al., 2021b; Ye et al., 2020). Those
studies have reported that aged asphalt after bio-oil regeneration has
improved its performance parameters (Rafiq et al., 2021), resulting in a
rise of 4% in moisture resistance and a 37% increment in fatigue life for
asphalt mixtures (Foroutan Mirhosseini et al., 2020), Furthermore,
revitalizing the aged asphalt in recycled asphalt pavements restored its
original chemical equilibrium and molecular conformation of the aging
asphalt binder (Pahlavan et al., 2020). Consequently, it is clear that
bio-oil as a recycling agent can lead to a favorable improvement of the
recycled aged asphalt.
In addition, countless of research works have shown that asphalt
undergoes specific physical and chemical changes during aging (Lv
et al., 2020). These phenomena cause modifications to asphalt charac­
teristics and decline some of its performance properties, and those facts
are manifested at the microscopic level by its lighter components’
reduction. At the macroscopic level, the asphalt aging process is
exhibited by a reduction in penetration, a rise in softening point, and a
decrease in ductility, resulting in asphalt property deterioration (Cao
et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2021). Most bio-oils can replenish the light
components of asphalt lost during aging, increasing its penetration and
ductility, reducing its consistency, and improving its low-temperature
2
Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442
performance (Lv et al., 2021a; Sun et al., 2019). Therefore, when
employed as a recycling agent for aged asphalt, bio-oil can compensate
for the deteriorated properties of the asphalt during aging, eventually
restoring its characteristics to a point where it even outperforms the neat
asphalt. This fact demonstrates that BRA will probably be a critical study
in recycled pavement projects in the future.
Different bio-oils have diverse impacts on asphalt properties because
of the extensive range of bio-oil sources and the intricate and varied
preparation processes (Sun et al., 2017). When bio-oil was applied as a
recycling agent, the kind of bio-oil and the level of aging of asphalt
significantly impacted the recycled asphalt properties. To successfully
soften and restore the original properties of aged asphalts, waste cooking
oil and waste engine oil can be used. The physical, chemical, and
rheological qualities of aged asphalt can be recovered to the original
asphalt essential level with the appropriate additional amount of waste
oil (Li et al., 2019). Waste vegetable oils can enhance aging asphalt’s
compatibility and fatigue resistance, with varied zero-tolerated aging
content (ZTAD) values obtained from different aging conditions (Cao
et al., 2018; Gökalp and Uz, 2019). Aromatic oils have a robust softening
effect on aged asphalt binders, improving their properties at low tem­
peratures and weakening them at high ones (Hong et al., 2020). Addi­
tionally, the different contents of bio-oil can also cause a considerable
variation in the regeneration impact of aged asphalt, and the optimum
content for regenerating asphalt with different types of bio-oil varies.
The ideal content levels for waste gutter oil and waste engine oil when
utilized as recycling agents for regenerating worn-out asphalt were
3.5%–4.0% and 5.5%–6.0%, respectively (El-Shorbagy et al., 2019). By
utilizing 2% and 4% contents of waste wood biomass bio-oil for asphalt
regeneration, the bio-oil regenerated asphalt binders were able to meet
the VG20 and VG10 binder performance, respectively (Girimath and
Singh, 2019). In summary, there are considerable variations in the
macroscopic characteristics of aged asphalts regenerated by using
different bio-oils. To understand how different bio-oils affect asphalt
regeneration, it is essential to regenerate worn-out asphalt using several
types of bio-oils.
From a microscopic perspective, a multitude of scholars has also
conducted studies on the bio-oil regeneration of aged asphalt. It was
found that waste motor oil can be recycled by utilizing physical pro­
cesses. Besides, this waste material can be mixed with aged asphalt,
because its components help regenerating this type of asphalt (Chen
et al., 2021). Waste cooking oil components significantly impact how
brittle aged asphalt becomes. The component’s effectiveness at restoring
the microscopic characteristics of worn-out asphalt is inversely corre­
lated with its molecular weight (Zhao et al., 2022a). Gutter oil is a low
molecular weight mixture that can interact with polymers in modified
asphalts, restore light components lost during asphalt aging, and delay
the aggregation of polar components after aging. All these facts improve
the performance of aged asphalt (Gong et al., 2016b).Meanwhile, some
researchers used a gel chromatography test and found that the primary
factor for the excellent aging resistance of BRA was the presence of fewer
low molecular weight substances (Tang et al., 2019). The chemical
structure, thermal stability, and microscopic morphology of the recy­
cling agents contained in waste oil were characterized by utilizing
microscopic tests such as Fourier infrared spectroscopy, TG analysis, and
SEM. The recycling agents were prepared and found to have complete
agglomerated layers and promising thermal stability (Y. Wang et al.,
2020). Based on the above studies, the molecular compositions of
different bio-oils differ, resulting in significant differences in the
regeneration effect and mechanism of aged asphalt.
Summing up, when utilizing bio-oil as the recycling agent in the
construction of roads, the properties of various BRAs could be more
precise. Addressing that issue, this study compared the regeneration
effects of five different types of bio-oil (CO, GO, SO, STO, VO) with
different contents (3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%) in asphalt. The physical
characteristics of BRA were comprehensively studied. The microscopic
morphology and molecular composition of NA, aged asphalt, and
X. Peng et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442

