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 tructors, d for our major, but
Dear Students and Ins wing that it was require
g on a yea r of intr oductory physics, kno g. Below you
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cus sed , and com mo n misconceptions and ng the
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designed to encourage
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All of these features are s. To the stu den ts: We strongly recomme
it the learning proces t and the online
bsites that short-circu that accompany the tex
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have taught us how to
may take you!
wherever your major

Sincerely,

University
Stadler, Louisiana State
David Young and Shane
mail.com
email: youngstadler@g
| Brief Contents
1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts 1
2 Kinematics in One Dimension 26
3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions 54
4 Forces and Newton's Laws of Motion 79
5 Dynamics of Uniform Circular Motion 121
6 Work and Energy 142
7 Impulse and Momentum 173
8 Rotational Kinematics 197
9 Rotational Dynamics 218
10 Simple Harmonic Motion and Elasticity 251
11 Fluids 281
12 Temperature and Heat 316
13 The Transfer of Heat 348
14 The Ideal Gas Law and Kinetic Theory 367
15 Thermodynamics 388
16 Waves and Sound 422
17 The Principle of Linear Superposition and Interference Phenomena 456
18 Electric Forces and Electric Fields 481
19 Electric Potential Energy and the Electric Potential 514
20 Electric Circuits 541
21 Magnetic Forces and Magnetic Fields 580
22 Electromagnetic Induction 615
23 Alternating Current Circuits 651
24 Electromagnetic Waves 673
25 The Reflection of Light: Mirrors 699
26 The Refraction of Light: Lenses and Optical Instruments 721
27 Interference and the Wave Nature of Light 766
28 Special Relativity 798
29 Particles and Waves 822
30 The Nature of the Atom 844
31 Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity 876
32 Ionizing Radiation, Nuclear Energy, and Elementary Particles 903

v
| Contents
1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts 1 5.6 Apparent Weightlessness and Artificial Gravity 133
1.1 The Nature of Physics 1 *5.7 Vertical Circular Motion 135
CONCEPT SUMMARY 136
1.2 Units 1
1.3 The Role of Units in Problem Solving 3
6 Work and Energy 142
1.4 Trigonometry 6
6.1 Work Done by a Constant Force 142
1.5 Scalars and Vectors 8
6.2 The Work–Energy Theorem and Kinetic Energy 145
1.6 Vector Addition and Subtraction 10
6.3 Gravitational Potential Energy 152
1.7 The Components of a Vector 12
6.4 Conservative Versus Nonconservative Forces 154
1.8 Addition of Vectors by Means of Components 15
6.5 The Conservation of Mechanical Energy 156
CONCEPT SUMMARY 18
6.6 Nonconservative Forces and the Work–Energy
2 Kinematics in One Dimension 26 Theorem 159
2.1 Displacement 26 6.7 Power 160
2.2 Speed and Velocity 27 6.8 Other Forms of Energy and the Conservation of
2.3 Acceleration 29 Energy 162
2.4 Equations of Kinematics for Constant Acceleration 33 6.9 Work Done by a Variable Force 162
CONCEPT SUMMARY 164
2.5 Applications of the Equations of Kinematics 36
2.6 Freely Falling Bodies 40
7 Impulse and Momentum 173
2.7 Graphical Analysis of Velocity and Acceleration 44
7.1 The Impulse–Momentum Theorem 173
CONCEPT SUMMARY 46
7.2 The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum 177
3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions 54 7.3 Collisions in One Dimension 182
3.1 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration 54 7.4 Collisions in Two Dimensions 187
3.2 Equations of Kinematics in Two Dimensions 55 7.5 Center of Mass 187
3.3 Projectile Motion 59 CONCEPT SUMMARY 189
3.4 Relative Velocity 67
CONCEPT SUMMARY 71 8 Rotational Kinematics 197
8.1 Rotational Motion and Angular Displacement 197
4 Forces and Newton’s Laws of Motion 79 8.2 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 200
4.1 The Concepts of Force and Mass 79 8.3 The Equations of Rotational Kinematics 202
4.2 Newton’s First Law of Motion 79 8.4 Angular Variables and Tangential Variables 204
4.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 81 8.5 Centripetal Acceleration and Tangential
4.4 The Vector Nature of Newton’s Second Law Acceleration 206
of Motion 84 8.6 Rolling Motion 209
4.5 Newton’s Third Law of Motion 85 *8.7 The Vector Nature of Angular Variables 210
4.6 Types of Forces: An Overview 86 CONCEPT SUMMARY 210
4.7 The Gravitational Force 87
4.8 The Normal Force 91 9 Rotational Dynamics 218
4.9 Static and Kinetic Frictional Forces 94 9.1 The Action of Forces and Torques on Rigid Objects 218
4.10 The Tension Force 100 9.2 Rigid Objects in Equilibrium 220
4.11 Equilibrium Applications of Newton’s Laws 9.3 Center of Gravity 225
of Motion 101 9.4 Newton’s Second Law for Rotational Motion About a
4.12 Nonequilibrium Applications of Newton’s Laws Fixed Axis 230
of Motion 105 9.5 Rotational Work and Energy 236
CONCEPT SUMMARY 110 9.6 Angular Momentum 239
CONCEPT SUMMARY 241
5 Dynamics of Uniform Circular Motion 121
5.1 Uniform Circular Motion 121 10 Simple Harmonic Motion
5.2 Centripetal Acceleration 122 and Elasticity 251
5.3 Centripetal Force 125 10.1 The Ideal Spring and Simple Harmonic Motion 251
5.4 Banked Curves 128 10.2 Simple Harmonic Motion and the Reference Circle 255
5.5 Satellites in Circular Orbits 129 10.3 Energy and Simple Harmonic Motion 260

vi
 Contents vii

10.4 The Pendulum 263 15.4 Thermal Processes 391

10.5 Damped Harmonic Motion 266 15.5 Thermal Processes Using an Ideal Gas 395
10.6 Driven Harmonic Motion and Resonance 267 15.6 Specific Heat Capacities 398
10.7 Elastic Deformation 268 15.7 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 399
10.8 Stress, Strain, and Hooke’s Law 271 15.8 Heat Engines 400
CONCEPT SUMMARY 272 15.9 Carnot’s Principle and the Carnot Engine 401
15.10 Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat
11 Fluids 281 Pumps 404
11.1 Mass Density 281 15.11 Entropy 408
11.2 Pressure 282 15.12 The Third Law of Thermodynamics 412
11.3 Pressure and Depth in a Static Fluid 284 CONCEPT SUMMARY 412
11.4 Pressure Gauges 287
11.5 Pascal’s Principle 288 16 Waves and Sound 422
11.6 Archimedes’ Principle 291 16.1 The Nature of Waves 422
11.7 Fluids in Motion 295 16.2 Periodic Waves 424
11.8 The Equation of Continuity 297 16.3 The Speed of a Wave on a String 425
11.9 Bernoulli’s Equation 299 *16.4 The Mathematical Description of a Wave 428
11.10 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation 301 16.5 The Nature of Sound 428
*11.11 Viscous Flow 304 16.6 The Speed of Sound 431
CONCEPT SUMMARY 306 16.7 Sound Intensity 435
16.8 Decibels 437
12 Temperature and Heat 316 16.9 The Doppler Effect 439
12.1 Common Temperature Scales 316 16.10 Applications of Sound in Medicine 444
12.2 The Kelvin Temperature Scale 317 *16.11 The Sensitivity of the Human Ear 446
12.3 Thermometers 318 CONCEPT SUMMARY 446
12.4 Linear Thermal Expansion 320
12.5 Volume Thermal Expansion 326 17 The Principle of Linear Superposition
12.6 Heat and Internal Energy 328 and Interference Phenomena 456
12.7 Heat and Temperature Change: Specific Heat 17.1 The Principle of Linear Superposition 456
Capacity 328 17.2 Constructive and Destructive Interference of Sound
12.8 Heat and Phase Change: Latent Heat 331 Waves 457
*12.9 Equilibrium Between Phases of Matter 336 17.3 Diffraction 461
*12.10 Humidity 339 17.4 Beats 463
CONCEPT SUMMARY 340 17.5 Transverse Standing Waves 465
17.6 Longitudinal Standing Waves 469
13 The Transfer of Heat 348 *17.7 Complex Sound Waves 472
13.1 Convection 348 CONCEPT SUMMARY 473
13.2 Conduction 351
13.3 Radiation 357 18 Electric Forces and Electric Fields 481
13.4 Applications 361 18.1 The Origin of Electricity 481
CONCEPT SUMMARY 362 18.2 Charged Objects and the Electric Force 482
18.3 Conductors and Insulators 484
14 The Ideal Gas Law and Kinetic 18.4 Charging by Contact and by Induction 485
Theory 367 18.5 Coulomb’s Law 486
14.1 Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadro’s 18.6 The Electric Field 491
Number 367 18.7 Electric Field Lines 496
14.2 The Ideal Gas Law 370 18.8 The Electric Field Inside a Conductor: Shielding 499
14.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases 375 18.9 Gauss’ Law 501
*14.4 Diffusion 379 *18.10 Copiers and Computer Printers 505
CONCEPT SUMMARY 382 CONCEPT SUMMARY 506

15 Thermodynamics 388 19 Electric Potential Energy and the

15.1 Thermodynamic Systems and Their Surroundings 388 Electric Potential 514
15.2 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 388 19.1 Potential Energy 514
15.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics 389 19.2 The Electric Potential Difference 515
viii Contents

19.3 The Electric Potential Difference Created by Point 23 Alternating Current Circuits 651
Charges 521 23.1 Capacitors and Capacitive Reactance 651
19.4 Equipotential Surfaces and Their Relation to the 23.2 Inductors and Inductive Reactance 653
Electric Field 525
23.3 Circuits Containing Resistance, Capacitance, and
19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics 528 Inductance 655
*19.6 Biomedical Applications of Electric Potential 23.4 Resonance in Electric Circuits 660
Differences 532
23.5 Semiconductor Devices 662
CONCEPT SUMMARY 534
CONCEPT SUMMARY 667
20 Electric Circuits 541
24 Electromagnetic Waves 673
20.1 Electromotive Force and Current 541 24.1 The Nature of Electromagnetic Waves 673
20.2 Ohm’s Law 543 24.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 677
20.3 Resistance and Resistivity 544 24.3 The Speed of Light 679
20.4 Electric Power 547 24.4 The Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves 681
20.5 Alternating Current 549 24.5 The Doppler Effect and Electromagnetic Waves 685
20.6 Series Wiring 552 24.6 Polarization 686
20.7 Parallel Wiring 555 CONCEPT SUMMARY 692
20.8 Circuits Wired Partially in Series and Partially in
Parallel 559 25 The Reflection of Light: Mirrors 699
20.9 Internal Resistance 560 25.1 Wave Fronts and Rays 699
20.10 Kirchhoff’s Rules 561 25.2 The Reflection of Light 700
20.11 The Measurement of Current and Voltage 564 25.3 The Formation of Images by a Plane Mirror 701
20.12 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel 566 25.4 Spherical Mirrors 703
20.13 RC Circuits 568 25.5 The Formation of Images by Spherical Mirrors 706
20.14 Safety and the Physiological Effects of 25.6 The Mirror Equation and the Magnification
Current 569 Equation 710
CONCEPT SUMMARY 570 CONCEPT SUMMARY 715

