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Oxford Textbook of
Global Public Health
Oxford Textbook of

Global Public Health

SEVENTH EDITION
Volume 1: The Scope of Public Health

Volume 2: The Methods of Public Health

Volume 3: The practice of public health

EDITED BY

Roger Detels
Distinguished Research Professor of Epidemiology and Infectious
Diseases, Schools of Public Health
and Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Quarraisha Abdool Karim

Associate Scientific Director, CAPRISA, Professor in Clinical
Epidemiology, Columbia University,
Pro Vice-Chancellor (African Health), University of Kwazulu-Natal,
South Africa

Fran Baum
Matthew Flinders Distinguished Professor of Public Health and
Director of the Southgate Institute
of Health, Society and Equity, Flinders University, Australia

Liming Li
Professor of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Peking University
Health Science Center,
Beijing, China

Alastair H. Leyland
Associate Director and Professor of Population Health Statistics,
MRC/CSO Social and
Public Health Sciences Unit, University of Glasgow, UK
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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First edition published in 1984
Second edition published in 1991
Third edition published in 1997
Fourth edition published in 2002 (reprinted in paperback 2004, 2005 twice)
Fifth edition published in 2009 (reprinted in paperback 2011)
Sixth edition published in 2015
Seventh edition published in 2022
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Preface to the seventh edition

Since the publication of the 6th edition of the Textbook in 2015,

there have been many events and changes that have impacted
public health and which public health must address. Although we
have made progress in many areas globally new challenges, often
unanticipated, have emerged or re-emerged that compromise known
and effective public health interventions. Public health now operates
in a world of rapid communications and social media which, though
very influential, is not monitored for veracity and, thus, can be
counterproductive for public health goals (see Chapter 4.3). The rise
in machine learning and artificial intelligence are redefining personal
and public health practice globally and could be an important bridge
to address health disparities particularly in settings where health
infrastructure and resources are limited or lack of affordability could
sow greater divisions even in industrialized countries.
Several new infectious disease agents have emerged for which we
must develop innovative interventions (Chapter 8.11). These include
Zika virus, the Middle Eastern Respiratory Virus (MERS), acute flaccid
paralysis (AFP), for which an aetiologic agent is currently unknown,
and SARS-CoV-2 (Chapter 8.17). Further there has been a
resurgence of measles and mumps, diseases which we thought we
had largely under control through high immunization coverage. The
resurgence of these diseases especially in industrialized countries are
not the result of genetic or biologic changes in the agents or poverty,
but of changes in the social and political environment that include
challenging the use of vaccines. Thus, infectious disease control
persists as an important global problem (Chapters 8.13–8.17, 11.3,
and 11.4). Mathematical strategies for modelling control of infectious
diseases are being increasingly used (Chapter 5.17).
 For the first time in recorded history human lifespan is not
expanding in many parts of the world. The reasons for this slow
down are not fully understood but may be related to issues
surrounding access to healthcare, unhealthy lifestyles (including lack
of exercise), the drug epidemic (precipitated by overprescription of
painkillers), and an increase in suicide and obesity (Chapters 8.4,
8.5, and 9.2).
While in industrialized countries understanding of and models of
healthcare for their ageing populations continue to evolve, in Africa
there is a youth bulge resulting from reduced life expectancy in
adults primarily as a result of large numbers of adult AIDS-related
deaths in the 1990s and early 2000s and the success of the post-
2000 PMTCT efforts. These demographic transitions between
countries have important ramifications for social cohesion within and
between countries.
Politically there has been a shift to conservatism. For example
many of the regulations safeguarding the environment are being
reversed, particularly in the United States (Chapters 2.2 and 7.1).
The impact of these roll backs will exacerbate the problem of climate
warming, perhaps currently the major public health issue facing
earth (Chapter 2.9). Increasing warming of the earth will impact
food supplies, habitable areas, and cause major shifts in the
distribution of infectious agents and the vectors which carry many of
them. The outcomes of climate change are already apparent in the
increasing number of floods and fires plaguing many countries.
Unfortunately the issue of climate change has become politicized to
the detriment of the global population.
Although the global economy is currently doing well, on average,
the disparity between the rich and the poor is widening as the rich
get disproportionally richer (Chapter 2.4). This disparity is reflected
in the increasing number of individuals who are homeless. Finding
shelter and counselling and support services for them has become a
political problem stemming from the attitude ‘not in my back yard!’
Inequitable distribution of income which has resulted in increasing
levels of poverty remains the major cause of ill-health globally
limiting access to healthcare, academic achievement, and a healthy
lifestyle (Chapters 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, and 3.3).
Although safe working conditions are still an issue in high-income
countries, transnational corporations have shifted manufacturing
from high-income countries to low-income countries, where costs
are lower. The problem is greatest in low- and middle-income
countries in which regulations to promote worker safety and health
are minimal because of the need to keep labour costs low.
Governments in these countries are reluctant to implement
expensive regulations which increase cost, making their goods less
competitive (Chapters 7.4 and 7.5). Worker safety adds to the cost
of manufacturing, thus occupational health and safety legislation
gets relatively little government attention in poor countries.
Migration from low- and middle-income and/or countries where
conflict is high has increased as reflected in the number of
individuals seeking asylum in high-income countries. Unfortunately
the destination countries have been reluctant to accept the migrants.
Underlying this problem is racial bias. As a result many individuals
have died and families been disrupted. Violence and hate crimes are
increasing, often targeting individuals of different religions or
ethnicity. War in the eastern Mediterranean countries has persisted
creating refugee camps which promote infectious, social, and
psychologic problems. The problem of violence against women
persists. Intimate partner violence affects as many as 35–40% of
women in some regions of the world. Stigma has complicated
disease control programmes, particularly for HIV/AIDS (Chapters
8.13, 8.18, 9.5, 9.6, and 10.2).
Increasing resistance to drugs especially for tuberculosis and
gonorrhoea, is now a major problem (Chapters 8.12 and 8.14). We
are out of drugs for multidrug resistant tuberculosis and increasingly
gonorrhoea. The origin of this growing resistance to drugs is
overprescription and commercial use of drugs (e.g. prescribing
antibacterial drugs for viral infections) and the widespread use of
drugs in the food industry).
Technology has facilitated many interventions but has also created
many unanticipated public health problems. The internet and social
media are potentially powerful tools for health education and
dissemination of public health interventions (Chapter 4.3). However,
they can also be used to undermine public health programmes.
There are effective vaccines for measles, mumps, and many other
infectious diseases. Unfortunately, social media in particular has
been used to disseminate false information asserting that vaccination
of children can cause autism and other health problems. As a result,
many mothers are refusing to vaccinate their children, thus lowering
the prevalence of immune individuals below the level of herd
immunity required to stop transmission. For example, measles and
mumps had been virtually eliminated in North America and Europe
by the beginning of the twenty-first century. Due to parents’
reluctance to vaccinate children and assumptions that these diseases
were no longer a problem, thousands of cases of measles are
occurring in North America, Europe, and elsewhere with a significant
number of deaths, especially in Samoa and Ukraine where both
cases and deaths have soared. Although California and several other
states have mandated immunization as a requirement for entry into
school, mothers are putting pressure on physicians to write waivers
for their child. Many physicians do not recognize their public health
responsibility not to accede to these requests explaining to the
mothers that they may actually be putting their children at greater
risk of disease and more serious complications if infected at an older
age. Other problems have blocked the programme to eradicate polio
in the last remaining countries in which they persist. The killing of
vaccinators in remote areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan has posed a
new challenge to achieving sufficient levels of immune individuals to
halt spread and achieve eradication. Thus, it has been necessary to
use other strategies, such as mass vaccination days, to achieve a
high level of herd immunity in these areas.
Positive mental health is essential for an individual to achieve a
healthy productive life and is the foundation for the effective
functioning of a community (Chapter 8.7). Yet, it has been estimated
that in some populations as high as 25% of total disability is due to
mental health disorders and is a major cause of suicide. Among
adolescents, in developed countries the proportion diagnosed with
mental problems may be as high as 50%. However, the amount and
proportion of health dollars spent on mental health is low,
particularly in lower- and middle-income countries. The lack of
funding translates into a paucity of health professionals capable of
treating mental illness.
The advancement of technology in the field of genetics and
genomics has resulted in new opportunities for studying the genetic
correlates of disease (Chapter 2.6). However, advanced technology
such as the altering of genes in human foetuses has also introduced
complex ethical issues about the future direction of genetic analysis
and intervention (Chapter 3.2).
The rapid rise of the internet and social media presents a serious
challenge to the effective implementation of public health
interventions (Chapter 4.3). For example, the development of
websites to promote commercial and recreational sexual activities
plays a role in the current epidemic of several sexually transmitted
infections. Future generations of public health professionals will need
to develop effective strategies using the internet and social media to
counter misinformation being disseminated by them and to promote
public health.
The Sustainable Development Goals provide an opportunity to
enable full development of healthy nations and communities from
birth throughout life encompassing communicable, non-
communicable diseases; other causes of morbidity and mortality;
gender, economic, and racial disparities and emerging and re-
emerging issues; environmental and non-environmental drivers of ill-
health; spatial planning, and a basic human rights approach to
health and well-being. The recent expansion and growth in social
movements globally reflect that citizens are becoming more engaged
and want more influence in decisions and actions that shape and
influence their lives.
As the 7th edition of the Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health
goes to press the world is experiencing a pandemic caused by SARS-
CoV2 which, only 4 months after it was first recognized in Wuhan,
China in early January 2020, has already caused over 3.25 million
cases and over 226,000 deaths. Thus far, the only intervention that
has been demonstrated to mitigate the pandemic has been social
distancing resulting in global quarantining of the population. The
impact on the global economy has been devastating. It is clear that
the SARS-CoV2 pandemic will have a major impact on public health,
the economy, and the way society functions globally in the future
(Chapter 8.17).
As in previous editions we have divided the 7th edition of the
Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health into three volumes—the
scope of public health, the methodologies utilized by public health
professionals, and the practice of public health. As in previous
editions of the Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health, the intention
of the 7th edition is to provide insights into the range and character
of health problems challenging public health and effective strategies
to address them as well as to anticipate what the challenges to
public health will be in the future. There will be a diversity of views
about how to achieve this goal, but hopefully agreement on what
the goals are. It is the nature of science to consider divergent views
and to select those most likely to achieve success. It is our hope that
the 7th edition will continue to contribute to the success of that
process.
The target audience of the 7th edition remains public health
professionals, particularly those entering into the field, who wish to
learn about the scope and diversity of the field and strategies to
improve the health of the public. The ultimate goal of the 7th edition
is to convey the excitement and the power of public health to
promote ‘health for all’! (Chapter 3.3).
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During the production of this publication, new public health
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Preface to Volume 1: The scope of public
health