different BRAs were analyzed by utilizing SEM, TG, and GPC to reveal Table 1
the variety of bio-oil effects on asphalt regeneration. This research will Conventional performance indicators of asphalt.
promote the use of bio-oil in road engineering on a practical level and Test index Unit Technical Test
contribute to achieving a vision of a carbon-free future. The technology specifications values
roadmap is presented in Fig. 1. Penetration (25 ◦ C, 100 g, 5 s) 0.1 60–80 70
mm
2. Materials and test methods Softening point (Universal method) C 48
◦
≥46
Ductility (15 ◦ C) cm ≥100 103
Density (15 ◦ C) g/ – 1.002
2.1. Materials cm3
Flash Point ◦
C ≥200 310
2.1.1. Neat asphalt Solubility (trichloroethylene) % ≥99.5 99.80
Donghai Sinopec No. 70 Grade A road petroleum asphalt was 60 ◦ C viscosity Pa⋅s ≥180 200
RTFOT Mass change % − 0.05
employed as the NA. Asphalt was tested in accordance with JTG E20-
±0.8
Residual penetration ratio % ≥61 65
2011, and the indicators are set out in Table 1. (25 ◦ C)
Residual ductility (10 ◦ C) cm ≥6 12
2.1.2. Recycling agent
This research selected five types of road bio-oils commonly available
in the Chinese market as asphalt recycling agents. The origin of each bio- Table 2
oil is on the basis of earlier research works done by the authors’ group Basic physical properties of bio-oil.
(Lv et al., 2021a; Wang et al., 2023). Due to certain moisture in the 60 ◦ C viscosity Flash point Mass loss 15 ◦ C density（g/
bio-oils, all of them were heated in an oven for 2 h at 100 ◦ C prior to its （Pa⋅s） （◦ C） （%） mL）
utilization and tested for their fundamental performance in accordance
VO 74 232 2.4 0.94
with the "Technical Specification for Road Pavement Regeneration". Table 2 SO 86 280 0.1 0.98
presents the indicators of the test. CO 87 252 0.3 0.99
STO 89 265 0.3 0.98
GO 76 234 3.6 0.92
2.2. Test methodology

2.2.1. Physical performance test steel ball gradually dropped through the asphalt samples to contact with
the lower plate surface, and the temperature was immediately read with
(1) Penetration test the accuracy of 5 ◦ C.

In accordance with Chinese standard "Standard Test Methods of
Bitumen and Bituminous Mixtures for Highway Engineering" (JTG E20-
2011). The constant temperature water bath was employed, and the test
temperature was set at 25 ◦ C and kept stable. A standard needle together
with a load(mass) of 100 g was used to conduct the vertical penetration
into the specimens during 5 s. The penetration depth was measured in
tenths of a millimeter (accurate to 0.1 mm).
(2) Softening point test
By the Chinese standard "Standard Test Methods of Bitumen and
Bituminous Mixtures for Highway Engineering" (JTG E20-2011). A 3.5 g
steel ball was first placed on the copper mold with asphalt samples
installed, and the water temperature rose 5 ◦ C ± 0.5 ◦ C per minute.
During the temperature rise process, the specimens softened, and the
(3) Ductility test
Fowling the Chinese standard "Standard Test Methods of Bitumen
and Bituminous Mixtures for Highway Engineering" (JTG E20-2011).
The asphalt specimen was slowly injected into the "8" shaped mold so
that it was slightly higher than the mold, and the specimen was cooled
for more than 1.5 h at room temperature. Then the asphalt over the mold
was shoveled out and scraped flat. The specimens were placed for 1.5 h
in a water bath at 5 ◦ C. Tensile speed throughout the test was 5 cm/min
±0.25 cm/min.
2.2.2. Microscopic performance test
(1) SEM

Fig. 1. Technology roadmap.