21 Magnetic Forces and Magnetic 26 The Refraction of Light: Lenses and

Fields 580 Optical Instruments 721
21.1 Magnetic Fields 580 26.1 The Index of Refraction 721
21.2 The Force That a Magnetic Field Exerts on a Moving 26.2 Snell’s Law and the Refraction of Light 722
Charge 582 26.3 Total Internal Reflection 727
21.3 The Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic 26.4 Polarization and the Reflection and Refraction of
Field 585 Light 733
21.4 The Mass Spectrometer 589 26.5 The Dispersion of Light: Prisms and Rainbows 733
21.5 The Force on a Current in a Magnetic Field 590 26.6 Lenses 735
21.6 The Torque on a Current-Carrying Coil 592 26.7 The Formation of Images by Lenses 736
21.7 Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents 594 26.8 The Thin-Lens Equation and the Magnification
21.8 Ampère’s Law 601 Equation 739
21.9 Magnetic Materials 602 26.9 Lenses in Combination 742
CONCEPT SUMMARY 605 26.10 The Human Eye 744
26.11 Angular Magnification and the Magnifying Glass 748
22 Electromagnetic Induction 615 26.12 The Compound Microscope 750
22.1 Induced Emf and Induced Current 615 26.13 The Telescope 751
22.2 Motional Emf 616 26.14 Lens Aberrations 753
22.3 Magnetic Flux 622 CONCEPT SUMMARY 754
22.4 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction 624
22.5 Lenz’s Law 627 27 Interference and the Wave
*22.6 Applications of Electromagnetic Induction to the Nature of Light 766
Reproduction of Sound 630 27.1 The Principle of Linear Superposition 766
22.7 The Electric Generator 631 27.2 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment 768
22.8 Mutual Inductance and Self-Inductance 636 27.3 Thin-Film Interference 771
22.9 Transformers 639 27.4 The Michelson Interferometer 775
CONCEPT SUMMARY 642 27.5 Diffraction 776
 Contents ix

27.6 Resolving Power 780 *30.10 Holography 867

27.7 The Diffraction Grating 785 CONCEPT SUMMARY 869
*27.8 Compact Discs, Digital Video Discs, and the Use of
Interference 787 31 Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity 876
27.9 X-Ray Diffraction 789 31.1 Nuclear Structure 876
CONCEPT SUMMARY 790 31.2 The Strong Nuclear Force and the Stability of the
Nucleus 878
28 Special Relativity 798 31.3 The Mass Defect of the Nucleus and Nuclear Binding
28.1 Events and Inertial Reference Frames 798 Energy 879
28.2 The Postulates of Special Relativity 799 31.4 Radioactivity 882
28.3 The Relativity of Time: Time Dilation 801 31.5 The Neutrino 887
28.4 The Relativity of Length: Length Contraction 805 31.6 Radioactive Decay and Activity 888
28.5 Relativistic Momentum 807 31.7 Radioactive Dating 891
28.6 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy 809 31.8 Radioactive Decay Series 895
28.7 The Relativistic Addition of Velocities 814 31.9 Radiation Detectors 895
CONCEPT SUMMARY 816 CONCEPT SUMMARY 897

29 Particles and Waves 822

32 Ionizing Radiation, Nuclear Energy, and
29.1 The Wave–Particle Duality 822 Elementary Particles 903
29.2 Blackbody Radiation and Planck’s Constant 823
32.1 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation 903
29.3 Photons and the Photoelectric Effect 824
32.2 Induced Nuclear Reactions 907
29.4 The Momentum of a Photon and the Compton
32.3 Nuclear Fission 909
Effect 830
32.4 Nuclear Reactors 911
29.5 The De Broglie Wavelength and the Wave Nature of
32.5 Nuclear Fusion 912
Matter 833
32.6 Elementary Particles 915
29.6 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 835
32.7 Cosmology 920
CONCEPT SUMMARY 839
CONCEPT SUMMARY 923
30 The Nature of the Atom 844
Appendixes A-1
30.1 Rutherford Scattering and the Nuclear Atom 844
Appendix A Powers of Ten and Scientific Notation A-1
30.2 Line Spectra 845
Appendix B Significant Figures A-1
30.3 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 847
Appendix C Algebra A-2
30.4 De Broglie’s Explanation of Bohr’s Assumption About
Appendix D Exponents and Logarithms A-3
Angular Momentum 852
Appendix E Geometry and Trigonometry A-4
30.5 The Quantum Mechanical Picture of the Hydrogen
Atom 852 Appendix F Selected Isotopes A-5
30.6 The Pauli Exclusion Principle and the Periodic
Answers to Check Your Understanding A-9
Table of the Elements 856
30.7 X-Rays 859 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-16
30.8 The Laser 863
*30.9 Medical Applications of the Laser 865 Index I-1

A list of The Physics of applications can be found on the showcase site: www.wiley.com/college/sc/cutnell
| Our Vision and the WileyPLUS with ORION Advantage
| Our Vision
Our goal is to provide students with the skills they need to suc-
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Conceptual Understanding Students often regard physics as a col-
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x
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xii New to WileyPLUS for the Tenth Edition

| New to WileyPLUS for the Tenth Edition

NEW Chalkboard Videos Solving homework problems can be a daunting experience for stu-
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The new edition now contains two different kinds of online video help. The original Video Help
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Problem statement Drawings and animations

Known and unknown

quantities

Detailed algebraic
steps

Final solution
 New to WileyPLUS for the Tenth Edition xiii

NEW Free-Body Diagram (FBD) Tools For many problems involving multiple forces, an
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New and Expanded Tutorial Problems Some of the homework problems found in the
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WebAssign. There are now 550 problems in the tenth edition. Each of these problems in Wiley-
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The GO tutorial also includes
calculational steps
xiv New to WileyPLUS for the Tenth Edition

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WileyPLUS with ORION provides students

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use their study time effectively.
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ORION includes a number of reports and ongoing recommendations for students to help them maintain their proficiency over time for each topic.
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| Acknowledgments
As new authors, we embarked on this project with little knowledge of the world of textbook
writing, and even less of the world of publishing. It has been a fascinating experience to
learn what the process involves and, even more so, the number of talented people who are
essential in order to complete such an enormous and multifaceted project. As these people
are experts, we, as new authors, are not, and we are grateful for the guidance and patience
they all have afforded us.
We are especially grateful to Stuart Johnson, our Executive Editor, who was there from
the very beginning. His guidance and candidness was much appreciated and was a major
factor in our signing onto this project in the first place. We hope that retirement treats him
well, and that his hammering arm stays healthy.
The shock of losing an experienced and talented person like Stuart Johnson could only
be tempered by finding another talented person to step in, and that person is our new Exec-
utive Editor, Jessica Fiorillo. Jessica has done a wonderful job guiding us through the final
stages of the project and making some final improvements while bringing in an energy and
enthusiasm that are infectious.
We are thankful to our Production Editor, Elizabeth Swain, for her patience and for
keeping us on track. We can hardly imagine how much work goes into her job.
We are grateful to those who have tended to the fine details and polished the book to a
mirror finish. This includes Copy Editor, Helen Walden, Proofreader, Lilian Brady, Photo
Editor, Lisa Gee, and Designer, Madelyn Lesure.
We have had the great pleasure to work with Geraldine Osnato, the Product Designer
responsible for extending the textbook into the digital world. As technical textbooks are in
the midst of a paradigm shift toward digital content, Geraldine's expertise has been crucial
in the development of this book.
One of the many facets of the book is the extensive supplemental package, including
solutions manuals. We are grateful to Alyson Rentrop, Associate Editor, for the flawless
assembly of these important components.
We are grateful to Amanda Rillo, Editorial Assistant, for her help in facilitating the
flow of the manuscript through its various production stages.
We are thankful to Kristine Ruff, Senior Marketing Manager, for developing an effec-
tive marketing campaign, and for forcing us out of our shells on many occasions to play our
part—we realize and appreciate the coaxing that took.
Thank you to the sales representatives of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. You are very special
members of our team. Your professionalism and knowledge of the book's features allows
you to bring our work to the attention of physics teachers in a way that is widely respected
and indispensable to the book's success.
We are particularly indebted to Dayna Leaman, Senior Sales Representative. You have
been supportive on so many levels and we are absolutely certain that we would not have
been afforded this wonderful opportunity had it not been for you. Thank you.
A project of this size would have no chance of succeeding without someone overseeing
the big picture. We would like to acknowledge our Publisher, Petra Recter, for her contribu-
tions, guidance, support, and organization of this project at all levels.
Finally, we would like to thank the original authors, John Cutnell and Kenneth John-
son. We are privileged to inherit such a fine book—one that reflects thirty years of hard
work on your part. Our intent is to preserve the essence of your masterpiece while making
improvements that track with the times.
We would also like to acknowledge the contributions made to our WileyPLUS course
by David Marx (Illinois State University), Richard Holland (Southeastern Illinois College),
George Caplan (Wellesley College), and Derrick Hilger (Duquesne University).

xv
xvi Acknowledgments

Many physicists and their students have generously shared their ideas with us about good
pedagogy and helped us by pointing out our errors. For all of their suggestions, we are
grateful. They have helped us to write more clearly and accurately and have influenced
markedly the evolution of this text. To the reviewers of this and previous editions, we espe-
cially owe a large debt of gratitude. Specifically, we thank:

Donald Abernathy, North Lake College

Claude Malik Ba Jean, Columbus State
David Bannon, Oregon State University
Maria Bautista, University of Hawaii-Kapiolani
Khaled Boudjarane, Des Moines Area Community College
Debra L. Burris, University of Central Arkansas
George Caplan, Wellesley College
Ryan Matthew Case, Elizabethtown Community College
Natalia Dushkina, Millersville University of Pennsylvania
Lyle Ford, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire
Barry Gilbert, Rhode Island College
Paul Koblas, Arizona Western College
Kwan M. Lee, St. Louis Community College
Jefferey T. Loats, Metropolitan State University
Mark A. Lucas, Ohio University
Jefferey T. Morgan, University of Maine Orono
Paul Morris, Abilene Christian University
Dennis W. Mueller, University of North Texas-Denton
Derrick Mullin, Duquesne University
James A. Perez, Luther College
Sergio Picozzi, George Washington University
Cindy Schwarz, Vasar College
Ben A. Shaevitz, Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania
Joseph Shahbazian, Bunker Hill Community College
Douglas F. Sherman, San Jose State University
Curtis Shoaf, Parkland College
Hasson Tavossi, Valdosta State University
Lisa Marie WIll, Arizona State University
Guanghua Xu, University of Houston

In spite of our best efforts to produce an error-free book, errors no doubt remain. They are solely our responsibility, and we would appreciate hearing
of any that you find. We hope that this text makes learning and teaching physics easier and more enjoyable, and we look forward to hearing about your
experiences with it. Please feel free to write us care of Physics Editor, Higher Education Division, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken,
NJ 07030, or contact us at www.wiley.com/college/cutnell
© Photoshot/Collection Christophel
The animation techniques and special effects used
in the film The Avengers rely on computers and
mathematical concepts such as trigonometry and
vectors. Such mathematical concepts will be very
useful throughout this book in our discussion of
physics.

Chapter | 1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this module, you should be able to...
1.1 | Describe the fundamental nature of
physics.
1 | Introduction and Mathematical 1.2 | Describe different systems of units.
1.3 | Solve unit conversion problems.
Concepts 1.4 | Solve trigonometry problems.
1.5 | Distinguish between vectors and scalars.
1.6 | Solve vector addition and subtraction
problems by graphical methods.
1.7 | Calculate vector components.
1.1 | The Nature of Physics
1.8 | Solve vector addition and subtraction
Physics is the most basic of the sciences, and it is at the very root of subjects like chem- problems using components.
istry, engineering, astronomy, and even biology. The discipline of physics has developed
over many centuries, and it continues to evolve. It is a mature science, and its laws
encompass a wide scope of phenomena that range from the formation of galaxies to
the interactions of particles in the nuclei of atoms. Perhaps the most visible evidence
of physics in everyday life is the eruption of new applications that have improved our
quality of life, such as new medical devices, and advances in computers and high-tech
communications.
The exciting feature of physics is its capacity for predicting how nature will behave in
one situation on the basis of experimental data obtained in another situation. Such predic-
tions place physics at the heart of modern technology and, therefore, can have a tremendous
impact on our lives. Rocketry and the development of space travel have their roots firmly
planted in the physical laws of Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) and Isaac Newton (1642–1727).
The transportation industry relies heavily on physics in the development of engines and
the design of aerodynamic vehicles. Entire electronics and computer industries owe their
existence to the invention of the transistor, which grew directly out of the laws of physics
that describe the electrical behavior of solids. The telecommunications industry depends
extensively on electromagnetic waves, whose existence was predicted by James Clerk Max-
well (1831–1879) in his theory of electricity and magnetism. The medical profession uses
X-ray, ultrasonic, and magnetic resonance methods for obtaining images of the interior of
the human body, and physics lies at the core of all these. Perhaps the most widespread im-
pact in modern technology is that due to the laser. Fields ranging from space exploration to
medicine benefit from this incredible device, which is a direct application of the principles
of atomic physics.
Because physics is so fundamental, it is a required course for students in a wide range
of major areas. We welcome you to the study of this fascinating topic. You will learn how to see
the world through the “eyes” of physics and to reason as a physicist does. In the process, you
will learn how to apply physics principles to a wide range of problems. We hope that you will
come to recognize that physics has important things to say about your environment.