This opening volume of the Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health

showcases the breadth of public health in terms of the range of
topics that are covered and the number of disciplines on which
public health now draws. The scope of public health has continued
to evolve and a strong public health base will be a key to meeting
the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals that relate to
both the need for health improvement and for a reduction in
inequalities in health. The contributions in this volume provide an
introduction to the development of public health as a discipline in
countries at different stages of development and give a detailed
overview of areas of critical importance. It does this through three
sections updated from the previous edition: the development of the
discipline of public health, determinants of health and disease, and
public health policies, law, and ethics.
Section 1 begins by considering the scope and concerns of public
health in the twenty-first century, including an overview of many of
the challenges facing contemporary public health, many of which are
related to poverty. The next two chapters cover the history and
development of public health in developed countries and in low- and
middle-income countries. Chapter 1.4 then describes the
development of public health in transition, focusing on middle-
income countries. The section concludes with an account of how the
increased interconnectedness of human societies, or globalization, is
impacting on global public health both positively and negatively. This
chapter discusses the shift in global health governance from
international to global collective action and attempts to address the
impacts of globalization through regulatory frameworks.
 Section 2 provides in-depth coverage of the determinants of
health and disease. A solid understanding of these determinants is
necessary before any response to disease can be formulated and
public health put into practice. The first chapter in this section
presents an overview of biological, behavioural, social, and
environmental determinants of health, but gives particular emphasis
to the social determinants of health because of their role in creating
health inequalities. Governments (at all levels) have a role in the
improvement of population health and the reduction of health
inequalities through the creation of healthy public policy. This leads
into a chapter on the politics of public health, new to this edition,
which describes how politics sit alongside evidence in the
formulation of policy. An evaluation of how the role of politics
influences the adoption of public health policy is dependent on
defining the problem and evidence, understanding the roles and
players, understanding motivations, and understanding strategies
and tactics. The authors use a number of case studies illustrating the
interaction of evidence and politics including reproductive health
rights for women in the United States. Chapter 2.3 then covers
poverty, justice, and health, discussing the relationship between
poverty and health and how there is often reference to human rights
in justice theories that argue for the need to reduce or eliminate
poverty to promote health. If we are to create a fairer society, public
policy needs to be based on both equality of opportunity and
equality of outcome. The following chapters discuss the
determinants of socioeconomic inequalities in health in high-income
and developing countries and what is known about how best to
reduce them. Socioeconomic inequalities have been well described in
high-income countries for a range of indicators of socioeconomic
position and different health outcomes. We know much less about
how to reduce health inequalities, and although a number of policies
and interventions have been identified as having the potential to
reduce inequalities, making progress in the reduction of health
inequalities is dependent on international cooperation. In low- and
middle-income countries, socioeconomic inequalities are often
associated with high poverty levels but, despite the magnitude of
such inequalities, there are few examples of the reduction of health
inequalities becoming key targets of public policy. Agenda 2030 and
the Sustainable Development Goals provide a useful multisectoral
approach to address both health problems and their social
determinants, and as such show a potential route to the reduction in
health inequalities in low- and middle-income countries. Chapter 2.6
considers the advances that have been made in genomics and the
opportunities and challenges that these present for public health.
These include pharmacogenomics testing—examining the effects
that a person’s genes have on their response to treatment by drugs
—and the use of epigenetic therapy.
The following three chapters are devoted to long-standing public
health concerns which remain central to the practice of public
health: water and sanitation, food and nutrition, and climate change
and human health. The lack of clean and safe drinking water and of
basic sanitation and the diseases caused by these deficiencies are
largely problems of low- and middle-income countries, and Chapter
2.7 details the major diseases and their aetiologies and considers
interventions to prevent these. The following chapter provides an
overview of the important role played by food systems and the need
for cross-sectoral approaches to address undernutrition and
overnutrition. This double burden of malnutrition has a common
cause: a lack of access to affordable, quality sufficient foods, and
examples are given from high-income and low- and middle-income
countries of programmes attempting to address overnutrition and
undernutrition, respectively. The main effects of climate change on
health will be through the exacerbation of disease and injury from
familiar causes. Since the populations that are most likely to be
seriously affected by climate change are those that already face high
burdens of disease it is important to improve baseline health in
preparation. The overall response required will involve both coping
with the health impacts of changes to weather patterns while halting
emissions and considering ways to reduce existing pollutants in the
atmosphere. The next chapter covers behaviours, the determinants
of behaviours, and the many ways in which behaviours can influence
health. Given that the environment can constrain or influence health-
related behaviour, there is a clear need to develop interventions that
target such environmental aspects. The final chapter in section two
looks at the ways in which access to healthcare affects population
health, covering issues including the roles of health policy, financing,
and workforce planning.
The final section in this volume turns to public health policies, law,
and ethics. The first chapter in this section looks at leadership in
public health. Chapter 3.2 details how public health ethics
originated, the issues that distinguish ethics for public health from
other disciplines, and the ethical issues raised by genetic research.
The following chapter considers the right to health and how this
aligns with the goals of public health globally. The authors provide
examples and case studies illustrating how human rights support
global public health. Chapter 3.4, on law and the public’s health,
considers the difficulty of balancing the promotion of health and
protection of the population against individual liberties. Clearly there
is a real need for global governance to combat disease and its
vectors, and this means stepping beyond the health sector to
encompass other areas affecting health including trade, food,
migration, and the environment. The final two chapters of this
volume cover health policy in developing and developed countries
respectively. The focus of health policy varies between settings, but
increased globalization leads to some commonalities between high-
income countries and low- and middle-income countries. The reader
is furnished with recommended strategies to strengthen health
policy in developing countries along with examples of the failure of
policy in developed countries.
In summary this volume details how broad the scope of public
health has become as the twenty-first century develops. The
contributors to this volume have been drawn from a range of
disciplines and are all specialists in their fields. A common theme
throughout is the need for the public health workforce to work
collectively, across all disciplines, sectors, and countries, in the
struggle to overcome emerging challenges and to improve global
public health and reduce health inequalities.
AL
Preface to Volume 2: The methods of public
health