3
X. Peng et al.
SEM processes a specific signal from the surface of the test specimen,
detects it, and magnifies it to obtain a scanned image of the microscopic
form of the specimens. This work used SEM to investigate the micro­
scopic morphology of BRA.
(2) Thermal stability analysis
150 ◦ C–200 ◦ C is the temperature range at which asphalt pavement is
normally constructed. To ensure bio-oil stability under high-
temperature, the pyrolytic characteristics of different bio-oil asphalts
at high temperatures were studied, and the thermogravimetric proper­
ties of different bio-asphalts were also compared. A Netzsch STA449F3
synchronous thermal analyzer with a temperature range of
35 ◦ C–900 ◦ C, N2 as the protective gas, and a heating rate of 10 ◦ C/min
was employed in this study.
(3) GPC
GPC is a simple and rapid separation and analysis technique that can
examine substances with different relative molecular masses in sub­
stances and determine their distribution and relative molecular masses.
In this research work, PL-GPC50 gel chromatography from Agilent
Technologies was adopted. During the test, 20 mg–25 mg of asphalt was
first dissolved in 10 mL Tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution and left for 24 h.
A 0.5 mL centrifuge tube was used to collect the mixture. After being
filtered with a 0.45 m PTFE filter. The sample was taken from the
centrifuge tube using a syringe, and the solution was injected from the
manual inlet after removing air bubbles and run for 20 min at a flow rate
of 1 mL/min. The results were obtained from the computer with the test
apparatus.
2.2.3. Preparation of aged asphalt
(1) Short-term aging asphalt
In accordance with JTG E20-2011.Before the short-term aging
experiment, the clean sample bottles were dried in an oven and then
numbered and weighed after cooling with an accuracy of 1 mg. Then,
the baked soft asphalt was poured into the sample bottles with a mass of
35 g ± 0.5 g. Afterward, the specimen bottles were placed within the
rotating film oven, and the heating period and rotational speed were
automatically managed by the oven. In this experiment, the rotating
oven temperature was 163 ◦ C ± 0.5 ◦ C, the hot air flow rate was 4000
mL/min ±200 mL/min, and speed of the oven ring was 15 r/min ±0.2
r/min. After reaching the time (85 min) to stop the rotation, the hot air
switch was closed, the bottles were immediately removed, and the
asphalt was placed into the beaker to obtain SA. Using the test method
introduced in section 2.2.1 for short-term aged, some performance in­
dicators of SA were obtained and are schematically illustrated in
Table 3.
(2) Long-term aged asphalt
Based on JTG E20-2011. After aging in the rotating thin-film oven,
asphalt was softly baked in the oven and poured into the aging steel
pans. Each aging pan contained 50 g ± 0.5 g of asphalt. After all the
asphalts were poured, the aging pans were placed on the pan holder, and
then the pan holder was placed in the pressure vessel, and this apparatus
was closed to start the test. In this experiment, the air pressure was 2.1
Table 3
Short-term aging asphalt performance index.
Penetration (0.1 Ductility Softening Rutting 0.1 KPa recovery
mm) (mm) point (◦ C) factor rate (%)
SA 61.4 54.7 49.7 0.78 10.75
4
Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442
MPa ± 0.1 MPa, the test temperature was 100 ◦ C, and the aging time
was 20 h ± 10 min. After reaching the specified time, the pressure inside
the pressure aging vessel was reduced to the same as the external
pressure in 8 min15 min. Thus, the aged asphalt was obtained as LA.
Using the test method introduced in section 2.2.1 for long-term aging,
some performance indicators for LA were obtained and are exhibited in
Table 4.
2.2.4. Preparation of BRA
The aged asphalt and bio-oil were heated (for 2 h) at 135 ◦ C and
100 ◦ C, respectively. The aged asphalt was mixed with four different
contents of bio-oil. Then, preheat the mixture of bio-oil and aged asphalt
to 135 ◦ C. A high-speed shear apparatus was used to continuously shear
at 135 ◦ C for 60 min at a shear rate of 3000 r/min. After cooling, BRA
was obtained.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Conventional physical properties of different BRAs
3.1.1. Penetration
To assess the consistency of the recycled asphalt, penetration tests
were carried out on various BRA. Fig. 2 reflects the asphalt penetration
results.
Fig. 2 illustrates that asphalt penetration decreases after aging. The
penetration of asphalt decreases while increases the asphalt aging
because aging makes asphalt harder and more viscous, and the lighter
components evaporate. After mixing the aged asphalt with bio-oils, its
penetration degree increases to varying degrees. The rationale for this
phenomenon is coming, from a macroscopic perspective, bio-oil is a
liquid substance with a high fluidity and low viscosity at room tem­
perature. When mixed with the aged asphalt, bio-oil can make it asphalts
softer and thus increase its penetration. From the asphalt component
point of view, the specific light components in the bio-oil can fully soften
the aged asphalt. The penetration increases with more light components.
Additionally, the bio-oil might also penetrate the polymer, reducing
intermolecular friction (Gong et al., 2016a), which leads to a decrease in
viscosity and a more significant penetration.
Further analysis of Fig. 2 demonstrates that a 3%–6% content of bio-
oil can recover the penetration of SA to the level of the NA, while LA
requires a bio-oil content of about 6% to reach the same achievement.
Among them, the penetrations of GO-recycled asphalt and VO-recycled
asphalt are relatively large. The basic reason is that Among the five kinds
of bio-oil, gutter oil and vegetable oil contains many hydrocarbon
compounds, which play a similar role in asphalt as saturated and aro­
matic components and can supplement the light components lost by
asphalt aging. Moreover, their change patterns are also relatively close.
When a bio-oil percentage rises from 3% to 12%, the penetration in the
recycled SA dramatically increases.
The penetrations of the recycled LA and the recycled SA have roughly
the same change patterns, according to the comparison between Fig. 2
(a) and (b). The main change is that the penetration of SO-recycled
asphalt decreases somewhat compared with CO-recycled asphalt and
STO-recycled asphalt. Overall, their penetrations from large to small:
GO-recycled asphalt, VO-recycled asphalt, CO-recycled asphalt, SO-
recycled asphalt, and STO-recycled asphalt.
3.1.2. Softening point
The asphalt’s high-temperature capability is shown by the softening
0.1 KPa non-recoverable 3.2 KPa recovery 3.2 KPa non-recoverable
creep compliance rate (%) creep compliance
2.14 6.43 4.24
X. Peng et al.
Table 4
Long-term aging asphalt performance index.
Penetration (0.1 Ductility Softening Rutting 0.1 KPa recovery
mm) (mm) point (◦ C) factor rate (%)
LA 43.5 35.3 55.2 1.04 18.93
Fig. 2. Asphalt penetration test results.
point. In this paper, the global method to obtain the recycled asphalt’s
softening point in accordance with the current Chinese specification
(JTG E20-2011) was used. Fig. 3 presents the findings of the asphalt
softening point test.
When Fig. 3(a) and (b) are combined, it is not difficult to find that
each aged asphalt has a higher softening point than NA, demonstrating
that the high-temperature property enhances after aging. This fact is
because, during the aging process, the gum in the asphalt fraction is
transformed into asphaltene. The aromatic fraction is transformed into
gum (Zhang, 2021), which leads to a decline in the light fraction and a
rise in the recombination fraction in the asphalt, causing an increment in
the softening point at the macroscopic scale. It also is because the NA
ages thermally and oxidatively, and the polar functional groups pro­
duced to increase the internal cohesiveness of the asphalt, which causes
a rise in softening point (Liu, 2022). However, the softening point
drastically drops as the amount of bio-oil in the asphalt rises. This fact is
because the bio-oil might refurbish the lighter elements of the deterio­
rating asphalt, so restoring the softening point.
In addition, further analysis of Fig. 3 demonstrates that 3%–6%
content of bio-oil might bring the softening point of SA back to the level
of NA, while LA requires about 9% content of bio-oil to recover its
original softening point. This phenomenon is because LA loses lighter
Fig. 3. Test results of asphalt softening point.
5
Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442
0.1 KPa non-recoverable 3.2 KPa recovery 3.2 KPa non-recoverable
creep compliance rate (%) creep compliance
1.75 12.49 3.6
components than SA, requiring more light components. For both SA and
LA, the softening points of SO-recycled asphalt and CO-recycled asphalt
are higher compared with the other three recycled asphalts because
these two oils can be supplemented with relatively fewer light
components.
The softening point change pattern of LA is like the changing pattern
of SA. Among the five asphalts, CO-recycled asphalt has the highest
softening point, and this parameter decreases by 6.1 ◦ C when the content
of CO increases from 3% to 12%. Furthermore, GO-recycle asphalt, SO-
recycle asphalt, STO-recycle asphalt, and VO-recycle asphalt decreases
by 5.1 ◦ C, 6.0 ◦ C, 5.6 ◦ C, and 5.7 ◦ C, respectively, when the bio-oil in­
creases from 3% to 12%. This fact shows that the asphalt’s high-
temperature properties corresponding to CO and SO are better, fol­
lowed by STO. The high-temperature characteristics of asphalt corre­
sponding to GO and VO are worse.
3.1.3. Ductility
Asphalt capacity for plastic deformation at a given temperature can
be indicated by ductility. The greater the asphalt’s ductility, the greater
the plastic deformation and the higher the low-temperature cracking
resistance. The ductility test results of asphalt are illustrated in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 shows that ductility sharply reduces after aging. Thus, it is
X. Peng et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442