1.2 | Units
Physics experiments involve the measurement of a variety of quantities, and a great deal of
effort goes into making these measurements as accurate and reproducible as possible. The
first step toward ensuring accuracy and reproducibility is defining the units in which the
measurements are made.

1
 2 Chapter 1 | Introduction and Mathematical Concepts
Courtesy NIST Archives
Figure 1.1 The standard platinum–iridium
meter bar.
Science Source
Figure 1.2 The standard platinum–iridium
kilogram is kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures in Sèvres, France. This
copy of it was assigned to the United States in
1889 and is housed at the National Institute of
Standards and Technology.
© Geoffrey Wheeler
Figure 1.3 This atomic clock, the NIST-F1,
keeps time with an uncertainty of about one
second in sixty million years.
Table 1.1 Units of Measurement
System
SI CGS BE
Length Meter (m) Centimeter (cm) Foot (ft)
Mass Kilogram (kg) Gram (g) Slug (sl)
Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)
In this text, we emphasize the system of units known as SI units, which stands for the
French phrase “Le Système International d’Unités.” By international agreement, this sys-
tem employs the meter (m) as the unit of length, the kilogram (kg) as the unit of mass, and
the second (s) as the unit of time. Two other systems of units are also in use, however. The
CGS system utilizes the centimeter (cm), the gram (g), and the second for length, mass,
and time, respectively, and the BE or British Engineering system (the gravitational version)
uses the foot (ft), the slug (sl), and the second. Table 1.1 summarizes the units used for
length, mass, and time in the three systems.
Originally, the meter was defined in terms of the distance measured along the earth’s
surface between the north pole and the equator. Eventually, a more accurate measure-
ment standard was needed, and by international agreement the meter became the dis-
tance between two marks on a bar of platinum–iridium alloy (see Figure 1.1) kept at a
temperature of 0 8C. Today, to meet further demands for increased accuracy, the meter is
defined as the distance that light travels in a vacuum in a time of 1/299 792 458 second.
This definition arises because the speed of light is a universal constant that is defined to
be 299 792 458 m/s.
The definition of a kilogram as a unit of mass has also undergone changes over the
years. As Chapter 4 discusses, the mass of an object indicates the tendency of the object
to continue in motion with a constant velocity. Originally, the kilogram was expressed in
terms of a specific amount of water. Today, one kilogram is defined to be the mass of a
standard cylinder of platinum–iridium alloy, like the one in Figure 1.2.
As with the units for length and mass, the present definition of the second as a unit of
time is different from the original definition. Originally, the second was defined according
to the average time for the earth to rotate once about its axis, one day being set equal to
86 400 seconds. The earth’s rotational motion was chosen because it is naturally repetitive,
occurring over and over again. Today, we still use a naturally occurring repetitive phenom-
enon to define the second, but of a very different kind. We use the electromagnetic waves
emitted by cesium-133 atoms in an atomic clock like that in Figure 1.3. One second is
defined as the time needed for 9 192 631 770 wave cycles to occur.*
The units for length, mass, and time, along with a few other units that will arise
later, are regarded as base SI units. The word “base” refers to the fact that these units
are used along with various laws to define additional units for other important physical
quantities, such as force and energy. The units for such other physical quantities are
referred to as derived units, since they are combinations of the base units. Derived
units will be introduced from time to time, as they arise naturally along with the related
physical laws.
The value of a quantity in terms of base or derived units is sometimes a very large
or very small number. In such cases, it is convenient to introduce larger or smaller units
that are related to the normal units by multiples of ten. Table 1.2 summarizes the prefixes
that are used to denote multiples of ten. For example, 1000 or 103 meters are referred
to as 1 kilometer (km), and 0.001 or 10 23 meter is called 1 millimeter (mm). Similarly,
1000 grams and 0.001 gram are referred to as 1 kilogram (kg) and 1 milligram (mg), respec-
tively. Appendix A contains a discussion of scientific notation and powers of ten, such as
103 and 10 23.
*See Chapter 16 for a discussion of waves in general and Chapter 24 for a discussion of electromagnetic waves
in particular.
 1.3 | The Role of Units in Problem Solving 3

© Andoni Canela/Age Fotostock

1.3 | The Role of Units in Problem Solving

The Conversion of Units

Since any quantity, such as length, can be measured in several different units, it is impor-
tant to know how to convert from one unit to another. For instance, the foot can be used to
express the distance between the two marks on the standard platinum–iridium meter bar.
There are 3.281 feet in one meter, and this number can be used to convert from meters to
feet, as the following example demonstrates.

EXAMPLE 1 | The World’s Highest Waterfall

The highest waterfall in the world is Angel Falls in Venezuela, with a total drop of 979.0 m (see
Figure 1.4). Express this drop in feet.
Reasoning When converting between units, we write down the units explicitly in the calcu-
lations and treat them like any algebraic quantity. In particular, we will take advantage of the
following algebraic fact: Multiplying or dividing an equation by a factor of 1 does not alter an
equation.
Solution Since 3.281 feet 5 1 meter, it follows that (3.281 feet)/(1 meter) 5 1. Using this factor
of 1 to multiply the equation “Length 5 979.0 meters,” we find that

Length 5 1979.0 m2 112 5 1979.0 meters2 a b 5 3212 feet

3.281 feet
1 meter
The colored lines emphasize that the units of meters behave like any algebraic quantity and
cancel when the multiplication is performed, leaving only the desired unit of feet to describe
the answer. In this regard, note that 3.281 feet 5 1 meter also implies that (1 meter)/(3.281 feet) 5 1.
However, we chose not to multiply by a factor of 1 in this form, because the units of meters
would not have canceled.
A calculator gives the answer as 3212.099 feet. Standard procedures for significant figures,
however, indicate that the answer should be rounded off to four significant figures, since the
value of 979.0 meters is accurate to only four significant figures. In this regard, the “1 meter”
in the denominator does not limit the significant figures of the answer, because this number is
Figure 1.4 Angel Falls in Venezuela is the
precisely one meter by definition of the conversion factor. Appendix B contains a review of
highest waterfall in the world.
significant figures.

Problem-Solving Insight. In any conversion, if the units do not combine algebraically to give
the desired result, the conversion has not been carried out properly. With this in mind, the next
example stresses the importance of writing down the units and illustrates a typical situation
in which several conversions are required. Table 1.2 Standard Prefixes Used to
Denote Multiples of Ten

EXAMPLE 2 | Interstate Speed Limit Prefix Symbol Factor a

Express the speed limit of 65 miles/hour in terms of meters/second. tera T 1012
Reasoning As in Example 1, it is important to write down the units explicitly in the calculations and giga G 109
treat them like any algebraic quantity. Here, we take advantage of two well-known relationships— mega M 106
namely, 5280 feet 5 1 mile and 3600 seconds 5 1 hour. As a result, (5280 feet)/(1 mile) 5 1 and kilo k 103
(3600 seconds)/(1 hour) 5 1. In our solution we will use the fact that multiplying and dividing hecto h 102
by these factors of unity does not alter an equation.
deka da 101
Solution Multiplying and dividing by factors of unity, we find the speed limit in feet per second deci d 1021
as shown below: centi c 1022
1023
Speed 5 a65 b (1)(1) 5 a65 ba ba b 5 95
miles miles 5280 feet 1 hour feet milli m
hour hour 1 mile 3600 seconds second micro m 1026
nano n 1029
To convert feet into meters, we use the fact that (1 meter)/(3.281 feet) 5 1:
pico p 10212

Speed 5 a95 b (1) 5 a95 ba b 5 29

feet feet 1 meter meters femto f 10215
second second 3.281 feet second a
Appendix A contains a discussion of powers of ten
and scientific notation.
4 Chapter 1 | Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

In addition to their role in guiding the use of conversion factors, units serve a useful
purpose in solving problems. They can provide an internal check to eliminate errors, if they
are carried along during each step of a calculation and treated like any algebraic factor.
In particular, remember that only quantities with the same units can be added or subtracted
(Problem-Solving Insight). Thus, at one point in a calculation, if you find yourself adding
12 miles to 32 kilometers, stop and reconsider. Either miles must be converted into kilometers
or kilometers must be converted into miles before the addition can be carried out.
A collection of useful conversion factors is given on the page facing the inside of the
front cover. The reasoning strategy that we have followed in Examples 1 and 2 for convert-
ing between units is outlined as follows:

Reasoning Strategy Converting Between Units

1. In all calculations, write down the units explicitly.
2. Treat all units as algebraic quantities. In particular, when identical units are divided, they are
eliminated algebraically.
3. Use the conversion factors located on the page facing the inside of the front cover. Be guided
by the fact that multiplying or dividing an equation by a factor of 1 does not alter the equation.
For instance, the conversion factor of 3.281 feet 5 1 meter might be applied in the form
(3.281 feet)/(1 meter) 5 1. This factor of 1 would be used to multiply an equation such as
“Length 5 5.00 meters” in order to convert meters to feet.
4. Check to see that your calculations are correct by verifying that the units combine algebraically
to give the desired unit for the answer. Only quantities with the same units can be added or
subtracted.

Sometimes an equation is expressed in a way that requires specific units to be used for
the variables in the equation. In such cases it is important to understand why only certain
units can be used in the equation, as the following example illustrates.

EXAMPLE 3 | The Physics of the Body Mass Index

The body mass index (BMI) takes into account your mass in kilograms (kg) and your height in
meters (m) and is defined as follows:
Mass in kg
BMI 5
(Height in m)2
However, the BMI is often computed using the weight* of a person in pounds (lb) and his or her
height in inches (in.). Thus, the expression for the BMI incorporates these quantities, rather than
the mass in kilograms and the height in meters. Starting with the definition above, determine the
expression for the BMI that uses pounds and inches.
Reasoning We will begin with the BMI definition and work separately with the numerator and
the denominator. We will determine the mass in kilograms that appears in the numerator from
the weight in pounds by using the fact that 1 kg corresponds to 2.205 lb. Then, we will deter-
mine the height in meters that appears in the denominator from the height in inches with the aid
of the facts that 1 m 5 3.281 ft and 1 ft 5 12 in. These conversion factors are located on the
page facing the inside of the front cover of the text.
Solution Since 1 kg corresponds to 2.205 lb, the mass in kilograms can be determined from the
weight in pounds in the following way:

b
1 kg
Mass in kg 5 (Weight in lb)a
2.205 lb
Since 1 ft 5 12 in. and 1 m 5 3.281 ft, we have

ba b
1 ft 1m
Height in m 5 (Height in in.)a
12 in. 3.281 ft

*Weight and mass are different concepts, and the relationship between them will be discussed in Section 4.7.
 1.3 | The Role of Units in Problem Solving 5

Substituting these results into the numerator and denominator of the BMI definition gives

b
1 kg
(Weight in lb)a
Mass in kg 2.205 lb
BMI 5 5
(Height in in.)2 a ba b
(Height in m)2 1 ft 2 1 m 2
12 in. 3.281 ft
Table 1.3 The Body Mass Index
5a ba ba b
1 kg 12 in. 2 3.281 ft 2 (Weight in lb)
BMI (kg/m2) Evaluation
2.205 lb 1 ft 1m (Height in in.)2
Below 18.5 Underweight
BMI 5 a703.0 b
kg ? in.2 (Weight in lb)
lb ? m2 (Height in in.)2 18.5–24.9 Normal
25.0–29.9 Overweight
For example, if your weight and height are 180 lb and 71 in., your body mass index is 25 kg/m2. 30.0–39.9 Obese
The BMI can be used to assess approximately whether your weight is normal for your height
40 and above Morbidly obese
(see Table 1.3).