Volume 2 of the seventh edition of the Oxford Textbook of Public

Health presents the methods which bring scientific rigour to the
public health endeavour. With a firm and broad grounding in the
methods of public health, students and practitioners will ensure that
their research and practice is based on robust evidence a critically
important consideration in informing decision-making. The
methodology utilized is a key for assuring the strength and validity of
evidence for decision-making. Randomized controlled trials,
systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and economic evaluations are
accepted methods for providing clinical evidence but there are
difficulties in applying these in a public health context where there
are large target populations and long timescales for the emergence
of outcomes. While evidence emanating from the application of
these techniques has become more common to inform public health
decision-making, there is increasing appreciation of the complexity
of public health interventions and the need to use a range of
disciplinary approaches to develop and evaluate these.
The range and complexity of health problems facing populations is
also increasing, and public health methodologies must evolve and
expand to meet this challenge and ensure effective responses. With
globalization of emerging and re-emerging infections, and
demographic, nutrition, and physical activity transitions, the methods
of public health must be adapted to meet the new challenges. Since
the sixth edition, the effects of globalization on health including the
increasing importance of global environmental changes and notably
climate change, have burgeoned. These new challenges are more
difficult to study than the traditional concerns of infectious and non-
infectious diseases and local environmental issues. The adaptation of
old methods and the development of new ones are key to ensure
the continued relevance and robustness of public health research.
Public health practitioners have always had to face the dilemma of
balancing delays in action emanating from concern for
methodological rigour with the need to act expeditiously. This
dilemma is becoming increasingly complex and challenging as some
of the new and emerging public health challenges are less amenable
to traditional public health approaches and in some instances, are
associated with ethical considerations that add to the complexity of
the issue.
All the chapters in Volume 2 have been extensively revised and
updated, and several new chapters added. This volume is organized
into four sections: information systems and sources of intelligence;
epidemiological and biostatistical approaches; social science
techniques and environmental and occupational health sciences.
Information systems are the foundation of all public health research
and action. The lack of good information is still a barrier to effective
action in much of the world. Basic information on births and deaths
is not routinely available for most low-income and many middle-
income countries. This gap remains a major impediment to tracking
progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals. Fortunately, a
concerted effort is now being made to close the gap, especially for
maternal and child statistics with the support of several philanthropic
foundations. Three chapters in this section (Chapters 4.1–4.3)
examine the contrasting challenges facing information systems in
both high-income and low- and middle-income countries. Chapter
4.2 by Zunyou Wu and Jennifer McGoogan captures the substantial
advances being made in information systems and community
diagnosis in low- and middle-income countries. Chapter 4.3 by
Patrick Sullivan provides an insightful and contemporary overview of
the impact of, and rapidly evolving new communication streams on
public health.
Epidemiology and biostatistics are the core sciences of public
health. Public health practice requires a firm connection to the
priority health needs of populations. Epidemiological research is
almost always required to establish this connection, and exceptions
are few; some major acute outbreaks or overwhelming catastrophes
do not allow for serious epidemiological investigation before the
response is required. However, epidemiological study is still needed
to assess the scope of the problem and the effectiveness of the
response. Public health methods to ensure the appropriateness of
inferences (Chapter 5.13) drawn from public health investigations—
perhaps the most difficult and certainly the most contentious aspect
of public health science—continue to evolve. This process often
requires a systematic approach to ensuring that all data from all
studies—published and unpublished—are synthesized into a useable
summary assessment (Chapter 5.14). A critical and expanding
methodological area deals with interventions and their effectiveness
at a community level by Kathy Baisley et al. (Chapter 5.8).
Technological advances—computers and the internet—are changing
the scope of public health and opening new possibilities, from data
collection and analysis for the early identification of disease
outbreaks to the use of modelling of disease transmission to predict
the future trends and needs (Chapters 5.3 and 5.17). The methods
and special issues facing clinical epidemiology are discussed in
Chapter 5.10. The final chapter in this section stresses the essential
importance of surveillance to monitor public health problems and the
effectiveness of intervention programmes (Chapter 5.18). A new
chapter in this section on qualitative research (Chapter 5.6) by
Jennie Popay and Fran Baum covers both methodological approach
and underscores the importance of understanding the voices of
potential beneficiaries and Indigenous knowledge systems in the
knowledge generation process.
Increasingly a more systems-based approach is being utilized to
understand disease and risk. Rona Campbell provides an excellent
update on new developments in the implementation of
multicomponent interventions (Chapter 6.5). The completion of the
human genome project is increasingly being translated to novel
approaches to diseases including the use of gene therapy and
leading to precision public health approaches. Of note are two new
contemporary chapters in this section: Lifecourse epidemiology and
analysis (Elizabeth Rose Mayeda) and Natural and quasi-experiments
by Peter Craig (Chapter 5.10). The methodologies for measuring
burden of disease Chapter 5.17 are particularly important as the
implementation of these new methodologies is being used to provide
the basis for both global and local rationing of resources and priority
setting.
Social science techniques are assuming even greater importance
to the practice of public health with the recognition that
epidemiological information alone is not sufficient for the
development and implementation of effective public health policies
and programmes (Chapter 6.1). Demography is another
underappreciated basic science of public health; the ageing of all
populations, especially in low- and middle-income countries, will be a
critical public health issue for the economic survival of these
countries in the twenty-first century (Chapter 6.3). Health economics
and the use of cost-effectiveness analysis (Chapter 6.6) have
expanded the audience for public health research to sectors outside
health, especially the finance and development sectors, nationally
and globally. Health promotion expands the focus of public health
from a primary concern with disease prevention and control towards
an understanding of the underlying determinants of health (Chapter
6.4). These and other social science tools, including management of
the health programmes (Chapter 6.8), are key for the development
and implementation of effective public health policy in all countries
eloquently and comprehensively covered by Wafaa el Sadr and
colleagues in a new chapter on Implementation Science and
translational public health (Chapter 6.9). The HIV pandemic has
brought renewed interest and focus on sexuality and health that
Parker et al. cover eloquently in Chapter 6.2. A novel and
increasingly used approach to programme and treatment adherence
is incentivizing and supporting desired behaviours which is captured
in the chapter on Behavioural Economics and Health (Chapter 6.7)
by Harsha Thirumurthy et al.
Environmental and occupational health sciences cover traditional
public health issues, as well as the even more difficult global health
challenges that are discussed in Volume 1. This section deals with
both traditional and emerging environmental and occupational health
hazards, many of which have been exacerbated by globalization.
(Chapters 7.1–7.3). The increasingly important issues of risk
assessment and management, and risk perception and
communication are covered in Chapters 7.4 and 7.5. The chapter on
urbanization and health by Jason Coburn highlights how increasing
urbanization is impacting public health.
The importance of methodological advances in public health is
illustrated by the way in which many chapters in other volumes of
this Textbook consider methodological issues in considerable detail—
for example, the chapters on measuring the global burden of
diseases and responding to global environmental challenges. The
chapters in this section illustrate the evolution and breadth of public
health methods as its scope continues to expand. No doubt, this
process will continue well into the future and remains a good marker
of the growth and evolution of the public health sciences as sound
and rigorous strategies to address emerging and ongoing public
health challenges.
QAK
Preface to Volume 3: The practice of public
health

Public health is what we, as a society, do collectively to assure the conditions

for people to be healthy. This requires that continuing and emerging threats
to the health of the public be successfully countered … through effective,
organised and sustained efforts led by the public sector. Institute of Medicine
(1988)1