Fig. 4. Asphalt ductility test results.

clear that the asphalt low-temperature properties deteriorate after

lg P = AT + K (1)
aging. Furthermore, asphalt becomes more demanding and complicated
during aging, which seriously affects the asphalt capacity to withstand
Where A represents the slope of the line; K represents intercept (con­
plastic deformation. With the addition of bio-oil admixture, the ductility
stant).
of the five bio-oil recycled asphalts significantly increases. This fact is
According to existing studies, the viscosity of asphalt at the softening
because the bio-oil supplement asphalt light components. As a result, the
point is about 1200 Pa-s, equivalent to a penetration value of 800 (1/10
asphalt is in better condition to resist the deformation and damage
mm). Therefore, there is a basic formula for the penetration-temperature
caused by stress. Aged asphalt requires bio-oil dosing range of 6%–9% to
inductivity coefficient(A), namely:
recover its original ductility. It is worth noting that GO-recycled asphalt
and VO-recycled asphalt containing less than 6% of bio-oil can recover lg 800 − lg P25◦ C，100g,5s
A= (2)
its original ductility, demonstrating that the low-temperature properties TR＆B − 25
of GO-recycled asphalt and VO-recycled asphalt improvements are
superior. Where lg P25◦ C，100g,5s is the logarithm of the penetration value (1/10
For recycled SA, the ductility of GO-recycled asphalt and VO- mm) determined at 25 ◦ C, 100 g, 5 s; TR＆B is the softening point.
recycled asphalt are higher than the other three types of BRAs. The These results in practical formulae for expressing the penetration
ductility of CO-recycled asphalt, STO-recycled asphalt, and SO-recycled index, i.e.
asphalt are similar when bio-oil content is 3%. With the increase of bio- 20 − PI 1
oil content, the difference in their ductility are gradually apparent. A= ∗ (3)
10 + PI 50
Among them, the ductility of SO-recycled asphalt is the smallest, fol­
lowed by that of STO-recycled asphalt, and CO-recycled asphalt has the 30
PI = − 10 (4)
largest ductility of these asphalts. The performance of asphalt at low 1 + 50A
temperatures improves with increasing asphalt ductility. The low- According to formula (3) and formula (4), Fig. 5, Figs. 6 and 7 show
temperature properties of asphalt corresponding to GO and VO is bet­ the temperature sensitivity index and the penetration index of SA, LA,
ter, and the low-temperature characteristics of asphalt corresponding to and BRA, respectively.
CO, STO, and SO are worse. This fact is because VO and GO contain As can be seen from Fig. 5, As the aging degree deepens, the tem­
numerous hydrocarbon compounds (Liu, 2022), which can restore a perature sensitivity index of asphalt decreases, and the penetration
significant proportion of light components lost by the deteriorated index increases, indicating that the deepening of the aging degree re­
asphalt. Thus, making the corresponding bitumen has better duces the temperature sensitivity of asphalt. Analyzing Fig. 6(a), the
low-temperature property. In general, CO, SO, and other more shared
bio-oils, which mainly consist of organic acids and carboxylic acid
compounds, have an underdeveloped low-temperature property and
better high-temperature property corresponding to asphalt.
The LA ductility change pattern resembles the SA pattern. Notably,
the curve of ductility change shows that the ductility of each recycled
asphalt rises as the bio-oil content increases. The extent of ductility
improvement of each recycled asphalt was slowed, showing that the bio-
oil impact is adversely affected when it is combined with aged asphalt
after a certain level of bio-oil content. This fact indicates a range of
improvements in asphalt ductility by utilizing bio-oil, and its impact on
asphalt ductility may become smaller and smaller as its content of bio-oil
is increases.