Dimensional Analysis
We have seen that many quantities are denoted by specifying both a number and a unit. For
example, the distance to the nearest telephone may be 8 meters, or the speed of a car might
be 25 meters/second. Each quantity, according to its physical nature, requires a certain type
of unit. Distance must be measured in a length unit such as meters, feet, or miles, and a time
unit will not do. Likewise, the speed of an object must be specified as a length unit divided
by a time unit. In physics, the term dimension is used to refer to the physical nature of a
quantity and the type of unit used to specify it. Distance has the dimension of length, which
is symbolized as [L], while speed has the dimensions of length [L] divided by time [T], or
[L/T]. Many physical quantities can be expressed in terms of a combination of fundamental
dimensions such as length [L], time [T], and mass [M]. Later on, we will encounter certain
other quantities, such as temperature, which are also fundamental. A fundamental quantity
like temperature cannot be expressed as a combination of the dimensions of length, time,
mass, or any other fundamental dimension.
Dimensional analysis is used to check mathematical relations for the consistency of
their dimensions. As an illustration, consider a car that starts from rest and accelerates to a
speed v in a time t. Suppose we wish to calculate the distance x traveled by the car but are
not sure whether the correct relation is x 5 12 vt 2 or x 5 12 vt. We can decide by checking
the quantities on both sides of the equals sign to see whether they have the same dimen-
sions. If the dimensions are not the same, the relation is incorrect. For x 5 12 vt 2, we use the
dimensions for distance [L], time [T], and speed [L/T] in the following way:

x 5 12 vt 2

[L] 0 c d [T] 2 5 [L][T]

L
Dimensions
T

Dimensions cancel just like algebraic quantities, and pure numerical factors like 12 have no Problem-Solving Insight You can check for
dimensions, so they can be ignored. The dimension on the left of the equals sign does not errors that may have arisen during algebraic
match those on the right, so the relation x 5 12 vt 2 cannot be correct. On the other hand, manipulations by performing a dimensional
analysis on the final expression.
applying dimensional analysis to x 5 12 vt, we find that

x 5 12 vt

[L] 0 c d [T] 5 [L4

L
Dimensions
T
The dimension on the left of the equals sign matches that on the right, so this relation is di-
mensionally correct. If we know that one of our two choices is the right one, then x 5 12 vt
is it. In the absence of such knowledge, however, dimensional analysis cannot identify the
6 Chapter 1 | Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

correct relation. It can only identify which choices may be correct, since it does not account
for numerical factors like 12 or for the manner in which an equation was derived from phys-
ics principles.

Check Your Understanding

(The answers are given at the end of the book.)
1. (a) Is it possible for two quantities to have the same dimensions but different units?
(b) Is it possible for two quantities to have the same units but different dimensions?
2. You can always add two numbers that have the same units (such as 6 meters 1 3 meters). Can
you always add two numbers that have the same dimensions, such as two numbers that have the
dimensions of length [L]?
3. The following table lists four variables, along with their units:

Variable Units

x Meters (m)
v Meters per second (m/s)
t Seconds (s)
a Meters per second squared (m/s2)

These variables appear in the following equations, along with a few numbers that have no units.
In which of the equations are the units on the left side of the equals sign consistent with the
units on the right side?
(a) x 5 vt (d) v 5 at 1 12 at 3
(b) x 5 vt 1 12 at 2 (e) v 3 5 2ax 2
2x
(c) v 5 at (f) t 5
Ba
4. In the equation y 5 cnat2 you wish to determine the integer value (1, 2, etc.) of the exponent n.
The dimensions of y, a, and t are known. It is also known that c has no dimensions. Can dimen-
sional analysis be used to determine n?

1.4 | Trigonometry
h = hypotenuse Scientists use mathematics to help them describe how the physical universe works, and
trigonometry is an important branch of mathematics. Three trigonometric functions
ho = length of side
opposite the
are utilized throughout this text. They are the sine, the cosine, and the tangent of the
θ 90° angle θ angle u (Greek theta), abbreviated as sin u, cos u, and tan u, respectively. These func-
tions are defined below in terms of the symbols given along with the right triangle in
ha = length of side
adjacent to the angle θ
Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5 A right triangle.
Definition of Sin u, Cos u, and Tan u
ho
sin u 5 (1.1)
h
ha
cos u 5 (1.2)
h
ho
tan u 5 (1.3)
ha
h 5 length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle
ho 5 length of the side opposite the angle u
ha 5 length of the side adjacent to the angle u
 1.4 | Trigonometry 7

The sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle are numbers without units, because each is the
ratio of the lengths of two sides of a right triangle. Example 4 illustrates a typical applica-
tion of Equation 1.3.

EXAMPLE 4 | Using Trigonometric Functions

On a sunny day, a tall building casts a shadow that is 67.2 m long. The angle between the sun’s
rays and the ground is u 5 50.08, as Figure 1.6 shows. Determine the height of the building.
Reasoning We want to find the height of the building. Therefore, we begin with the colored right
triangle in Figure 1.6 and identify the height as the length ho of the side opposite the angle u. The
length of the shadow is the length ha of the side that is adjacent to the angle u. The ratio of the
length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side is the tangent of the angle u, which ho
can be used to find the height of the building.
Solution We use the tangent function in the following way, with u 5 50.08 and ha 5 67.2 m:
θ = 50.0°
ho
tan u 5 (1.3)
ha
ha = 67.2 m
ho 5 ha tan u 5 (67.2 m)(tan 50.0°) 5 (67.2 m)(1.19) 5 80.0 m Figure 1.6 From a value for the angle u and
The value of tan 50.08 is found by using a calculator. the length ha of the shadow, the height ho of
the building can be found using trigonometry.

The sine, cosine, or tangent may be used in calculations such as that in Example 4,
depending on which side of the triangle has a known value and which side is asked for.
However, the choice of which side of the triangle to label ho (opposite) and which to label ha (adjacent) Problem-Solving Insight
can be made only after the angle u is identified.

Often the values for two sides of the right triangle in Figure 1.5 are available, and the
value of the angle u is unknown. The concept of inverse trigonometric functions plays an
important role in such situations. Equations 1.4–1.6 give the inverse sine, inverse cosine,
and inverse tangent in terms of the symbols used in the drawing. For instance, Equation 1.4
is read as “u equals the angle whose sine is ho/h.”

u 5 sin21 a b
ho
(1.4)
h

u 5 cos21 a b
ha
(1.5)
h

u 5 tan21 a b
ho
(1.6)
ha
The use of 21 as an exponent in Equations 1.4–1.6 does not mean “take the reciprocal.”
For instance, tan21 (ho /ha) does not equal 1/tan (ho /ha). Another way to express the inverse
trigonometric functions is to use arc sin, arc cos, and arc tan instead of sin21, cos21, and
tan21. Example 5 illustrates the use of an inverse trigonometric function.

EXAMPLE 5 | Using Inverse Trigonometric Functions

A lakefront drops off gradually at an angle u, as Figure 1.7 indicates. For safety reasons, it is
necessary to know how deep the lake is at various distances from the shore. To provide some
information about the depth, a lifeguard rows straight out from the shore a distance of 14.0 m
and drops a weighted fishing line. By measuring the length of the line, the lifeguard determines
the depth to be 2.25 m. (a) What is the value of u? (b) What would be the depth d of the lake at
a distance of 22.0 m from the shore?
8 Chapter 1 | Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

22.0 m

14.0 m
Figure 1.7 If the distance from the shore and
θ
the depth of the water at any one point are 2.25 m
known, the angle u can be found with the aid d
of trigonometry. Knowing the value of u is
useful, because then the depth d at another
point can be determined.

Reasoning Near the shore, the lengths of the opposite and adjacent sides of the right triangle
in Figure 1.7 are ho 5 2.25 m and ha 5 14.0 m, relative to the angle u. Having made this iden-
tification, we can use the inverse tangent to find the angle in part (a). For part (b) the opposite
and adjacent sides farther from the shore become ho 5 d and ha 5 22.0 m. With the value for u
obtained in part (a), the tangent function can be used to find the unknown depth. Considering
the way in which the lake bottom drops off in Figure 1.7, we expect the unknown depth to be
greater than 2.25 m.
Solution (a) Using the inverse tangent given in Equation 1.6, we find that

u 5 tan21 a b 5 tan21 a b 5 9.13°

ho 2.25 m
ha 14.0 m
(b) With u 5 9.138, the tangent function given in Equation 1.3 can be used to find the unknown
depth farther from the shore, where ho 5 d and ha 5 22.0 m. Since tan u 5 ho /ha, it follows that
ho 5 ha tan u
d 5 (22.0 m)(tan 9.13°) 5 3.54 m
which is greater than 2.25 m, as expected.

The right triangle in Figure 1.5 provides the basis for defining the various trigonomet-
ric functions according to Equations 1.1–1.3. These functions always involve an angle and
two sides of the triangle. There is also a relationship among the lengths of the three sides of
a right triangle. This relationship is known as the Pythagorean theorem and is used often
in this text.

Pythagorean Theorem
The square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the
squares of the lengths of the other two sides:
h2 5 ho2 1 ha2 (1.7)

1.5 | Scalars and Vectors

The volume of water in a swimming pool might be 50 cubic meters, or the winning time of
a race could be 11.3 seconds. In cases like these, only the size of the numbers matters. In
other words, how much volume or time is there? The 50 specifies the amount of water in
units of cubic meters, while the 11.3 specifies the amount of time in seconds. Volume and
time are examples of scalar quantities. A scalar quantity is one that can be described with
a single number (including any units) giving its size or magnitude. Some other common
scalars are temperature (e.g., 20 8C) and mass (e.g., 85 kg).
While many quantities in physics are scalars, there are also many that are not, and
for these quantities the magnitude tells only part of the story. Consider Figure 1.8, which
 1.5 | Scalars and Vectors 9

depicts a car that has moved 2 km along a straight line from start to finish. When describing N
the motion, it is incomplete to say that “the car moved a distance of 2 km.” This statement
W E
would indicate only that the car ends up somewhere on a circle whose center is at the starting
point and whose radius is 2 km. A complete description must include the direction along S
with the distance, as in the statement “the car moved a distance of 2 km in a direction 308
m
north of east.” A quantity that deals inherently with both magnitude and direction is called a 2k
Finish
vector quantity. Because direction is an important characteristic of vectors, arrows are used
30.0°
to represent them; the direction of the arrow gives the direction of the vector. The colored
Start
arrow in Figure 1.8, for example, is called the displacement vector, because it shows how the
car is displaced from its starting point. Chapter 2 discusses this particular vector.
The length of the arrow in Figure 1.8 represents the magnitude of the displacement
vector. If the car had moved 4 km instead of 2 km from the starting point, the arrow would
have been drawn twice as long. By convention, the length of a vector arrow is propor- Figure 1.8 A vector quantity has a magnitude
tional to the magnitude of the vector. and a direction. The colored arrow in this
In physics there are many important kinds of vectors, and the practice of using the drawing represents a displacement vector.
length of an arrow to represent the magnitude of a vector applies to each of them. All
forces, for instance, are vectors. In common usage a force is a push or a pull, and the direc-
tion in which a force acts is just as important as the strength or magnitude of the force. The
magnitude of a force is measured in SI units called newtons (N). An arrow representing a
force of 20 newtons is drawn twice as long as one representing a force of 10 newtons.
The fundamental distinction between scalars and vectors is the characteristic of di-
rection. Vectors have it, and scalars do not. Conceptual Example 6 helps to clarify this
distinction and explains what is meant by the “direction” of a vector.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 6 | Vectors, Scalars, and the Role of Plus and Minus Signs
There are places where the temperature is 120 8C at one time of the year and 220 8C at another
time. Do the plus and minus signs that signify positive and negative temperatures imply that
temperature is a vector quantity? (a) Yes (b) No
Reasoning A hallmark of a vector is that there is both a magnitude and a physical direction
associated with it, such as 20 meters due east or 20 meters due west.
Answer (a) is incorrect. The plus and minus signs associated with 120 8C and 220 8C do not
convey a physical direction, such as due east or due west. Therefore, temperature cannot be a
vector quantity.
Answer (b) is correct. On a thermometer, the algebraic signs simply mean that the temperature
is a number less than or greater than zero on the temperature scale being used and have nothing
to do with east, west, or any other physical direction. Temperature, then, is not a vector. It is a
scalar, and scalars can sometimes be negative.