The practice of public health has never been more vital. The social,
economic, political, and environment threats to human health are
accumulating in the twenty-first century. Volume 3 of the Oxford
Textbook of Global Public Health provides an up-to-date account of
how the practice of public health can contribute to reducing these
threats through 49 chapters, each written by leading experts. The
contents of this volume identify public health as a subject of local,
national, and global concern, and a key responsibility of
governments and public agencies, with the need to regular private
industry in order to promote the health of the public more pressing.
The chapters in this volume concern the practice of public health.
They demonstrate the broad focus of public health and how more
than ever public health is a global concern and requires effective
global, national, regional, and local governance to ensure that life
expectancy continues to increase and the reversals in life expectancy
seen in some countries is reversed. This volume focuses on the
application of population science methods to the major challenges
being addressed through public health interventions and
approaches. The chapters in this edition provide the evidence for
public health’s strategies, reassess priorities when required,
recognize the evolving burden of disease and context in which they
occur, and recommend new strategies for intervention.
 Volume 3 begins with a discussion of the major groups of non-
communicable disorders, including cardiovascular and respiratory
diseases and cancer (Section 8). This section includes separate
chapters on obesity, physical inactivity, and diabetes, reflecting
growing concern at the increasing prevalence and growing impact of
these conditions on global health. The chapter on obesity contains a
crucial discussion on the commercial determinants of health showing
very clearly how marketing and free trade have made unhealthy high
fat and sugar foods and beverages more accessible. Section 8
continues with a series of chapters on communicable diseases, with
chapters on tuberculosis, malaria, hepatitis, and emerging and re-
emerging infections and the threat of bioterrorism. Together these
conditions represent major priorities: tuberculosis has been the
cause of death for billion people since the 1900s and there were 6.3
million newly notified cases of tuberculosis (TB) worldwide in 2016;
malaria accounts for nearly half a million death annually and the
earlier success in reducing this number has stalled since 2015; while
328 million people are chronically infected with hepatitis viruses B
and C, with one million deaths annually. As well as outlining
problems and their causes, each of these chapters discusses
potential solutions, including national and international strategies for
disease control and prevention. Without significant process in each
disease area the Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 set by the
United Nations will not be achievable.
The emphasis on intervention for prevention of disease and
promotion of health is continued in the volume’s second section
(Section 9) on public health hazards including tobacco, alcohol, drug
abuse, injuries and violence Proposed intervention strategies
encompass both population-based approaches; including, for
example, regulation, the use of deterrents and incentives, and public
education; and strategies targeted at individuals at high risk through
healthcare services. It remains clear, however, that the greatest risks
are generally found among those groups for whom interventions and
environments conducive to good health are least accessible.
Section 10 considers the public health needs of different
population groups paying particular attention to groups that for a
range of reasons are vulnerable to public health hazards, disease
risks, and increasingly emphasized in this revision is the inequitable
impact of climate change on health status. Separate chapters outline
the needs of families, women, children, adolescents, older people,
ethnic minorities, people with disabilities, and forced migrants and
displaced populations. While significant progress has been made in
preventing child deaths, a staggering 5.4 million under 5-year-olds
died in 2017. The largest ever cohort of adolescents now exists and
their health and well-being is increasingly shaped by the global
forces of urbanization, migration, global communications, economic
development, and the sustainability of planetary ecosystems. The
chapter on people with disabilities notes that 15% of the world’s
population has a disability and that public health must frame
responses within a social determinants framework to tackle
underlying issues such as poverty and unemployment. The chapters
on Indigenous peoples and prisons and public health similarly stress
the importance of social determinants and demonstrate that the
impacts of European colonization reverberate across the centuries
and have causes multiple health issues for Indigenous populations
worldwide. Chapter 10.7 notes that as the world faces the health
issues of globalization and climate change, Indigenous knowledges
and ways of being may offer important insights into managing these
challenges. Collectively, these chapters emphasize the importance of
the public health role in analysing the health needs of these often
marginalized populations and advocating for their right to health and
the living conditions that create health. Together the chapters
provide clear directions on how to reduce health inequities within
and between countries.
Section 11 presents an analysis of the core public health skills
required for improving population health and reducing inequalities in
health. This section begins with a chapter on the concept of need,
which shows that technical assessments of the capacity to benefit
from health intervention can rarely be separated from underlying
assumptions concerning the justification and rationale for societal
intervention. Action between and across sectors is usually vital and
this is exemplified by chapters on current strategies for control of
non-communicable diseases and infectious diseases. The chapter on
the political economy of non-communicable disease also
demonstrates the political nature of public health and the
importance for public health practitioners to understand the
implications of this for their practice. A series of chapters then
outlines opportunities for intervention through the health sector
including healthcare services, population screening, and
environmental health practice. The section on the public health
workforce includes chapters on training of community health
workers, and public health professionals, to meet public health
needs. There are also chapters on planning and responding to public
health emergencies, including chemical and radiological
emergencies.
In the final section of the book, Quarraisha Abdool Karim and
Roger Detels question the assumption that intervention on public
health problems must be led by the public sector. They describe an
enhanced role for powerful private sector advocates of public health
intervention, while at the same time drawing attention to some of
the challenges of this approach and the importance of the
stewardship and governance role of governments. The closing
chapter, by Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus (Director General of the
World Health Organization), comments on several key issues that
have been raised in earlier chapters of the book, analysing the
pressing challenges now facing the public health community globally,
and emphasizing that public health is a powerful driver for positive
change to dramatically improve the health and lives of all people. In
particular he notes how air pollution has become an even more
crucial issue and requires a cross-sectoral response. He notes that
the World Health Organization (WHO) expects approximately
250,000 additional deaths per year between 2030 and 2050 to be
attributed to the health effects of climate change.
This volume shows the dynamic nature of the changing world in
which we live and how old and new threats to health and well-being
interact to challenge public health to respond creatively.
FB
 1 Institute of Medicine (1988). The Future of Public Health. National Academies
Press, Washington DC. Page 19.
Brief Contents

Volume 1 The scope of public health

SECTION 1
The development of the discipline of public health

SECTION 2
Determinants of health and disease

SECTION 3
Public health policies, law, and ethics

Volume 2 The methods of public health

SECTION 4
Information systems and sources of intelligence

SECTION 5
Epidemiological and biostatistical approaches

SECTION 6
Social science techniques

SECTION 7
Environmental and occupational health sciences
Volume 3 The practice of public health

SECTION 8
Major health problems

SECTION 9
Prevention and control of public health hazards

SECTION 10
Public health needs of population groups

SECTION 11
Public health functions
Contents

Volume 1 The scope of public health

Abbreviations
Contributors

SECTION 1 The development of the discipline of public

health
1.1 The scope and concerns of public health
Roger Detels and Chorh Chuan Tan
1.2 The history and development of public health in developed
countries
Simon Szreter
1.3 The history and development of public health in low- and
middle-income countries
Than Sein
1.4 Public health priorities in countries undergoing economic
transition: the middle-income countries
Stephen Tollman and Jessica Price
1.5 Globalization
Kelley Lee

SECTION 2 Determinants of health and disease

2.1 Determinants of health: overview
Matthew Fisher, Belinda Townsend, Patrick Harris, Ashley
Schram, and Fran Baum
2.2 Politics of public health
 Kaitlyn B. McBride and Linda Rosenstock
2.3 Poverty, justice, and health
Ronald Labonté, Fran Baum, and David Sanders
2.4 Socioeconomic inequalities in health in high-income countries:
the facts and the options
Frank J. van Lenthe and Johan P. Mackenbach
2.5 Reducing health inequalities in developing countries
Romulo Paes-Sousa, Paulo M. Buss, and Mauricio L. Barreto
2.6 Genomics and public health
Veron Ramsuran and Tulio de Oliveira
2.7 Water and sanitation
Thomas Clasen
2.8 Food and nutrition
Roger Shrimpton, David Sanders, and Anne Marie Thow
2.9 Climate change and human health
Alistair Woodward and Alex Macmillan
2.10 Behavioural determinants of health and disease
Lawrence W. Green, Kristin S. Hoeft, and Robert A. Hiatt
2.11 How access to healthcare affects population health
Yvonne Inall, Rachel Lamdin Hunter, Stephen Leeder, and
Angela Beaton