3.1.4. Analysis of temperature sensitivity of recycled asphalt based on

penetration index
In this research work, the temperature sensitivity of asphalt was
evaluated by using the penetration index.
Temperature (T) and the asphalt penetration index logarithm (lg P)
have a linear correlation, i.e.
Fig. 5. Temperature sensitivity index and penetration index of aged asphalt.

6
X. Peng et al.
Fig. 6. Temperature sensitivity index of recycled aged asphalt.
Fig. 7. Penetration index of recycled aged asphalt.
temperature sensitivity of recycled SA decreases with the rise of bio-oil
admixture. The reason may be because the bio-oil is a liquid material,
not a viscoelastic material, and the bio-oil does not produce significant
changes with the temperature change. Because it occupies a certain
proportion of asphalt, the recycled SA admixture reduces its tempera­
ture sensitivity. It is not difficult to find in Fig. 6(b) that recycled LA and
recycled SA temperature induction change patterns are the same.
Recycled LA containing 6% and 12% of SO slightly increases, but the
overall trend of this parameter decreases.
In addition, for the recycled SA, the penetration-temperature sus­
ceptibility coefficient gradually reduced as the rise of bio-oil admixture
rises, except for a specific content of 9%–12% for VO, which demon­
strates that bio-oil can decrease SA temperature sensitivity. The tem­
perature susceptibility coefficient of GO regenerated SA changes the
most during the increment of bio-oil admixture from 3% to 12%, roughly
decreasing by 0.076, which indicates the greatest effective use of GO to
enhance the temperature sensitivity of SA. Fig. 6 demonstrates that for
the recycled LA, the 3% bio-oil admixture level produces the highest
thermal inductivity coefficient of GO regenerated LA. While the bio-oil
admixture is 12%, the temperature inductivity coefficient of STO re­
generated LA is the largest.
As can be seen from penetration index formula, the corresponding
temperature sensitivity decreases as the penetration index increases.
Fig. 7(a) demonstrates that for the recycled SA, the penetration indexes
of SO regenerated SA and GO regenerated SA at 3% bio-oil admixture
are the lowest and highest, respectively.
The results of the recycled LA penetration indexes with different
types and blending amounts of bio-oil are schematically illustrated in
Fig. 7(b). This figure demonstrates that when the blending admixture of
bio-oil is 3%, the penetration indexes of LA regenerated from GO and LA
regenerated from CO are the smallest and largest, respectively. The
largest is that of LA regenerated from CO. Evaluating the test results of
recycled SA and recycled LA, it is possible to confirm that the
7
Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442
temperature sensitivity of the asphalt after aging decreases to a certain
extent. This fact may be due to the transformation of gum into asphal­
tene in the asphalt composition after aging, which makes the asphaltene
content in the asphalt increases, thus reducing the temperature sensi­
tivity. Another reason may be the presence of unsaturated functional
groups in the NA, which makes it extremely unstable at high tempera­
tures and subject to oxidative dehydrogenation and polymerization re­
actions. These phenomena are accompanied by chemical bonding,
making the asphalt less temperature-sensitive. In addition, the asphalt
temperature sensitivity is also influenced by the size of the molecular
weight. The potential of relative displacement of molecular chain seg­
ments or molecular movement decreases, intermolecular forces in­
crease, and temperature sensitivity decreases with the molecular weight
increase. Among the five types of bio-oil, CO has the most significant
large fraction, so its corresponding temperature sensitivity to recycled
asphalt is the best.
3.2. Microscopic properties of different BRA
3.2.1. Micromorphological analysis
SEM was used to microscopically evaluate SA, LA, and BRA, where
the microscopic images were selected from NA, SA, LA, and SA regen­
erated with 3% bio-oil content, and LA regenerated with 6% bio-oil
content. These were used as representatives to analyze the NA’s aging
patterns and the effect of bio-oil regeneration. The results are set out in
Fig. 8, Fig. 9, and Fig. 10, and the magnification is 500 times.
From Fig. 8, some of the microscopic morphological traits of asphalt
at different ages are as follows: The unaged NA shows a homogenous
structure and has a smooth surface and few wrinkles. The surface of SA is
relatively smooth, but there are apparent folds, which are triggered by
the reduction of light components in the SA, the increase in asphaltene
percentage, and the increase in viscosity. As a result, these phenomena
from a folded structure (Lin et al., 2022), and the high-temperature
X. Peng et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442

Fig. 8. SEM results of NA, SA, and LA (Lv et al., 2020).