Often, for the sake of convenience, quantities such as volume, time, displacement, ve-
locity, and force are represented in physics by symbols. In this text, we write vectors in bold-
face symbols (this is boldface) with arrows above them* and write scalars in italic symbols
B B
(this is italic). Thus, a displacement vector is written as “A 5 750 m, due east,” where the A
is a boldface symbol. By itself, however, separated from the direction, the magnitude of this
vector is a scalar quantity. Therefore, the magnitude is written as “A 5 750 m,” where the A
is an italic symbol without an arrow.

Check Your Understanding

(The answer is given at the end of the book.)
5. Which of the following statements, if any, involves a vector? (a) I walked 2 miles along the
beach. (b) I walked 2 miles due north along the beach. (c) I jumped off a cliff and hit the water
traveling at 17 miles per hour. (d) I jumped off a cliff and hit the water traveling straight down
at a speed of 17 miles per hour. (e) My bank account shows a negative balance of 225 dollars.

*Vectors are also sometimes written in other texts as boldface symbols without arrows above them.
10 Chapter 1 | Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

1.6 | Vector Addition and Subtraction

N
Addition
W E Often it is necessary to add one vector to another, and the process of addition must take
into account both the magnitude and the direction of the vectors. The simplest situation
S
Tail-to-head occurs when the vectors point along the same direction—that is, when they are colinear,
B
as in Figure 1.9. Here, a car first moves along a straight line, with a displacement vector A
A B
of 275 m, due east. Then the car moves again in the same direction, with a displacement
B
Start Finish vector B of 125 m, due east. These two vectors add to give the total displacement vector
B
R , which would apply if the car had moved from start to finish in one step. The symbol
B
R R is used because the total vector is often called the resultant vector. With the tail of the
Figure 1.9 Two colinear displacement second arrow located at the head of the first arrow, the two lengths simply add to give the
B B
vectors A and B add to give the resultant length of the total displacement. This kind of vector addition is identical to the familiar
B
displacement vector R . addition of two scalar numbers (2 1 3 5 5) and can be carried out here only because the
vectors point along the same direction. In such cases we add the individual magnitudes to
get the magnitude of the total, knowing in advance what the direction must be. Formally,
N the addition is written as follows:
B B B
W E
R 5A1B
B
Finish R 5 275 m, due east 1 125 m, due east 5 400 m, due east
S
R Perpendicular vectors are frequently encountered, and Figure 1.10 indicates how they
B B
θ 90° can be added. This figure applies to a car that first travels with a displacement vector A
B
Start A of 275 m, due east, and then with a displacement vector B of 125 m, due north. The two
B
vectors add to give a resultant displacement vector R . Once again, the vectors to be added
Tail-to-head are arranged in a tail-to-head fashion, and the resultant vector points from the tail of the
Figure 1.10 The addition of two perpendicular first to the head of the last vector added. The resultant displacement is given by the vector
B B
displacement vectors A and B gives the equation
B
resultant vector R . B B B
R5A1B
The addition in this equation cannot be carried out by writing R 5 275 m 1 125 m, because
N
the vectors have different directions. Instead, we take advantage of the fact that the triangle
in Figure 1.10 is a right triangle and use the Pythagorean theorem (Equation 1.7). Accord-
B
W E ing to this theorem, the magnitude of R is

S Finish R 5 11275 m2 2 1 1125 m2 2 5 302 m

R B
The angle u in Figure 1.10 gives the direction of the resultant vector. Since the lengths
θ 55.0° of all three sides of the right triangle are now known, sin u, cos u, or tan u can be used
Start A to determine u. Noting that tan u 5 B/A and using the inverse trigonometric function, we
find that:
Tail-to-head

u 5 tan21 a b 5 tan21 a b 5 24.4°

B 125 m
(a)
A 275 m
cm Thus, the resultant displacement of the car has a magnitude of 302 m and points north of
.8 cm
22 28
24
east at an angle of 24.48. This displacement would bring the car from the start to the finish
20 in Figure 1.10 in a single straight-line step.
16
12 When two vectors to be added are not perpendicular, the tail-to-head arrangement does
8 not lead to a right triangle, and the Pythagorean theorem cannot be used. Figure 1.11a illus-
4 B B
0 R trates such a case for a car that moves with a displacement A of 275 m, due east, and then
B
θ 55.0° with a displacement B of 125 m, in a direction 55.08 north of west. As usual, the resultant
B
A displacement vector R is directed from the tail of the first to the head of the last vector
added. The vector addition is still given according to
(b)
B B B
Figure 1.11 (a) The two displacement R5A1B
B B
vectors A and B are neither colinear nor B B B
perpendicular, but even so they add to give However, the magnitude of R is not R 5 A 1 B, because the vectors A and B do not have
B
the resultant vector R . (b) In one method for the same direction, and neither is it R 5 1A2 1 B2 , because the vectors are not perpen-
adding them together, a graphical technique dicular, so the Pythagorean theorem does not apply. Some other means must be used to
is used. find the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
 1.6 | Vector Addition and Subtraction 11

One approach uses a graphical technique. In this method, a diagram is constructed

in which the arrows are drawn tail to head. The lengths of the vector arrows are drawn to
scale, and the angles are drawn accurately (with a protractor, perhaps). Then the length of
the arrow representing the resultant vector is measured with a ruler. This length is con-
verted to the magnitude of the resultant vector by using the scale factor with which the
drawing is constructed. In Figure 1.11b, for example, a scale of one centimeter of arrow
length for each 10.0 m of displacement is used, and it can be seen that the length of the
B
arrow representing R is 22.8 cm. Since each centimeter corresponds to 10.0 m of displace-
B B
ment, the magnitude of R is 228 m. The angle u, which gives the direction of R , can be
measured with a protractor to be u 5 26.78 north of east.

Subtraction
The subtraction of one vector from another is carried out in a way that depends on the
following fact. When a vector is multiplied by 21, the magnitude of the vector remains
the same, but the direction of the vector is reversed. Conceptual Example 7 illustrates the
meaning of this statement.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 7 | Multiplying a Vector by 21

Consider two vectors described as follows:
B
1. A woman climbs 1.2 m up a ladder, so that her displacement vector D is 1.2 m, upward
along the ladder, as in Figure 1.12a.
2. A man is pushing with 450 N of force on his stalled car, trying to move it eastward. The
B
force vector F that he applies to the car is 450 N, due east, as in Figure 1.13a.
B B
What are the physical meanings of the vectors 2D and 2 F ?
B B
(a) 2D points upward along the ladder and has a magnitude of 21.2 m; 2 F points due
B
east and has a magnitude of 2450 N. (b) 2D points downward along the ladder and has a
B B
magnitude of 21.2 m; 2 F points due west and has a magnitude of 2450 N. (c) 2D points
B
downward along the ladder and has a magnitude of 1.2 m; 2 F points due west and has a
magnitude of 450 N.
B B
Reasoning A displacement vector of 2D is (21) D . The presence of the (21) factor reverses
B
the direction of the vector, but does not change its magnitude. Similarly, a force vector of 2 F
B
has the same magnitude as the vector F but has the opposite direction.
Answer (a) and (b) are incorrect. While scalars can sometimes be negative, magnitudes of
vectors are never negative.
B B B B
Answer (c) is correct. The vectors 2D and 2 F have the same magnitudes as D and F , but
point in the opposite direction, as indicated in Figures 1.12b and 1.13b.
Related Homework: Problem 67
B
F

(a)

B
–F
D –D

(b)
Figure 1.13 (a) The force vector for a man
(a) (b) pushing on a car with 450 N of force in a di-
B B
Figure 1.12 (a) The displacement vector for a woman climbing 1.2 m up a ladder is D . (b) The rection due east is F . (b) The force vector for
B
displacement vector for a woman climbing 1.2 m down a ladder is 2D . a man pushing on a car with 450 N of force in
B
a direction due west is 2F .
12 Chapter 1 | Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

In practice, vector subtraction is carried out exactly like vector addition, except that
one of the vectors added is multiplied by a scalar factor of 21. To see why, look at the
B B
C=A +B two vectors A and B in Figure 1.14a. These vectors add together to give a third vector
B B B B B B B B
B C , according to C 5 A 1 B . Therefore, we can calculate vector A as A 5 C 2 B ,
B
which is an example of vector subtraction. However, we can also write this result as A 5
B B B
C 1 (2B ) and treat it as vector addition. Figure 1.14b shows how to calculate vector A by
B B B B
A
adding the vectors C and 2B . Notice that vectors C and 2B are arranged tail to head and
B
that any suitable method of vector addition can be employed to determine A.
( a)

Tail-to-head
Check Your Understanding
(The answers are given at the end of the book.)
C B B B B B B
6. Two vectors A and B are added together to give a resultant vector R : R 5 A 1 B . The
B B
–B magnitudes of A and B are 3 m and 8 m, respectively, but the vectors can have any orienta-
tion. What are (a) the maximum possible value and (b) the minimum possible value for the
B
magnitude of R ?
A = C – B 7. Can two nonzero perpendicular vectors be added together so their sum is zero?
( b) 8. Can three or more vectors with unequal magnitudes be added together so their sum is zero?
B B
Figure 1.14 (a) Vector addition according to 9. In preparation for this question, review Conceptual Example 7. Vectors A and B satisfy the
B B B B B B
C 5 A 1 B . (b) Vector subtraction according vector equation A 1 B 5 0. (a) How does the magnitude of B compare with the magnitude
B B B B B B B B
to A 5 C 2 B 5 C 1 (2B ). of A ? (b) How does the direction of B compare with the direction of A ?
B B B B B B
10. Vectors A , B , and C satisfy the vector equation A 1 B 5 C , and their magnitudes are
B
2 2 2
related by the scalar equation A 1 B 5 C . How is vector A oriented with respect to
B
vector B ?
B B B B B B
11. Vectors A , B , and C satisfy the vector equation A 1 B 5 C , and their magnitudes are related
B B
by the scalar equation A 1 B 5 C. How is vector A oriented with respect to vector B ?

Finish 1.7 | The Components of a Vector

N

W E Vector Components
r y
Suppose a car moves along a straight line from start to finish, as in Figure 1.15, the cor-
S
90° responding displacement vector being B r . The magnitude and direction of the vector B r
Start
give the distance and direction traveled along the straight line. However, the car could also
x arrive at the finish point by first moving due east, turning through 908, and then moving
B
Figure 1.15 The displacement vector r and its due north. This alternative path is shown in the drawing and is associated with the two dis-
B B
vector components x and y . placement vectors B x and By . The vectors B x and B
y are called the x vector component and
B
the y vector component of r .
Vector components are very important in physics and have two basic features that
are apparent in Figure 1.15. One is that the components add together to equal the original
vector:
B
r 5B
x 1B
y
The components B x and B y , when added vectorially, convey exactly the same meaning as
does the original vector B r : they indicate how the finish point is displaced relative to the
starting point. The other feature of vector components that is apparent in Figure 1.15 is
+y that Bx and B y are not just any two vectors that add together to give the original vector Br:
they are perpendicular vectors. This perpendicularity is a valuable characteristic, as we
will soon see.
A Ay Any type of vector may be expressed in terms of its components, in a way similar to
that illustrated for the displacement vector in Figure 1.15. Figure 1.16 shows an arbitrary
B B B
vector A and its vector components A x and A y. The components are drawn parallel to
θ
+x convenient x and y axes and are perpendicular. They add vectorially to equal the original
B
Ax vector A :
B
Figure 1.16 An arbitrary vector A and its B B B
B B
vector components A x and A y. A 5 Ax 1 Ay
 1.7 | The Components of a Vector 13

There are times when a drawing such as Figure 1.16 is not the most convenient way to +y
represent vector components, and Figure 1.17 presents an alternative method. The disad-
B B
vantage of this alternative is that the tail-to-head arrangement of Ax and A y is missing, an
B B B
arrangement that is a nice reminder that Ax and A y add together to equal A .
The definition that follows summarizes the meaning of vector components: Ay A

Definition of Vector Components

B
θ
In two dimensions, the vector components of a vector A are two perpendicular vectors +x
B B Ax
A x and A y that are parallel to the x and y axes, respectively, and add together vectorially
B B B Figure 1.17 This alternative way of drawing
according to A 5 A x 1 A y. B
the vector A and its vector components is
Problem-Solving Insight. In general, the components of any vector can be used in place of the completely equivalent to that shown in
vector itself in any calculation where it is convenient to do so. The values calculated for vector Figure 1.16.
components depend on the orientation of the vector relative to the axes used as a reference.
B
Figure 1.18 illustrates this fact for a vector A by showing two sets of axes, one set being
B
rotated clockwise relative to the other. With respect to the black axes, vector A has perpen-
B B B
dicular vector components Ax and A y; with respect to the colored rotated axes, vector A
B B
has different vector components A x9 and A9. y The choice of which set of components to use
is purely a matter of convenience.
+y +y´

Scalar Components
It is often easier to work with the scalar components, Ax and Ay (note the italic sym- A
B B
bols), rather than the vector components A x and Ay. Scalar components are positive
A´y Ay
or negative numbers (with units) that are defined as follows: The scalar component Ax
B B
has a magnitude equal to that of A x and is given a positive sign if A x points along the
B
1x axis and a negative sign if Ax points along the 2x axis. The scalar component Ay is +x
Ax
defined in a similar manner. The following table shows an example of vector and scalar
A´x
components:

Vector Components Scalar Components Unit Vectors +x´

B B Figure 1.18 The vector components of the
A x 5 8 meters, directed along the 1x axis Ax 5 18 meters A x 5 (18 meters) x̂
B B vector depend on the orientation of the axes
A y 5 10 meters, directed along the 2y axis Ay 5 210 meters A y 5 (210 meters) ŷ
used as a reference.