SECTION 3 Public health policies, law, and ethics

3.1 Leadership in public health
Kevin A. Fenton
3.2 Ethical principles and ethical issues in public health
Nancy Kass, Amy Paul, and Andrew Siegel
3.3 The right to health supports global public health
Carmel Williams, Alison Blaiklock, and Paul Hunt
3.4 Law and the public’s health
Lawrence O. Gostin
3.5 Health policy in developing countries
 Thein T. Htay, Yu Mon Saw, James Levinson, S.M. Kadri, Ailbhe
Helen Brady, Cecilia S. Acquin, and Aung Soe Htet
3.6 Public health policy in developed countries
John Powles † and Hebe Gouda

Index

Volume 2 The methods of public health

Abbreviations
Contributors

SECTION 4 Information systems and sources of intelligence

4.1 Information systems in support of public health in high-income
countries
Tjeerd-Pieter van Staa and Liam Smeeth
4.2 Community diagnosis and health information systems in low-
and middle-income countries
Zunyou Wu and Jennifer McGoogan
4.3 New communication technologies, social media, and public
health
Patrick S. Sullivan, Aaron J. Siegler, and Lisa Hightow-Weidman

SECTION 5 Epidemiological and biostatistical approaches

5.1 Epidemiology: the foundation of public health
Roger Detels
5.2 Cross-sectional studies
Manolis Kogevinas and Leda Chatzi
5.3 Principles of outbreak investigation
Sopon Iamsirithaworn, Panithee Thammawijaya, and Kumnuan
Ungchusak
5.4 Case–control studies
 Noel S. Weiss
5.5 Cohort studies
Alvaro Muñoz and F. Javier Nieto
5.6 Qualitative research imagination
Jennie Popay and Fran Baum
5.7 Methodological issues in the design and analysis of cluster
randomized trials
Kathy J. Baisley, Richard J. Hayes, and Lawrence H. Moulton
5.8 Community intervention trials in high-income countries
John W. Farquhar and Lawrence W. Green
5.9 Natural and quasi-experiments
Peter Craig
5.10 Clinical epidemiology
Fiona F. Stanaway, Naomi Noguchi, Clement Loy, Sharon Reid,
and Jonathan C. Craig
5.11 Validity and bias in epidemiological research
Sander Greenland and Tyler J. VanderWeele
5.12 Causation and causal inference
Katherine J. Hoggatt, Tyler J. VanderWeele, and Sander
Greenland
5.13 Systematic reviews and meta-analysis
Nandi Siegfried and Lawrence Mbuagbaw
5.14 Statistical methods
Gail Williams and Robert S. Ware
5.15 Measuring the health of populations: the Global Burden of
Disease study methods
Theo Vos, Christopher J.L. Murray and Alan D. Lopez
5.16 Mathematical models of transmission and control of infectious
agents
Alex Welte and Cari van Schalkwyk
5.17 Public health surveillance
Nguyen Tran Hien, James W. Buehler, and Ann Marie Kimball
5.18 Life course epidemiology and analysis
Elizabeth Rose Mayeda, Alexandra M. Binder, and Lindsay C.
Kobayashi

SECTION 6 Social science techniques

6.1 Sociology and psychology in public health
Stella R. Quah
6.2 Sexuality and public health
Richard Parker, Jonathan Garcia, Miguel Muñoz-Laboy, Marni
Sommer, and Patrick Wilson
6.3 Demography and public health
Emily Grundy and Michael Murphy
6.4 Health promotion, health education, and the public’s health
Fran Baum
6.5 Development and evaluation of complex multicomponent
interventions in public health
Rona Campbell and Chris Bonell
6.6 Economic appraisal in public healthcare: assessing efficiency
and equity
David Parkin, Stephen Morris, and Nancy Devlin
6.7 Behavioural economics and health
Alison Buttenheim and Harsha Thirumurthy
6.8 Governance and management of public health programmes
Zhiyuan Hou and Na He
6.9 Implementation science and translational public health
Wafaa M. El-Sadr, Judith Wasserheit, Bryan Wiener, Andrea
Howard, Catherine Hankins, Patricia J. Culligan, and Katherine
Harripersaud

SECTION 7 Environmental and occupational health sciences

7.1 Environmental health methods
Chien-Jen Chen and San-Lin You
7.2 Radiation and public health
 Leeka Kheifets, Adele Green, and Richard Wakeford
7.3 Occupational health
David Koh and Wee Hoe Gan
7.4 Toxicology and environmental risk analysis
David Koh and Ro-Ting Lin
7.5 Risk perception and communication
Baruch Fischhoff and Tamar Krishnamurti
7.6 Urbanization and health
Jason Corburn

Index

Volume 3 The practice of public health

Abbreviations
Contributors

SECTION 8 Major health problems

8.1 Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease
Nathan D. Wong and Wenjun Fan
8.2 Cancer epidemiology and public health
Paolo Boffetta, Zuo-Feng Zhang, and Carlo La Vecchia
8.3 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma
Craig M. Riley, Jessica Bon, and Alison Morris
8.4 Obesity
Anna Peeters and Tim Lobstein
8.5 Physical activity and public health
Nyssa T. Hadgraft, Neville Owen, and Paddy C. Dempsey
8.6 Diabetes mellitus
Farah Naz Khan, Nida Izhar Shaikh, K.M. Venkat Narayan, and
Mohammed K. Ali
8.7 Public mental health and suicide
 Danuta Wasserman and Kristian Wahlbeck
8.8 Dental public health
Amira S. Mohamed and Peter G. Robinson
8.9 Musculoskeletal disorders
Lope H. Barrero and Alberto J. Caban-Martinez
8.10 Neurological diseases, epidemiology, and public health
Walter A. Kukull, Kumeren Govender, and James Bowen
8.11 Infectious diseases and prions
Davidson H. Hamer, Amira Khan, and Zulfiqar A. Bhutta
8.12 Sexually transmitted infections
Noah Kojima and J.D. Klausner
8.13 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Quarraisha Abdool Karim, Urisha Singh, Cheryl Baxter, and
Salim S. Abdool Karim
8.14 Tuberculosis
Roxana Rustomjee
8.15 Malaria
Frank Baiden, Keziah L. Malm, and Fred Binka
8.16 Viral alcoholic and fatty liver diseases
Ehud Zigmond and Daniel Shouval
8.17 Emerging and re-emerging infections
David L. Heymann and Vernon J.M. Lee
8.18 Bioterrorism
Peter Katona
8.19 Genetic epidemiology
Elizabeth H. Young and Manjinder S. Sandhu

SECTION 9 Prevention and control of public health hazards

9.1 Tobacco
Tai Hing Lam and Sai Yin Ho
9.2 Substance use and misuse: considerations on global public
health
 Giang Le Minh and Steve Shoptaw
9.3 Alcohol
Robin Room
9.4 Injury prevention and control: the public health approach
Corinne Peek-Asa and Adnan A. Hyder
9.5 Interpersonal violence
Rachel Jewkes
9.6 Collective violence: war
Barry S. Levy

SECTION 10 Public health needs of population groups

10.1 The changing family
Ann Evans and Gavin W. Jones
10.2 Women, men, and health
Diane Cooper and Hanani Tabana
10.3 Child health
Tyler Vaivada, Amira Khan, Omar Irfan, and Zulfiqar A. Bhutta
10.4 Adolescent health
George Patton, Peter Azzopardi, Natasha Kaoma, Farnaz Sabet,
and Susan Sawyer
10.5 Intersectional and social epidemiology approaches to
understanding the influence of race, ethnicity, and caste on
global public health
Jennifer Beard, Nafisa Halim, Salma M. Abdalla, and Sandro
Galea
10.6 The health of Indigenous peoples
Papaarangi Reid, Donna Cormack, Sarah-Jane Paine, Rhys
Jones, Elana Curtis, and Matire Harwood
10.7 People with disabilities
Anne Kavanagh, Marissa Shields, and Alex Devine
10.8 Health of older people
Samir K. Sinha and Brittany Ellis
10.9 Forced migrants and other displaced populations
Catherine R. Bateman Steel and Anthony B. Zwi
10.1 Prisoners: a wicked problem for public health
0 Tony G. Butler and Peter W. Schofield