Fig. 9. SEM results of recycle of short-term aged asphalt.

performance improve. While long-term aging image of the NA, illus­
trates extremely noticeable cracks with a longer length and greater
depth, which demonstrates that the light components in the NA have
been lost to a certain extent. The ability of molecular movement and
fluidity decrease. The asphalt displays obvious brittleness and exhibits
structural damage (Wang et al., 2022). It is evident that the NA
undergoes significant adverse changes in its fundamental properties as
the degree of aging grows.
It can be demonstrated by contrasting Figs. 9, and Fig. 10 that bio-oil
greatly enhances aged asphalt in terms of microscopic morphology. Bio-
oil is a very effective way to repair cracks in aged asphalt because this
type of asphalt damage completely disappears after regeneration. The

8
X. Peng et al.
Fig. 10. SEM results of recycle of long-term aged asphalt.
BRA has a very smooth surface due to the bio-oil coating on the asphalt,
which shows better fluidity and low-temperature properties on a
macroscopic scale (Deng et al., 2022). The size and number of the
recycled SA folds significantly decrease compared with the SA. This
regenerated asphalt condition is close to the NA condition, indicating
that the bio-oil has a better regeneration impact. Recycled LA’s fissures
completely vanishes, the surface is smoother, and the recycled LA has
more noticeable folds. However, the number of folds of recycled LA
significantly decreases respect to the NA and the recycled SA, However,
the folding frequency of regenerated LA is significantly reduced, which
is influenced by the amount of bio-oil added, but also indicates that
bio-oil has a more remarkable regenerative impact on the recycled LA.
Comparing the microscopic morphology of the five BRAs, it is discov­
ered that the surface wrinkles of VO-recycled asphalt and CO-recycled
asphalt are relatively small, and the surface wrinkles of other BRAs
are relatively large. Therefore, for the micromorphology, CO and VO
have better regeneration effects.
The BRA physical experiments show that aging-related light
component loss and the cleavage of small molecules like the aromatic
fraction into larger compounds like asphaltenes, which are tightly cross-
linked to one another(Lin et al., 2019). This phenomenon causes soft­
ening point to rise, ductility to decrease, and wrinkles or cracks to arise
on the surface of the asphalt. Nevertheless, bio-oil’s addition can com­
plement the loss of light components in the SA and LA and the reduction
9
Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442
reactions generated by the aged asphalt macromolecules. This fact re­
duces the high-temperature characteristics of the aged asphalt, improves
the low-temperature characteristics, and decreases wrinkles and cracks
on the surface of the asphalt. Indicating that the bio-oil utilized in this
research has a potential to become a recycling agent. Not all bio-oils hurt
the high-temperature performance of asphalt. As an example, bio-oils
produced from wood resources can increase the softening point of the
asphalt and enhance its high-temperature property while compromising
the low-temperature property (Williams et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2013).
Therefore, bio-oils with favorable low-temperature property are more
suitable as recycling agents due to the characteristics of aged asphalt.
3.2.2. Thermal stability analysis
A combined Simultaneous thermogravimetry and differential scan­
ning calorimetry (TG-DSC) tester, which is a computer program that
controls the temperature to thermally decompose the material, analyzes
the thermal stability of BRA, and measures the relationship between the
material characteristics and temperature. The thermogravimetric curve
and the derivative thermogravimetric weight obtained from the ther­
mogravimetric analysis test can be utilized to assess the material ther­
mal stability. Since the thermogravimetric analysis presents more
changes of bio-oil in high-temperature environments, the degree of
asphalt aging and the content of the admixture of bio-oil have less
impact. Therefore, recycled LA with 6% bio-oil admixture was selected
X. Peng et al.
for thermogravimetric analysis in this paper. The TG variation pattern of
aged asphalt is shown in Fig. 11, and the variation law of thermogra­
vimetric analysis of various BRAs are shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. 11 shows that the DTG curve trends of SA and LA are basically
the same, and the quality change during the heating process is still
mainly divided into two stages. The temperature range of the first stage
ranges from 180 ◦ C to 390 ◦ C, with a peak value of around 340 ◦ C. The
temperature range of the second stage ranges from 390 ◦ C to 520 ◦ C,
with a peak value of around 460 ◦ C. The initial temperature reaches
180 ◦ C. The DTG curve has always been in a horizontal state, and only
LA has quality loss at the beginning, indicating that within this tem­
perature range, aged asphalt can still maintain quality stability. Com­
bined with practical applications, asphalt has almost no quality loss
during mixing and use, making it more convenient for production. From
390 ◦ C to 520 ◦ C, there is a significant peak in the DTG curve. At 460 ◦ C,
SA has a higher mass loss rate, while LA has a lower rate. The mass loss
rate at other temperatures is the same, consistent with the residual mass
percentage comparison results before and after aging. It is indicated that
the difference in mass loss occurs around 450 ◦ C.
In addition, the residual mass of SA is about 11%, and LA’s is about
13.6%. With the deepening of aging, the percentage of residual mass
increases. This phenomenon is because the internal components of
asphalt change after aging and tend to have more macromolecules. The
macromolecular structure increases and the Intermolecular force in­
creases, making the high-temperature performance of asphalt stable. As
the temperature increases, the mass loss is minor, and the high-
temperature stability is higher.
Fig. 12(a) proves that there is a significant mass loss of CO-recycled
asphalt, which starts from 364 ◦ C. With the rise in temperature, the mass