In this text, when we use the term “component,” we will be referring to a scalar component,
unless otherwise indicated.
Another method of expressing vector components is to use unit vectors. A unit vector
is a vector that has a magnitude of 1, but no dimensions. We will use a caret (^) to distin-
guish it from other vectors. Thus, +y

x̂ is a dimensionless unit vector of length l that points in the positive x direction, and
ŷ is a dimensionless unit vector of length l that points in the positive y direction. Ay y

These unit vectors are illustrated in Figure 1.19. With the aid of unit vectors, the vector
B B B
components of an arbitrary vector A can be written as A x 5 Ax x̂ and Ay 5 Ay ŷ, where Ax
and Ay are its scalar components (see the drawing and the third column of the table above).
B B
The vector A is then written as A 5 Ax x̂ 1 Ay ŷ. y
Ax x
+x

Resolving a Vector into Its Components x

Figure 1.19 The dimensionless unit vectors x̂

If the magnitude and direction of a vector are known, it is possible to find the components and ŷ have magnitudes equal to 1, and they
of the vector. The process of finding the components is called “resolving the vector into point in the 1x and 1y directions, respec-
its components.” As Example 8 illustrates, this process can be carried out with the aid of tively. Expressed in terms of unit vectors, the
B
trigonometry, because the two perpendicular vector components and the original vector vector components of the vector A are Ax x̂
form a right triangle. and Ay ŷ.
14 Chapter 1 | Introduction and Mathematical Concepts
α A displacement vector S r has a magnitude of r 5 175 m and points at an angle of 50.08 relative
r y
50.0° 90.0°
x y 5 r sin u 5 (175 m)(sin 50.0°) 5 134 m
Figure 1.20 The x and y components of the
B In a similar fashion, the x component can be obtained using the 50.08 angle and Equation 1.2,
displacement vector r can be found using
trigonometry.
Problem-Solving Insight You can check to
see whether the components of a vector
are correct by substituting them into the
Pythagorean theorem in order to calculate
the magnitude of the original vector.
Problem-Solving Insight
Problem-Solving Insight
EXAMPLE 8 | Finding the Components of a Vector
to the x axis in Figure 1.20. Find the x and y components of this vector.
Reasoning We will base our solution on the fact that the triangle formed in Figure 1.20 by the
B B B
vector r and its components x and y is a right triangle. This fact enables us to use the trigo-
nometric sine and cosine functions, as defined in Equations 1.1 and 1.2.
Solution The y component can be obtained using the 50.08 angle and Equation 1.1, sin u 5 y/r:
cos u 5 x/r:
x 5 r cos u 5 (175 m)(cos 50.0°) 5 112 m
MATH SKILLS Either acute angle of a right triangle can be used to determine the components of
a vector. The choice of angle is a matter of convenience. For instance, instead of the 50.08 angle,
it is also possible to use the angle a in Figure 1.20. Since a 1 50.08 5 90.08, it follows that
a 5 40.08. The solution using a yields the same answers as the solution using the 50.08 angle:
y
cos a 5
r
y 5 r cos a 5 (175 m)(cos 40.0°) 5 134 m
x
sin a 5
r
x 5 r sin a 5 (175 m)(sin 40.0°) 5 112 m
Since the vector components and the original vector form a right triangle, the Pythago-
rean theorem can be applied to check the validity of calculations such as those in Example 8.
Thus, with the components obtained in Example 8, the theorem can be used to verify that
the magnitude of the original vector is indeed 175 m, as given initially:
r 5 1(112 m) 2 1 (134 m) 2 5 175 m
It is possible for one of the components of a vector to be zero. This does not mean that the
vector itself is zero, however. For a vector to be zero, every vector component must individually be
B B B
zero. Thus, in two dimensions, saying that A 5 0 is equivalent to saying that A x 5 0 and A y 5 0.
B
Or, stated in terms of scalar components, if A 5 0, then Ax 5 0 and Ay 5 0.
Two vectors are equal if, and only if, they have the same magnitude and direction. Thus, if one
displacement vector points east and another points north, they are not equal, even if each B
B
has the same magnitude of 480 m. In terms of vector components, two vectors A and B
are equal if, and only if, each vector component of one B
is equal toBthe corresponding vector
B B B B
component of the other. In two dimensions, if A 5 B , then A x 5 B x and A y 5 A y. Alterna-
tively, using scalar components, we write that Ax 5 Bx and Ay 5 By.
Check Your Understanding
(The answers are given at the end of the book.)
12. Which of the following
Variable Magnitude Direction
displacement vectors (if any)
B
are equal? A 100 m 308 north of east
B
B 100 m 308 south of west
B
C 50 m 308 south of west
B
D 100 m 608 east of north
 1.8 | Addition of Vectors by Means of Components 15

B B
13. Two vectors, A and B , are shown in the drawing. +y
(a) What are the signs (1 or 2) of the scalar com-
B
ponents, Ax and Ay, of the vector A? (b) What are the
signs of the scalar components, Bx and By, of the vector B
B
B ? (c) What are the signs of the scalar components, A
B B B B
Rx and Ry, of the vector R , where R 5 A 1 B ?
+x

14. Are two vectors with the same magnitude necessarily equal?
15. The magnitude of a vector has doubled, its direction remaining the same. Can you conclude
that the magnitude of each component of the vector has doubled?
16. The tail of a vector is fixed to the origin of an x, y axis system. Originally the vector points
along the 1x axis and has a magnitude of 12 units. As time passes, the vector rotates coun-
terclockwise. What are the sizes of the x and y components of the vector for the following
rotational angles? (a) 908 (b) 1808 (c) 2708 (d) 3608
17. A vector has a component of zero along the x axis of a certain axis system. Does this vector
necessarily have a component of zero along the x axis of another (rotated) axis system?

1.8 | Addition of Vectors by Means of Components

The components of a vector provide the most convenient and accurate way of adding (or
B
subtracting) any number ofBvectors. For example,Bsuppose that vector A is added to vector
B B B
B . The resultant vector is C , where C 5 A 1 B . Figure 1.21a illustrates this vector ad-
B B
dition, along with the x and y vector components of A and B . In part b of the drawing,
B B
the vectors A and B have been removed, because we Bcan use the vector components of
these vectors in place of them. The vector component B x has been shifted downward and
B B
arranged tail to head with vector component A x. Similarly, the vector component A y has
B
been shifted to the right and arranged tail to head with the vector component B y. The x
components are colinear and add together to give the x component of the resultant vector
B
C. BIn like fashion, the y components are colinear and add together to give the y component
of C . In terms of scalar components, we can write
Cx 5 Ax 1 Bx and Cy 5 Ay 1 By
B B
The vector components C x and C y of the resultant vector form B
the sides of the right triangle
shown in Figure 1.21c. Thus, we can find the magnitude of C by using the Pythagorean
B B
theorem: Figure 1.21 (a) The vectors A and B add
B
together to give the resultant vector C . The x
C 5 1Cx 2 1 Cy2 B B
and y components of A and B are B
also shown.
S B B
The angle u that C makes with the x axis is given by u 5 tan21 (Cy /Cx). Example 9 illus- (b) The
B
drawing illustrates that C x 5 Ax 1 B x
B B B
trates how to add several vectors using the component method. and C y 5 A y 1 B y. (c) Vector C and its
components form a right triangle.
+y

C
B By By
C C Cy

A Bx
Ay Ay θ
+x
Ax Ax Bx Cx

(a) (b) (c)

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that never was any injustice effected except by the help of justice.
The great game of the government has been to win the sanction of
Massachusetts to the crime. Hitherto they have succeeded only so
far as to win Boston to a certain extent. The behavior of Boston was
the reverse of what it should have been: it was supple and officious,
and it put itself into the base attitude of pander to the crime. It should
have placed obstruction at every step. Let the attitude of the states
be firm. Let us respect the Union to all honest ends. But also respect
an older and wider union, the law of Nature and rectitude.
Massachusetts is as strong as the Universe, when it does that. We
will never intermeddle with your slavery,—but you can in no wise be
suffered to bring it to Cape Cod and Berkshire. This law must be
made inoperative. It must be abrogated and wiped out of the statute-
book; but whilst it stands there, it must be disobeyed. We must make
a small state great, by making every man in it true. It was the praise
of Athens, “She could not lead countless armies into the field, but
she knew how with a little band to defeat those who could.” Every
Roman reckoned himself at least a match for a Province. Every
Dorian did. Every Englishman in Australia, in South Africa, in India,
or in whatever barbarous country their forts and factories have been
set up,—represents London, represents the art, power and law of
Europe. Every man educated at the Northern school carries the like
advantages into the South. For it is confounding distinctions to speak
of the geographic sections of this country as of equal civilization.
Every nation and every man bows, in spite of himself, to a higher
mental and moral existence; and the sting of the late disgraces is
that this royal position of Massachusetts was foully lost, that the well-
known sentiment of her people was not expressed. Let us correct
this error. In this one fastness let truth be spoken and right done.
Here let there be no confusion in our ideas. Let us not lie, not steal,
nor help to steal, and let us not call stealing by any fine name, such
as “Union” or “Patriotism.” Let us know that not by the public, but by
ourselves, our safety must be bought. That is the secret of Southern
power, that they rest not on meetings, but on private heats and
courages.
It is very certain from the perfect guaranties in the constitution, and
the high arguments of the defenders of liberty, which the occasion
called out, that there is sufficient margin in the statute and the law for
the spirit of the Magistrate to show itself, and one, two, three
occasions have just now occurred, and past, in either of which, if one
man had felt the spirit of Coke or Mansfield or Parsons, and read the
law with the eye of freedom, the dishonor of Massachusetts had
been prevented, and a limit set to these encroachments forever.
 VII
THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW

LECTURE READ IN THE TABERNACLE, NEW

YORK CITY MARCH 7, 1854, ON THE FOURTH
ANNIVERSARY OF DANIEL WEBSTER’S SPEECH
IN FAVOR OF THE BILL

“Of all we loved and honored, naught

Save power remains,—
A fallen angel’s pride of thought,
Still strong in chains.

All else is gone; from those great eyes

The soul has fled:
When faith is lost, when honor dies,
The man is dead!”

Whittier, Ichabod!

“We that had loved him so, followed him, honoured him,
Lived in his mild and magnificent eye,
Learned his great language, caught his clear accents,
Made him our pattern to live and to die!
Shakspeare was of us, Milton was for us,
Burns, Shelley, were with us,—they watch from their graves!
He alone breaks from the van and the freemen,
—He alone sinks to the rear and the slaves!”

Browning, The Lost Leader.

 THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW
I do not often speak to public questions;—they are odious and
hurtful, and it seems like meddling or leaving your work. I have my
own spirits in prison;—spirits in deeper prisons, whom no man visits
if I do not. And then I see what havoc it makes with any good mind, a
dissipated philanthropy. The one thing not to be forgiven to
intellectual persons is, not to know their own task, or to take their
ideas from others. From this want of manly rest in their own and rash
acceptance of other people’s watchwords come the imbecility and
fatigue of their conversation. For they cannot affirm these from any
original experience, and of course not with the natural movement
and total strength of their nature and talent, but only from their
memory, only from their cramped position of standing for their
teacher. They say what they would have you believe, but what they
do not quite know.[135]
My own habitual view is to the well-being of students or scholars.
And it is only when the public event affects them, that it very
seriously touches me. And what I have to say is to them. For every
man speaks mainly to a class whom he works with and more or less
fully represents. It is to these I am beforehand related and engaged,
in this audience or out of it—to them and not to others. And yet,
when I say the class of scholars or students,—that is a class which
comprises in some sort all mankind, comprises every man in the
best hours of his life; and in these days not only virtually but actually.
For who are the readers and thinkers of 1854? Owing to the silent
revolution which the newspaper has wrought, this class has come in
this country to take in all classes. Look into the morning trains which,
from every suburb, carry the business men into the city to their
shops, counting-rooms, work-yards and warehouses. With them
enters the car—the newsboy, that humble priest of politics, finance,
philosophy, and religion. He unfolds his magical sheets,—twopence
a head his bread of knowledge costs—and instantly the entire
rectangular assembly, fresh from their breakfast, are bending as one
man to their second breakfast. There is, no doubt, chaff enough in
what he brings; but there is fact, thought, and wisdom in the crude
mass, from all regions of the world.
I have lived all my life without suffering any known inconvenience
from American Slavery. I never saw it; I never heard the whip;[136] I
never felt the check on my free speech and action, until, the other
day, when Mr. Webster, by his personal influence, brought the
Fugitive Slave Law on the country. I say Mr. Webster, for though the
Bill was not his, it is yet notorious that he was the life and soul of it,
that he gave it all he had: it cost him his life, and under the shadow
of his great name inferior men sheltered themselves, threw their
ballots for it and made the law. I say inferior men. There were all
sorts of what are called brilliant men, accomplished men, men of
high station, a President of the United States, Senators, men of
eloquent speech, but men without self-respect, without character,
and it was strange to see that office, age, fame, talent, even a repute
for honesty, all count for nothing. They had no opinions, they had no
memory for what they had been saying like the Lord’s Prayer all their
lifetime: they were only looking to what their great Captain did: if he
jumped, they jumped, if he stood on his head, they did. In ordinary,
the supposed sense of their district and State is their guide, and that
holds them to the part of liberty and justice. But it is always a little
difficult to decipher what this public sense is; and when a great man
comes who knots up into himself the opinions and wishes of the
people, it is so much easier to follow him as an exponent of this. He
too is responsible; they will not be. It will always suffice to say,—“I
followed him.”
I saw plainly that the great show their legitimate power in nothing
more than in their power to misguide us. I saw that a great man,
deservedly admired for his powers and their general right direction,
was able,—fault of the total want of stamina in public men,—when
he failed, to break them all with him, to carry parties with him.
In what I have to say of Mr. Webster I do not confound him with
vulgar politicians before or since. There is always base ambition
enough, men who calculate on the immense ignorance of the
masses; that is their quarry and farm: they use the constituencies at
home only for their shoes. And, of course, they can drive out from
the contest any honorable man. The low can best win the low, and all
men like to be made much of. There are those too who have power
and inspiration only to do ill. Their talent or their faculty deserts them
when they undertake anything right. Mr. Webster had a natural
ascendancy of aspect and carriage which distinguished him over all
his contemporaries. His countenance, his figure, and his manners
were all in so grand a style, that he was, without effort, as superior to
his most eminent rivals as they were to the humblest; so that his
arrival in any place was an event which drew crowds of people, who
went to satisfy their eyes, and could not see him enough. I think they
looked at him as the representative of the American Continent. He
was there in his Adamitic capacity, as if he alone of all men did not
disappoint the eye and the ear, but was a fit figure in the landscape.
[137]

I remember his appearance at Bunker’s Hill. There was the

Monument, and here was Webster. He knew well that a little more or
less of rhetoric signified nothing: he was only to say plain and equal
things,—grand things if he had them, and, if he had them not, only to
abstain from saying unfit things,—and the whole occasion was
answered by his presence. It was a place for behavior more than for
speech, and Mr. Webster walked through his part with entire
success. His excellent organization, the perfection of his elocution
and all that thereto belongs,—voice, accent, intonation, attitude,
manner,—we shall not soon find again. Then he was so thoroughly
simple and wise in his rhetoric; he saw through his matter, hugged
his fact so close, went to the principle or essential, and never
indulged in a weak flourish, though he knew perfectly well how to
make such exordiums, episodes and perorations as might give
perspective to his harangues without in the least embarrassing his
march or confounding his transitions. In his statement things lay in
daylight; we saw them in order as they were. Though he knew very
well how to present his own personal claims, yet in his argument he
was intellectual,—stated his fact pure of all personality, so that his
splendid wrath, when his eyes became lamps, was the wrath of the
fact and the cause he stood for.
 His power, like that of all great masters, was not in excellent parts,
but was total. He had a great and everywhere equal propriety. He
worked with that closeness of adhesion to the matter in hand which a
joiner or a chemist uses, and the same quiet and sure feeling of right
to his place that an oak or a mountain have to theirs. After all his
talents have been described, there remains that perfect propriety
which animated all the details of the action or speech with the
character of the whole, so that his beauties of detail are endless. He
seemed born for the bar, born for the senate, and took very naturally
a leading part in large private and in public affairs; for his head
distributed things in their right places, and what he saw so well he
compelled other people to see also. Great is the privilege of
eloquence. What gratitude does every man feel to him who speaks
well for the right,—who translates truth into language entirely plain
and clear!
The history of this country has given a disastrous importance to
the defects of this great man’s mind. Whether evil influences and the
corruption of politics, or whether original infirmity, it was the
misfortune of his country that with this large understanding he had
not what is better than intellect, and the source of its health. It is a
law of our nature that great thoughts come from the heart. If his
moral sensibility had been proportioned to the force of his
understanding, what limits could have been set to his genius and
beneficent power? But he wanted that deep source of inspiration.
Hence a sterility of thought, the want of generalization in his
speeches, and the curious fact that, with a general ability which
impresses all the world, there is not a single general remark, not an
observation on life and manners, not an aphorism that can pass into
literature from his writings.
Four years ago to-night, on one of those high critical moments in
history when great issues are determined, when the powers of right
and wrong are mustered for conflict, and it lies with one man to give
a casting vote,—Mr. Webster, most unexpectedly, threw his whole
weight on the side of Slavery, and caused by his personal and official
authority the passage of the Fugitive Slave Bill.
 It is remarked of the Americans that they value dexterity too much,
and honor too little; that they think they praise a man more by saying
that he is “smart” than by saying that he is right. Whether the defect
be national or not, it is the defect and calamity of Mr. Webster; and it
is so far true of his countrymen, namely, that the appeal is sure to be
made to his physical and mental ability when his character is
assailed. His speeches on the seventh of March, and at Albany, at
Buffalo, at Syracuse and Boston are cited in justification. And Mr.
Webster’s literary editor believes that it was his wish to rest his fame
on the speech of the seventh of March. Now, though I have my own
opinions on this seventh of March discourse and those others, and
think them very transparent and very open to criticism,—yet the
secondary merits of a speech, namely, its logic, its illustrations, its
points, etc., are not here in question. Nobody doubts that Daniel
Webster could make a good speech. Nobody doubts that there were
good and plausible things to be said on the part of the South. But
this is not a question of ingenuity, not a question of syllogisms, but of
sides. How came he there?[138]
There are always texts and thoughts and arguments. But it is the
genius and temper of the man which decides whether he will stand
for right or for might. Who doubts the power of any fluent debater to
defend either of our political parties, or any client in our courts?
There was the same law in England for Jeffries and Talbot and Yorke
to read slavery out of, and for Lord Mansfield to read freedom. And
in this country one sees that there is always margin enough in the
statute for a liberal judge to read one way and a servile judge
another.
But the question which History will ask is broader. In the final hour,
when he was forced by the peremptory necessity of the closing
armies to take a side,—did he take the part of great principles, the
side of humanity and justice, or the side of abuse and oppression
and chaos?
Mr. Webster decided for Slavery, and that, when the aspect of the
institution was no longer doubtful, no longer feeble and apologetic
and proposing soon to end itself, but when it was strong, aggressive,
and threatening an illimitable increase. He listened to State reasons
and hopes, and left, with much complacency we are told, the
testament of his speech to the astonished State of Massachusetts,
vera pro gratis; a ghastly result of all those years of experience in
affairs, this, that there was nothing better for the foremost American
man to tell his countrymen than that Slavery was now at that
strength that they must beat down their conscience and become
kidnappers for it.
This was like the doleful speech falsely ascribed to the patriot
Brutus: “Virtue, I have followed thee through life, and I find thee but a
shadow.”[139] Here was a question of an immoral law; a question
agitated for ages, and settled always in the same way by every great
jurist, that an immoral law cannot be valid. Cicero, Grotius, Coke,
Blackstone, Burlamaqui, Vattel, Burke, Jefferson, do all affirm this,
and I cite them, not that they can give evidence to what is
indisputable, but because, though lawyers and practical statesmen,
the habit of their profession did not hide from them that this truth was
the foundation of States.
Here was the question, Are you for man and for the good of man;
or are you for the hurt and harm of man? It was the question whether
man shall be treated as leather? whether the Negro shall be, as the
Indians were in Spanish America, a piece of money? Whether this
system, which is a kind of mill or factory for converting men into
monkeys, shall be upheld and enlarged? And Mr. Webster and the
country went for the application to these poor men of quadruped law.
People were expecting a totally different course from Mr. Webster.
If any man had in that hour possessed the weight with the country
which he had acquired, he could have brought the whole country to
its senses. But not a moment’s pause was allowed. Angry parties
went from bad to worse, and the decision of Webster was
accompanied with everything offensive to freedom and good morals.
There was something like an attempt to debauch the moral
sentiment of the clergy and of the youth. Burke said he “would
pardon something to the spirit of liberty.” But by Mr. Webster the
opposition to the law was sharply called treason, and prosecuted so.
He told the people at Boston “they must conquer their prejudices;”
that “agitation of the subject of Slavery must be suppressed.” He did
as immoral men usually do, made very low bows to the Christian
Church, and went through all the Sunday decorums; but when
allusion was made to the question of duty and the sanctions of
morality, he very frankly said, at Albany, “Some higher law,
something existing somewhere between here and the third heaven,
—I do not know where.” And if the reporters say true, this wretched
atheism found some laughter in the company.
I said I had never in my life up to this time suffered from the Slave
Institution. Slavery in Virginia or Carolina was like Slavery in Africa or
the Feejees, for me. There was an old fugitive law, but it had
become, or was fast becoming, a dead letter, and, by the genius and
laws of Massachusetts, inoperative. The new Bill made it operative,
required me to hunt slaves, and it found citizens in Massachusetts
willing to act as judges and captors. Moreover, it discloses the secret
of the new times, that Slavery was no longer mendicant, but was
become aggressive and dangerous.
The way in which the country was dragged to consent to this, and
the disastrous defection (on the miserable cry of Union) of the men
of letters, of the colleges, of educated men, nay, of some preachers
of religion,—was the darkest passage in the history. It showed that
our prosperity had hurt us, and that we could not be shocked by
crime. It showed that the old religion and the sense of the right had
faded and gone out; that while we reckoned ourselves a highly
cultivated nation, our bellies had run away with our brains, and the
principles of culture and progress did not exist.
For I suppose that liberty is an accurate index, in men and nations,
of general progress. The theory of personal liberty must always
appeal to the most refined communities and to the men of the rarest
perception and of delicate moral sense. For there are rights which
rest on the finest sense of justice, and, with every degree of civility, it
will be more truly felt and defined. A barbarous tribe of good stock
will, by means of their best heads, secure substantial liberty. But
where there is any weakness in a race, and it becomes in a degree
matter of concession and protection from their stronger neighbors,
the incompatibility and offensiveness of the wrong will of course be
most evident to the most cultivated. For it is,—is it not?—the
essence of courtesy, of politeness, of religion, of love, to prefer
another, to postpone oneself, to protect another from oneself. That is
the distinction of the gentleman, to defend the weak and redress the
injured, as it is of the savage and the brutal to usurp and use others.
In Massachusetts, as we all know, there has always existed a
predominant conservative spirit. We have more money and value of
every kind than other people, and wish to keep them. The plea on
which freedom was resisted was Union. I went to certain serious
men, who had a little more reason than the rest, and inquired why
they took this part? They answered that they had no confidence in
their strength to resist the Democratic party; that they saw plainly
that all was going to the utmost verge of licence; each was vying with
his neighbor to lead the party, by proposing the worst measure, and
they threw themselves on the extreme conservatism, as a drag on
the wheel: that they knew Cuba would be had, and Mexico would be
had, and they stood stiffly on conservatism, and as near to monarchy
as they could, only to moderate the velocity with which the car was
running down the precipice. In short, their theory was despair; the
Whig wisdom was only reprieve, a waiting to be last devoured. They
side with Carolina, or with Arkansas, only to make a show of Whig
strength, wherewith to resist a little longer this general ruin.
I have a respect for conservatism. I know how deeply founded it is
in our nature, and how idle are all attempts to shake ourselves free
from it. We are all conservatives, half Whig, half Democrat, in our
essences: and might as well try to jump out of our skins as to escape
from our Whiggery. There are two forces in Nature, by whose
antagonism we exist; the power of Fate, Fortune, the laws of the
world, the order of things, or however else we choose to phrase it,
the material necessities, on the one hand,—and Will or Duty or
Freedom on the other.
May and Must, and the sense of right and duty, on the one hand,
and the material necessities on the other: May and Must. In vulgar
politics the Whig goes for what has been, for the old necessities,—
the Musts. The reformer goes for the Better, for the ideal good, for
the Mays. But each of these parties must of necessity take in, in
some measure, the principles of the other. Each wishes to cover the
whole ground; to hold fast and to advance. Only, one lays the
emphasis on keeping, and the other on advancing. I too think the
musts are a safe company to follow, and even agreeable. But if we
are Whigs, let us be Whigs of nature and science, and so for all the
necessities. Let us know that, over and above all the musts of
poverty and appetite, is the instinct of man to rise, and the instinct to
love and help his brother.
Now, Gentlemen, I think we have in this hour instruction again in
the simplest lesson. Events roll, millions of men are engaged, and
the result is the enforcing of some of those first commandments
which we heard in the nursery. We never get beyond our first lesson,
for, really, the world exists, as I understand it, to teach the science of
liberty, which begins with liberty from fear.
The events of this month are teaching one thing plain and clear,
the worthlessness of good tools to bad workmen; that official papers
are of no use; resolutions of public meetings, platforms of
conventions, no, nor laws, nor constitutions, any more. These are all
declaratory of the will of the moment, and are passed with more
levity and on grounds far less honorable than ordinary business
transactions of the street.
You relied on the constitution. It has not the word slave in it; and
very good argument has shown that it would not warrant the crimes
that are done under it; that, with provisions so vague for an object
not named, and which could not be availed of to claim a barrel of
sugar or a barrel of corn, the robbing of a man and of all his posterity
is effected. You relied on the Supreme Court. The law was right,
excellent law for the lambs. But what if unhappily the judges were
chosen from the wolves, and give to all the law a wolfish
interpretation? You relied on the Missouri Compromise. That is
ridden over. You relied on State sovereignty in the Free States to
protect their citizens. They are driven with contempt out of the courts
and out of the territory of the Slave States,—if they are so happy as
to get out with their lives,[140]—and now you relied on these dismal
guaranties infamously made in 1850; and, before the body of
Webster is yet crumbled, it is found that they have crumbled. This
eternal monument of his fame and of the Union is rotten in four
years. They are no guaranty to the free states. They are a guaranty
to the slave states that, as they have hitherto met with no repulse,
they shall meet with none.
I fear there is no reliance to be put on any kind or form of
covenant, no, not on sacred forms, none on churches, none on
bibles. For one would have said that a Christian would not keep
slaves;—but the Christians keep slaves. Of course they will not dare
to read the Bible? Won’t they? They quote the Bible, quote Paul,[141]
quote Christ, to justify slavery. If slavery is good, then is lying, theft,
arson, homicide, each and all good, and to be maintained by Union
societies.
These things show that no forms, neither constitutions, nor laws,
nor covenants, nor churches, nor bibles, are of any use in
themselves. The Devil nestles comfortably into them all. There is no
help but in the head and heart and hamstrings of a man. Covenants
are of no use without honest men to keep them; laws of none but
with loyal citizens to obey them. To interpret Christ it needs Christ in
the heart. The teachings of the Spirit can be apprehended only by
the same spirit that gave them forth. To make good the cause of
Freedom, you must draw off from all foolish trust in others. You must
be citadels and warriors yourselves, declarations of Independence,
the charter, the battle and the victory. Cromwell said, “We can only
resist the superior training of the King’s soldiers, by enlisting godly
men.” And no man has a right to hope that the laws of New York will
defend him from the contamination of slaves another day until he
has made up his mind that he will not owe his protection to the laws
of New York, but to his own sense and spirit. Then he protects New
York. He only who is able to stand alone is qualified for society. And
that I understand to be the end for which a soul exists in this world,—
to be himself the counterbalance of all falsehood and all wrong. “The
army of unright is encamped from pole to pole, but the road of victory
is known to the just.” Everything may be taken away; he may be
poor, he may be houseless, yet he will know out of his arms to make
a pillow, and out of his breast a bolster. Why have the minority no
influence? Because they have not a real minority of one.[142]
 I conceive that thus to detach a man and make him feel that he is
to owe all to himself, is the way to make him strong and rich; and
here the optimist must find, if anywhere, the benefit of Slavery. We
have many teachers; we are in this world for culture, to be instructed
in realities, in the laws of moral and intelligent nature; and our
education is not conducted by toys and luxuries, but by austere and
rugged masters, by poverty, solitude, passions, War, Slavery; to
know that Paradise is under the shadow of swords;[143] that divine
sentiments which are always soliciting us are breathed into us from
on high, and are an offset to a Universe of suffering and crime; that
self-reliance, the height and perfection of man, is reliance on God.
[144] The insight of the religious sentiment will disclose to him
unexpected aids in the nature of things. The Persian Saadi said,
“Beware of hurting the orphan. When the orphan sets a-crying, the
throne of the Almighty is rocked from side to side.”
Whenever a man has come to this mind, that there is no Church
for him but his believing prayer; no Constitution but his dealing well
and justly with his neighbor; no liberty but his invincible will to do
right,—then certain aids and allies will promptly appear: for the
constitution of the Universe is on his side. It is of no use to vote
down gravitation of morals. What is useful will last, whilst that which
is hurtful to the world will sink beneath all the opposing forces which
it must exasperate. The terror which the Marseillaise struck into
oppression, it thunders again to-day,—