SECTION 11 Public health functions

11.1 Health needs assessment
Michael P. Kelly, Jane E. Powell, and Natalie Bartle
11.2 The political economy of non-communicable diseases: lessons
for prevention
Anne Marie Thow, Raphael Lencucha, and K. Srinath Reddy
11.3 Immunization and vaccination
Eleonora A.M.L. Mutsaerts and Shabir A. Madhi
11.4 Principles of infectious disease control
Robert J. Kim-Farley
11.5 Medical screening: theories, methods, and effectiveness
Tang Jin-ling and Li Li-ming
11.6 The practice of environmental health in an era of sustainable
development
Yasmin E.R. von Schirnding and Lynn R. Goldman
11.7 Strategies and structures for public health interventions
Sian Griffiths and Kevin A. Fenton
11.8 Strategies for health services
Chien Earn Lee and Fran Baum
11.9 Training of public health professionals in developing countries
San Hone and Roger Detels
11.1 Transformative learning for health professionals in the twenty-
0 first century for the future health workforce
Wanicha Chuenkongkaew and Suwit Wibulpolprasert
11.1 Humanitarian emergencies
1 Craig Spencer and Les Roberts
11.1 Principles of public health emergency response for acute
2 environmental, chemical, and radiation incidents
Virginia Murray, Thomas Waite, and Paul Sutton
11.1 Private support of public health
3 Quarraisha Abdool Karim and Roger Detels
11.1 Global health in the era of sustainable development
4 Fiona Fleck

Index
Abbreviations

AAAQ availability, accessibility, acceptability, quality

ABI ankle brachial index
ACA Affordable Care Act
ACASI audio-computer assisted self-interviewing
ACCORD Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes
ACF active case finding
ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
ACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights
ACLED Armed Conflict Location and Event Data
ACT artemisinin-based combination therapy
ACTG AIDS Clinical Trials Group
AD Alzheimer’s disease
ADA American Diabetes Association
ADAPT Alzheimer’s disease anti-inflammatory prevention trial
AED antiepileptic drug
AF attributable fraction
AFRINEST African Neonatal Sepsis Trial
AGVP African Genome Variation Project
AHA American Heart Association
AHRQ Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
AI artificial intelligence
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
AIIR airborne infection isolation room
ALL acute lymphoblastic leukaemia
ALSPAC Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children
AMD advanced molecular detection
AMI acute myocardial infarction
AMR antimicrobial resistance
ANISA Aetiology of Neonatal Infection in South Asia
ANOVA analysis of variance
ANUG acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis
APHA American Public Health Association
ARA American Relief Administration
ARDS acute respiratory distress syndrome
ARI acute respiratory infections
ARIC Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities
ART antiretroviral therapy
ART atraumatic restorative treatment
ASD autism spectrum disorder
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASFR age-specific fertility rate
ASH Action on Smoking and Health
ASMR age-specific mortality rate
ATS amphetamine-type stimulants
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
BACH Boston Area Community Health
BAL British anti-Lewisite
BEI Biological Exposure Index
BFP Bolsa Familia Programme
BMGF Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
BMI body mass index
BMT buprenorphine maintenance therapy
BNP brain naturietic peptide
BOD Burden of Disease
BRFSS Behavioural Risk Factor Surveillance System
BSE bovine spongiform encephalopathy
BV bacterial vaginosis
CABG coronary artery bypass grafting
CAD coronary artery disease
CBA cost-benefit analysis
CBF cerebral blood flow
CBR community-based rehabilitation
CBR cost-benefit ratio
CBS community-based surveillance
CBT cognitive behavioural therapy
CCA cost-consequences analysis
CCM community case management
CCT conditional cash transfer
CDC Centres for Disease Control
CDCP Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CDSR Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
CEA cost-effectiveness analysis
CEAC cost-effectiveness acceptability curve
CEDAW Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women
CER cost-effectiveness ratio
CETP cholesterol ester transferase protein
CFIR Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research
CHD coronary heart disease
CHEW Checklist of Health Promotion Environments at Worksites
CHF congestive heart failure
CHNA Community Health Needs Assessments
CHP Centre for Health Protection
CHS Cardiovascular Health Study
CHW community health workers
CI confidence interval
CIDARS China Infectious Disease Automated-alert and Response System
CIHR Canadian Institutes of Health Research
CIMT carotid intima medial thickness
CIOMS Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences
CLTS community-led total sanitation
CM contingency management
CMA cost-minimization analysis
CMO context-mechanism-outcome
COMEST Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology
CONSORT Consolidation of Standards for Reporting of Trials
COP Conference of the Parties
COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CORTIS Correlate of Risk Targeted Intervention Study
CPAP continuous positive airway pressure
CPE carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae
CPG clinical practice guidelines
CQG cost per QALY gained
CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child
CRE carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae
CRE Centre of Research Excellence
CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters
CRFA common risk factor approach
CRIMS Comprehensive Response Information Management System
CRISPR clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
CRM cross-reacting material
CROI Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections
CRS congenital rubella syndrome
CRT cluster randomized trials
CSD community socioeconomic deprivation
CSDH Commission for the Social Determinants of Health
CT computed tomography
CTC Communities that Care
CTE chronic traumatic encephalopathy
CTS carpal tunnel syndrome
CUA cost-utility analysis
CVD cardiovascular disease
DACA Deferred Action on Childhood Arrivals
DAG directed acyclic graphs
DAH development assistance for health
DALE disability-adjusted life expectancy
DALY disability-adjusted life year
DASH Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension
DBM double burden of malnutrition
DCEA distributional cost-effectiveness analysis
DDD digital disease detection
DDD Doing Development Differently
DDT dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane
DHF dengue haemorrhagic fever
DHS Demographic and Health Survey
DiD difference in differences
DLB dementia with Lewy bodies
DMD Duchenne muscular dystrophy
DOTS directly observed treatment short
DR drug-resistant
DRIP Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
DSA demographic surveillance area
DSS dengue shock syndrome
DTA Declaration of Territorial Asylum
DTA diagnostic test accuracy
DTP diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis
EA economic appraisal
EAE experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis
EASD European Association for the Study of Diabetes
EBM evidence-based medicine
ECDC European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
ECEA extended cost-effectiveness analysis
ECHA European Chemicals Agency
ECRHS European Community Respiratory Health Survey
ED erectile dysfunction
EF error factor
EGAPP Evaluation of Genomic Applications in Practice and Prevention
EHR electronic health record
EIU Economist Intelligence Unit
ELISA enzyme linked immunosorbent assay
EMR electronic medical records
EMRO Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office
ENOC essential obstetric and newborn care
EOS early onset sepsis
EPA European Psychiatric Association
EPHF essential public health functions
EPI Expanded Programme on Immunization
EPIET European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training
EPOC effective practice and organization of care
EPODE Ensemble Prévenons l’Obésité Des Enfants
EPPI Evidence for Practice and Policy Information
ERC Emergency Risk Communication
ERM emergency risk management
ERS Economic Research Service
EU European Union
EVD Ebola virus disease
EWAS epigenome-wide association studies
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FAP Food Acquisition Programme
FCA Framework Convention Alliance
FCAC Framework Convention on Alcohol Control
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FDC fixed-dose combination
FELTP Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Programme
FETP Field Epidemiology Training Programme
FH familial hypercholesterolemia
FPG fasting plasma glucose
FRR familial relative risk
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 TURBOT À LA CRÊME.

Raise carefully from the bones the flesh of a cold turbot, and clear
it from the dark skin; cut it into small squares, and put it into an
exceedingly clean stewpan or saucepan; then make and pour upon it
the cream sauce of Chapter V., or make as much as may be
required for the fish by the same receipt, with equal proportions of
milk and cream and a little additional flour. Heat the turbot slowly in
the sauce, but do not allow it to boil, and send it very hot to table.
The white skin of the fish is not usually added to this dish, and it is of
better appearance without it; but for a family dinner, it may be left on
the flesh, when it is much liked. No acid must be stirred to the sauce
until the whole is ready for table.
 TURBOT AU BÉCHAMEL, OR, IN BÉCHAMEL SAUCE.