loss continues. The mass of CO-recycled asphalt remains steady when
test temperature rises above 543 ◦ C, and the remaining mass is about
9.7%. According to the peak of the DTG curve, the maximum mass loss
rate of CO-recycled asphalt is 21.6% at the test temperature of 502 ◦ C,
indicating that many organic components in the asphalt degraded when
reaching 502 ◦ C.
Observing Fig. 12(b), it can be found that the STO-recycled asphalt
shows significant mass loss from 368 ◦ C. When the temperature reaches
580 ◦ C, the mass of STO-recycled asphalt remains stable with a
remaining mass of about 1.5%. Compared with CO mass loss point and
mass loss stabilization point, STO-recycled asphalt is relatively more
resistant to high temperatures. Additionally, the peak of the DTG curve
shows that the weight loss rate of STO-recycled asphalt is the largest at
15.15% when the temperature is 516 ◦ C.
It is not difficult to find from Fig. 12(c) that the GO-recycled asphalt
shows a significant mass loss from 340 ◦ C. When the temperature rea­
ches 547 ◦ C, the GO-recycled asphalt mass remained stable, and the
remaining mass was about 2%. The DTG curve analysis found that the
weight loss rate of GO-recycled asphalt is the largest at 46.76% when the
Fig. 11. TG of aged asphalt.
10
Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442
temperature was 465 ◦ C.
Fig. 12(d) shows that the SO-recycled asphalt exhibits a significant
mass loss from 372 ◦ C, and when the temperature reaches 490 ◦ C, its
mass remains stable with a residual mass of about 4.4%. The DTG curve
analysis proves that the mass loss rate of SO-recycled asphalt is the
largest at 39.58% when the temperature is 477 ◦ C.
The analysis of Fig. 12(e) reveals that VO-recycled asphalt shows
significant mass loss from 333 ◦ C. When the temperature reaches 529 ◦ C,
its mass remains stable with a residual mass of about 2.5%. According to
the DTG curve, the mass loss rate of VO-recycled asphalt is the highest at
502 ◦ C, with a value equal to 17.5%.
As a summary, it is possible to confirm that the asphalt mass losses
prolong for the five bio-oil for temperatures less than 300 ◦ C–400 ◦ C.
The breakdown of some weak bonds and the volatilization of light
components are the main causes of the mass loss. At 300 ◦ C up to 600 ◦ C,
the mass loss rate in the asphalt significantly increases, indicating an
extensive degradation of the organic components in BRA.
From the temperature and residual quality analysis of mass loss, VO-
recycled asphalt and GO-recycled asphalt are relatively the least resis­
tant to high temperatures. While STO-recycled asphalt, CO-recycled
asphalt, and SO-recycled asphalt have relatively positive high-
temperature stability. Based on the experimental data of SA and LA,
the residual mass of recycled asphalt decreases it is indicating that bio-
oil has an adverse effect on the high-temperature stability of aged
asphalt. Compared with the previous relevant studies of this research
team (Wang et al., 2023), it can be found that there is a rosy corre­
spondence between the thermogravimetric analysis and the rheological
performance of the BRA. This fact is mainly reflected in the
high-temperature stabilities of STO-recycled asphalt, CO-recycled
asphalt and SO-recycled asphalt, their high-temperature rheological
characteristics are also favorable. The high-temperature stabilities of
VO-recycled asphalt and GO-recycled asphalt are relatively
financially-challenged, and their high-temperature rheological proper­
ties are also underdeveloped.
In summary, the thermal stabilities of recycled asphalts are mainly
related to its molecular weight and chemical components (Zhao et al.,
2022b). Besides, STO, CO, and SO are more suitable for all production
and construction stages of asphalt mixtures than the other two BRAs,
which are more feasible for application in engineering.
3.2.3. Relative molecular mass analysis
In this paper, GPC was used for comparative analysis of the relative
molecular weight of various types of asphalt. The GPC test results are
displayed in Fig. 13. Since this study mainly used gel chromatography to
analyze the influence of bio-oil on the relative molecular mass of BRAs,
recycled LAs with 6% bio-oil admixture were selected for gel chroma­
tography test in this research work.
Gel chromatography analysis uses the different relative molecular
X. Peng et al.
Fig. 12. Variation law of TG.
Fig. 13. Relative molecular masses of different types of bio-oil asphalt.
Note: In Fig.13, Mn is the number average molecular weight of asphalt, and Mw
is the heavy average molecular weight of asphalt.
11
Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442
masses of molecules through the gel column. The relative molecular
mass of large molecular compounds is arduous to enter the surface pores
of the packing particles in the column, but only from the packing par­
ticles of the gap between the columns. In the column of short stay, the
relative molecular mass of small compounds can be through the surface
pores of the packing particles. As a result, big molecules first elute,
followed by small molecules. The computer captures them through
electrical signals from the detector according to molecular weight.
It is clear from Fig. 13 that the relative molecular masses of CO-
recycled asphalt and SO-recycled asphalt are more prominent, which
indicates that the high relative molecular mass components of these two
bio-oils are significant. In contrast, the amount of medium and low
relative molecular mass components is relatively small. The relative
molecular masses of STO-recycled asphalt, GO-recycled asphalt, and
VO-recycled asphalt are small.
Moreover, Fig. 13 shows that the average molecular weight Mn is
susceptible to small molecular weight compounds and tends to decrease
when there are more small molecules. In contrast, the heavy average
molecular weight Mw is highly sensitive to large molecular weight
compounds and tends to increase when there are more large molecules.
In Fig. 13, the straw, gutter, and VO samples had lower Mn, implying
that these materials have a high presence of small molecule compounds.
X. Peng et al.
In contrast, the castor and SO samples have higher Mw, indicating that
these substances have a high percent of large molecule compounds.