Prepare the cold turbot as for the preceding receipt, but leave no
portion of the skin with it. Heat it in a rich bechamel sauce, and serve
it in a vol-au-vent, or in a deep dish with a border of fried bread cut in
an elegant form, and made with one dark and one light sippet,
placed alternately. The surface may be covered with a half-inch layer
of delicately fried bread-crumbs, perfectly well drained and dried; or
they may be spread over the fish without being fried, then moistened
with clarified butter, and browned with a salamander.
For Mould of Cold Turbot with Shrimp Chatney, see
Chapter VI.
 TO BOIL A JOHN DORY.

[In best season from Michaelmas to Christmas, but good all the
year.]
The John Dory, though of uninviting
appearance, is considered by some
persons as the most delicious fish that
appears at table; in the general estimation,
however, it ranks next to the turbot, but it is
far less abundant in our markets, and is not
commonly to be procured of sufficient size
for a handsome dish, except in some few
parts of our coast which are celebrated for
John Dory. it. It may easily be known by its yellow gray
colour, its one large dark spot on either
side, the long filaments on the back, a
general thickness of form, and its very ugly head. It is dressed in the
same manner, and served usually with the same sauces as a turbot,
but requires less time to boil it. The fins should be cut off before it is
cooked.
 SMALL JOHN DORIES BAKED.

(Author’s Receipt—good.)
We have found these fish when they were too small to be worth
cooking in the usual way, excellent when quite simply baked in the
following manner, the flesh being remarkably sweet and tender,
much more so than it becomes by frying or broiling. After they have
been cleaned, dry them in a cloth, season the insides slightly with
fine salt, dredge a little flour on the fish, and stick a few very small
bits of butter on them, but only just sufficient to prevent their
becoming dry in the oven; lay them singly on a flat dish, and bake
them very gently from fourteen to sixteen minutes. Serve them with
the same sauce as baked soles.
When extremely fresh, as it usually is in the markets of the coast,
fish thus simply dressed au four is preferable to that more
elaborately prepared by adding various condiments to it after it is
placed in a deep dish, and covering it with a thick layer of bread-
crumbs, moistened with clarified butter.
The appearance of the John Dories is improved by taking off the
heads, and cutting away not only the fins but the filaments of the
back.
 TO BOIL A BRILL.

A fresh and full-sized brill always ranks high in the list of fish, as it
is of good appearance, and the flesh is sweet and delicate. It
requires less cooking than the turbot, even when it is of equal size;
but otherwise may be dressed and served in a similar manner. It has
not the same rich glutinous skin as that fish, nor are the fins
esteemed. They must be cut off when the brill is cleaned; and it may
be put into nearly boiling water, unless it be very large. Simmer it
gently, and drain it well upon the fish-plate when it is lifted out; dish it
on a napkin, and send lobster, anchovy, crab, or shrimp sauce to
table with it. Lobster coral, rubbed through a sieve, is commonly
sprinkled over it for a formal dinner. The most usual garnish for
boiled flat fish is curled parsley placed round it in light tufts; how far it
is appropriate, individual taste must decide.
Brill, moderate-sized, about 20 minutes; large, 30 minutes.
Obs.—The precise time which a fish will require to be boiled
cannot be given: it must be watched, and not allowed to remain in
the water after it begins to crack.
 TO BOIL SALMON.

[In full season from May to August: may be had much earlier, but is
scarce and dear.]
To preserve the fine colour of this fish, and to set the curd when it
is quite freshly caught, it is usual to put it into boiling, instead of into
cold water. Scale, empty, and wash it with the greatest nicety, and be
especially careful to cleanse all the blood from the inside. Stir into
the fish-kettle eight ounces of common salt to the gallon of water, let
it boil quickly for a minute or two, take off all the scum, put in the
salmon and boil it moderately fast, if it be small, but more gently
should it be very thick; and assure yourself that it is quite sufficiently
done before it is sent to table, for nothing can be more distasteful,
even to the eye, than fish which is under dressed.
From two to three pounds of the thick part of a fine salmon will
require half an hour to boil it, but eight or ten pounds will be done
enough in little more than double that time; less in proportion to its
weight should be allowed for a small fish, or for the thin end of a
large one. Do not allow the salmon to remain in the water after it is
ready to serve, or both its flavour and appearance will be injured.
Dish it on a hot napkin, and send dressed cucumber, and anchovy,
shrimp, or lobster sauce, and a tureen of plain melted butter to table
with it.
To each gallon water, 8 oz. salt. Salmon, 2 to 3 lbs. (thick), 1/2
hour; 8 to 10 lbs., 1-1/4 hour; small, or thin fish, less time.
 SALMON À LA GENEVESE.

A fashionable mode of serving salmon at the present day is to

divide the larger portion of the body into three equal parts; to boil
them in water, or in a marinade; and to serve them dished in a line,
but not close together, and covered with a rich Genevese sauce (for
which see Chapter V.) It appears to us that the skin should be
stripped from any fish over which the sauce is poured, but in this
case it is not customary.
 CRIMPED SALMON.

Cut into slices an inch and a half, or two inches thick, the body of a
salmon quite newly caught; throw them into strong salt and water as
they are done, but do not let them soak in it; wash them well, lay
them on a fish-plate, and put them into fast boiling water, salted and
well skimmed. In from ten to fifteen minutes they will be done. Dish
them on a napkin, and send them very hot to table with lobster
sauce, and plain melted butter; or with the caper fish-sauce of
Chapter V. The water should be salted as for salmon boiled in the
ordinary way, and the scum should be cleared off with great care
after the fish is in.
In boiling water, 10 to 15 minutes.
 SALMON À LA ST. MARCEL.

Separate some cold boiled salmon into flakes, and free them
entirely from the skin; break the bones, and boil them in a pint of
water for half an hour. Strain off the liquor, put it into a clean
saucepan and stir into it by degrees when it begins to boil quickly,
two ounces of butter mixed with a large teaspoonful of flour, and
when the whole has boiled for two or three minutes add a
teaspoonful of essence of anchovies, one of good mushroom catsup,
half as much lemon-juice or chili vinegar, a half saltspoonful of
pounded mace, some cayenne, and a very little salt. Shell from half
to a whole pint of shrimps, add them to the salmon, and heat the fish
very slowly in the sauce by the side of the fire, but do not allow it
boil. When it is very hot, dish and send it quickly to table. French
cooks, when they re-dress fish or meat of any kind, prepare the flesh
with great nicety, and then put it into a stewpan, and pour the sauce
upon it, which is, we think, better than the more usual English mode
of laying it into the boiling sauce. The cold salmon may also be re-
heated in the cream sauce of V., or in the Mâitre d’Hôtel sauce which
follows it; and will be found excellent with either. This receipt is for a
moderate sized dish.
 SALMON BAKED OVER MASHED POTATOES.

We are informed by a person who has been a resident in Ireland,

that the middle of a salmon is there often baked over mashed
potatoes, from which it is raised by means of a wire stand, as meat is
in England. We have not been able to have it tried, but an ingenious
cook will be at no loss for the proper method of preparing, and the
time of cooking it. The potatoes are sometimes merely pared and
halved; the fish is then laid upon them.
 SALMON PUDDING, TO BE SERVED HOT OR COLD.

(A Scotch Receipt—Good.)
Pound or chop small, or rub through a sieve one pound of cold
boiled salmon freed entirely from bone and skin; and blend it lightly
but thoroughly with half a pound of fine bread-crumbs a teaspoonful
of essence of anchovies, a quarter of a pint of cream, a seasoning of
fine salt and cayenne, and four well whisked eggs. Press the mixture
closely and evenly into a deep dish or mould, buttered in every part,
and bake it for one hour in a moderate oven.
Salmon, 1 lb.; bread-crumbs, 1/2 lb.; essence of anchovies, 1
teaspoonful; cream, 1/4 pint; eggs, 4; salt and cayenne; baked 1
hour.
 TO BOIL COD FISH.

[In highest season from October to the beginning of February; in

perfection about Christmas.]
When this fish is large the head and shoulders are sufficient for a
handsome dish, and they contain all the choicer portion of it, though
not so much substantial eating as the middle of the body, which, in
consequence, is generally preferred to them by the frugal
housekeeper. Wash the fish, and cleanse the inside, and the back-
bone in particular, with the most scrupulous care; lay it into the fish-
kettle and cover it well with cold water mixed with five ounces of salt
to the gallon, and about a quarter of an ounce of saltpetre to the
whole. Place it over a moderate fire, clear off the scum perfectly, and
let the fish boil gently until it is done. Drain it well[46] and dish it
carefully upon a very hot napkin with the liver and the roe as a
garnish. To these are usually added tufts of lightly scraped
horseradish round the edge. Serve well-made oyster sauce and plain
melted butter with it; or anchovy sauce, when oysters cannot be
procured. The cream sauce of Chapter V., is also an appropriate one
for this fish.
46. This should be done by setting the fish plate across the kettle for a minute or
two.

Moderate size, 20 to 30 minutes. Large, 1/2 to 3/4 hour.

 SLICES OF COD FISH FRIED.

Cut the middle or tail of the fish into slices nearly an inch thick,
season them with salt and white pepper or cayenne, flour them well,
and fry them of a clear equal brown on both sides; drain them on a
sieve before the fire, and serve them on a well-heated napkin, with
plenty of crisped parsley round them. Or, dip them into beaten egg,
and then into fine crumbs mixed with a seasoning of salt and pepper
(some cooks add one of minced herbs also), before they are fried.
Send melted butter and anchovy sauce to table with them. 8 to 12
minutes.
Obs.—This is a much better way of dressing the thin part of the
fish than boiling it, and as it is generally cheap, it makes thus an
economical, as well as a very good dish: if the slices are lifted from
the frying-pan into a good curried gravy, and left in it by the side of
the fire for a few minutes before they are sent to table, they will be
found excellent.
 STEWED COD.

Put into boiling water, salted as usual, about three pounds of fresh
cod fish cut into slices an inch and a half thick, and boil them gently
for five minutes; lift them out, and let them drain. Have ready heated
in a wide stewpan nearly a pint of veal gravy or of very good broth,
lay in the fish, and stew it for five minutes, then add four
tablespoonsful of extremely fine bread-crumbs, and simmer it for
three minutes longer. Stir well into the sauce a large teaspoonful of
arrow-root quite free from lumps, a fourth part as much of mace,
something less of cayenne, and a tablespoonful of essence of
anchovies, mixed with a glass of white wine and a dessertspoonful of
lemon juice. Boil the whole for a couple of minutes, lift out the fish
carefully with a slice, pour the sauce over, and serve it quickly.
Cod fish, 3 lbs.: boiled 5 minutes. Gravy, or strong broth, nearly 1
pint: 5 minutes. Bread-crumbs, 4 tablespoonsful: 3 minutes. Arrow-
root, 1 large teaspoonful; mace, 1/4 teaspoonful; less of cayenne;
essence of anchovies, 1 tablespoonful; lemon-juice, 1
dessertspoonful; sherry or Maidera, 1 wineglassful: 2 minutes.
Obs.—A dozen or two of oysters, bearded, and added with their
strained liquor to this dish two or three minutes before it is served,
will to many tastes vary it very agreeably.
 STEWED COD FISH, IN BROWN SAUCE.

Slice the fish, take off the skin, flour it well, and fry it quickly a fine
brown; lift it out and drain it on the back of a sieve, arrange it in a
clean stewpan, and pour in as much good boiling brown gravy as will
nearly cover it; add from one to two glasses of port wine, or rather
more of claret, a dessertspoonful of Chili vinegar, or the juice of half
a lemon, and some cayenne, with as much salt as may be needed.
Stew the fish very softly until it just begins to break, lift it carefully
with a slice into a very hot dish, stir into the gravy an ounce and a
half of butter smoothly kneaded with a large teaspoonful of flour, and
a little pounded mace, give the sauce a minute’s boil, pour it over the
fish, and serve it immediately. The wine may be omitted, good shin
of beef stock substituted for the gravy, and a teaspoonful of soy, one
of essence of anchovies, and two tablespoonsful of Harvey’s sauce
added to flavour it.
 TO BOIL SALT FISH.

When very salt and dry, this must be long soaked before it is
boiled, but it is generally supplied by the fishmongers nearly or quite
ready to dress. When it is not so, lay it for a night into a large
quantity of cold water, then let it lie exposed to the air for some time,
then again put it into water, and continue thus until it is well softened.
Brush it very clean, wash it thoroughly, and put it with abundance of
cold water into the fish kettle, place it near the fire and let it heat very
slowly indeed. Keep it just on the point of simmering, without
allowing it ever to boil (which would render it hard), from three
quarters of an hour to a full hour, according to its weight; should it be
quite small and thin, less time will be sufficient for it; but by following
these directions, the fish will be almost as good as if it were fresh.
The scum should be cleared off with great care from the beginning.
Egg sauce and boiled parsneps are the usual accompaniment to salt
fish, which should be dished upon a hot napkin, and which is
sometimes also thickly strewed with chopped eggs.
 SALT FISH, À LA MÂITRE D’HÔTEL.

Boil the fish by the foregoing receipt, or take the remains of that
which has been served at table, flake it off clear from the bones, and
strip away every morsel of the skin; then lay it into a very clean
saucepan or stewpan, and pour upon it the sharp Mâitre d’Hôtel
sauce of Chapter IV.; or dissolve gently two or three ounces of butter
with four or five spoonsful of water, and a half-teaspoonful of flour;
add some pepper or cayenne, very little salt, and a dessertspoonful
or more of minced parsley. Heat the fish slowly quite through in
either of these sauces, and toss or stir it until the whole is well
mixed; if the second be used, add the juice of half a lemon, or a
small quantity of Chili vinegar just before it is taken from the fire. The
fish thus prepared may be served in a deep dish, with a border of
mashed parsneps or potatoes.
 TO BOIL CODS’ SOUNDS.

Should they be highly salted, soak them for a night, and on the
following day rub off entirely the discoloured skin; wash them well,
lay them into plenty of cold milk and water, and boil them gently from
thirty to forty minutes, or longer should they not be quite tender.
Clear off the scum as it rises with great care, or it will sink and
adhere to the sounds, of which the appearance will then be spoiled.
Drain them well, dish them on a napkin, and send egg sauce and
plain melted butter to table with them.
 TO FRY CODS’ SOUNDS IN BATTER.

Boil them as directed above until they are nearly done, then lift
them out, lay them on to a drainer, and let them remain till they are
cold; cut them across in strips of an inch deep, curl them round, dip
them into a good French or English batter, fry them of a fine pale
brown, drain and dry them well, dish them on a hot napkin, and
garnish them with crisped parsley.
 TO FRY SOLES.

[In season all the year.]

All fish to fry well must be not only fresh but perfectly free from
moisture, particularly when they are to be dressed with egg and
bread-crumbs, as these will not otherwise adhere to them. Empty,
skin, and wash the soles with extreme nicety, from one to two hours
before they are wanted for table; and after having cleansed and
wiped them very dry both inside and out, replace the roes, fold and
press them gently in a soft clean cloth, and leave them wrapped in it
until it is time to fry them; or suspend them singly upon hooks in a
current of cool air, which is, perhaps, the better method of
proceeding when it can be done conveniently. Cover them equally in
every part, first with some beaten egg, and then with fine dry crumbs
of bread, mixed with a very little flour to make them adhere with
more certainty: a small teaspoonful will be sufficient for two large
soles. Melt in a large and exceedingly clean frying pan over a brisk
and clear fire, as much very pure-flavoured lard as will float the fish,
and let it be sufficiently hot before they are laid in to brown them
quickly; for if this be neglected it will be impossible to render them
crisp or dry. When the fat ceases to bubble, throw in a small bit of
bread, and if it takes a good colour immediately the soles may be put
in without delay. An experienced cook will know, without this test,
when it is at the proper point; but the learner will do better to avail
herself of it until practice and observation shall have rendered it
unnecessary to her. Before the fish are laid into the pan, take them
by the head and shake the loose crumbs from them. When they are
firm, and of a fine amber-colour on one side, turn them with care,
passing a slice under them and a fork through the heads, and brown
them on the other. Lift them out, and either dry them well on a soft
cloth laid upon a sieve reversed, before the fire, turning them often,
or press them lightly in hot white blotting paper. Dish them on a
drainer covered with a hot napkin and send them to table without
delay with shrimp or anchovy sauce, and plain melted butter.
Very small soles will be done in six minutes, and large ones in
about ten. They may be floured and fried, without being egged and