Comparing the components of bio-oil (Wang et al., 2023) and linking
their macroscopic properties, it can be found that there is a correlation
between the former and the latter parameters. Mainly in the sense that
the more compounds of sizeable molecular weight have an advantage in
their high-temperature properties, while the phenolic compounds in
STO is the main reason for their lower molecular weight.
According to the conclusions drawn in this section, it can be
confirmed that the aged asphalts regenerated from GO and VO have low
consistencies, underdeveloped temperature sensitivities, and high-
temperature properties, but its low-temperature performances are su­
perior. In contrast, CO, SO, and STO have higher consistencies, better
temperature sensitivities, and high-temperature characteristics, but
poorer low-temperature characteristics. From the microscopic
morphological analysis of different BRAs, bio-oil have positive regen­
eration impacts, except for STO. The regeneration impacts of the other
four bio-oils are similar. In addition, thermal stability is a significant
property for construction, so it is equally crucial to research the thermal
stability of asphalt. In this study, a combined TG-DSC tester was used to
evaluate the thermal stability of BRA. As a result, can be concluded that
STO, CO, and SO correspond to relatively better high-temperature sta­
bility of recycled asphalt, which is more favorable for engineering ap­
plications. Furthermore, CO and SO have a high content of
macromolecular compounds, so the high-temperature characteristics
have some advantages.
It is widely known that the macroscopic and microscopic charac­
teristics of BRA have a specific relationship. Each macroscopic property
and asphalt component relates to the softening point and ductility of the
lighter components in asphalt. The less light components the asphalt, the
higher the softening point. The lighter components the more excellent
the favorable the asphalt ductility. It also shows that the more significant
molecular weight compounds in asphalt, the better its high-temperature
performance. However, this paper only taps the simple correlation be­
tween macroscopic and microscopic. Further correlation models can be
established between bio-oil microscopic properties and bio-asphalt’s
macroscopic properties. Furthermore, the research work in this paper is
limited to the laboratory test stage, and the applicability to engineering
needs to be studied. So, the road property of BRA mixture ought to be
further studied and applied to engineering to provide economic and
social benefits.
4. Conclusion
This study simulated the aging of outdoor asphalt. Then, it uses five
different kinds of bio-oil to regenerate LA and SA. Lastly, the perfor­
mances of BRAs and their variabilities were evaluated. According to the
above experimental results, the following are the paper’s primary
conclusion can be drawn:
(1) When bio-oil is utilized as the recycling agent, the consistency
and high-temperature properties of recycled asphalt are reduced,
while the low-temperature properties are significantly improved.
The examination of asphalt temperature sensitivity reveals that
when the concentration of bio-oil increases, recycled asphalt
temperature sensitivity decreases. Among them, GO and VO
correspond to asphalt with lower viscosities, poorer high-
temperature and temperature-sensitive properties, and better
low-temperature properties.
(2) SEM test results linked with the comparisons between the
microscopic morphologies of aged and recycled asphalt’s
demonstrate that bio-oil can eliminate the crakes in aged asphalt.
So, it is shown that bio-oil has a positive influence on asphalt
regeneration. Among five types of BRAs, each microscopic sur­
face morphology of BRA do not differ much except for the rela­
tively more surface folds of STO-recycled asphalt.
12
Journal of Cleaner Production 428 (2023) 139442
(3) There are significant varying in the TG loss of various bio-oil
asphalts under high temperatures, among which STO-recycled
asphalt, CO-recycled asphalt, and SO-recycled asphalt have
comparatively strong high-temperature stability. Thus, indi­
cating that bio-oil can meet the demand of pavement use under
high-temperature environment. Additionally, the relative mo­
lecular masses of different bio-oil asphalts in gel chromatography
analysis are significantly different, among which the relative
molecular masses of CO-recycled asphalt and SO-recycled asphalt
are remarkably larger, and these two bio-oils contain more high
molecular weight compounds.
(4) This research work is a test on asphalt binder, and the physical
performance and micro-morphology of aged asphalt with various
bio-oil regenerations of two aging degrees are analyzed. How­
ever, it is still necessary to study the road property of the asphalt
mixture. Accordingly, the road property of BRA mixtures ought to
be further studied, and the construction process and appropriate
quality control guidelines for this recycled asphalt mixture should
be established.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Xinghai Peng: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal
analysis, Investigation, Resources, Writing – review & editing, Visuali­
zation, Project administration. Nasi Xie: Conceptualization, Methodol­
ogy, Resources, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing, Validation.
Chengdong Xia: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review &
editing, Project administration, Validation. Xianhao Zhou: Resources,
Formal analysis, Validation, Writing – review & editing. Pei Zhao:
Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing. Shaojie Ma: Data curation,
Validation. Chen Zhang: Data curation, Validation. Songtao Lv: Su­
pervision, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Funds for Distinguished Young Scholar (No. 52225806), National Nat­
ural Science Foundation of China (No. 52078063), the Postgraduate
Scientific Research Innovation Project of Changsha University of Science
and Technology (No. CXCLY2022012 and No. CLSJCX22016), and
Innovation Training Program of University Student in Hunan Province
(No. S202310536069).
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