“Tout est soldat pour vous combattre.”

Everything turns soldier to fight you down. The end for which man
was made is not crime in any form, and a man cannot steal without
incurring the penalties of the thief, though all the legislatures vote
that it is virtuous, and though there be a general conspiracy among
scholars and official persons to hold him up, and to say, “Nothing is
good but stealing.” A man who commits a crime defeats the end of
his existence. He was created for benefit, and he exists for harm;
and as well-doing makes power and wisdom, ill-doing takes them
away. A man who steals another man’s labor steals away his own
faculties; his integrity, his humanity is flowing away from him. The
habit of oppression cuts out the moral eyes, and, though the intellect
goes on simulating the moral as before, its sanity is gradually
destroyed. It takes away the presentiments.
I suppose in general this is allowed, that if you have a nice
question of right and wrong, you would not go with it to Louis
Napoleon, or to a political hack, or to a slave-driver. The habit of
mind of traders in power would not be esteemed favorable to
delicate moral perception. American slavery affords no exception to
this rule. No excess of good nature or of tenderness in individuals
has been able to give a new character to the system, to tear down
the whipping-house. The plea in the mouth of a slave-holder that the
negro is an inferior race sounds very oddly in my ear. “The masters
of slaves seem generally anxious to prove that they are not of a race
superior in any noble quality to the meanest of their bondmen.” And
indeed when the Southerner points to the anatomy of the negro, and
talks of chimpanzee,—I recall Montesquieu’s remark, “It will not do to
say that negroes are men, lest it should turn out that whites are not.”
Slavery is disheartening; but Nature is not so helpless but it can rid
itself at last of every wrong.[145] But the spasms of Nature are
centuries and ages, and will tax the faith of short-lived men. Slowly,
slowly the Avenger comes, but comes surely. The proverbs of the
nations affirm these delays, but affirm the arrival. They say, “God
may consent, but not forever.” The delay of the Divine Justice—this
was the meaning and soul of the Greek Tragedy; this the soul of their
religion. “There has come, too, one to whom lurking warfare is dear,
Retribution, with a soul full of wiles; a violator of hospitality; guileful
without the guilt of guile; limping, late in her arrival.” They said of the
happiness of the unjust, that “at its close it begets itself an offspring
and does not die childless, and instead of good fortune, there
sprouts forth for posterity ever-ravening calamity:”—

“For evil word shall evil word be said,

For murder-stroke a murder-stroke be paid.
Who smites must smart.”
 These delays, you see them now in the temper of the times. The
national spirit in this country is so drowsy, preoccupied with interest,
deaf to principle. The Anglo-Saxon race is proud and strong and
selfish. They believe only in Anglo-Saxons. In 1825 Greece found
America deaf, Poland found America deaf, Italy and Hungary found
her deaf. England maintains trade, not liberty; stands against
Greece; against Hungary; against Schleswig-Holstein; against the
French Republic whilst it was a republic.
To faint hearts the times offer no invitation, and torpor exists here
throughout the active classes on the subject of domestic slavery and
its appalling aggressions. Yes, that is the stern edict of Providence,
that liberty shall be no hasty fruit, but that event on event, population
on population, age on age, shall cast itself into the opposite scale,
and not until liberty has slowly accumulated weight enough to
countervail and preponderate against all this, can the sufficient recoil
come. All the great cities, all the refined circles, all the statesmen,
Guizot, Palmerston, Webster, Calhoun, are sure to be found
befriending liberty with their words, and crushing it with their votes.
Liberty is never cheap. It is made difficult, because freedom is the
accomplishment and perfectness of man. He is a finished man;[146]
earning and bestowing good; equal to the world; at home in Nature
and dignifying that; the sun does not see anything nobler, and has
nothing to teach him. Therefore mountains of difficulty must be
surmounted, stern trials met, wiles of seduction, dangers, healed by
a quarantine of calamities to measure his strength before he dare
say, I am free.
Whilst the inconsistency of slavery with the principles on which the
world is built guarantees its downfall, I own that the patience it
requires is almost too sublime for mortals, and seems to demand of
us more than mere hoping. And when one sees how fast the rot
spreads,—it is growing serious,—I think we demand of superior men
that they be superior in this,—that the mind and the virtue shall give
their verdict in their day, and accelerate so far the progress of
civilization. Possession is sure to throw its stupid strength for existing
power, and appetite and ambition will go for that. Let the aid of virtue,
intelligence and education be cast where they rightfully belong. They
are organically ours. Let them be loyal to their own. I wish to see the
instructed class here know their own flag, and not fire on their
comrades. We should not forgive the clergy for taking on every issue
the immoral side; nor the Bench, if it put itself on the side of the
culprit; nor the Government, if it sustain the mob against the laws.
[147]

It is a potent support and ally to a brave man standing single, or

with a few, for the right, and out-voted and ostracized, to know that
better men in other parts of the country appreciate the service and
will rightly report him to his own and the next age. Without this
assurance, he will sooner sink. He may well say, ‘If my countrymen
do not care to be defended, I too will decline the controversy, from
which I only reap invectives and hatred.’ Yet the lovers of liberty may
with reason tax the coldness and indifferentism of scholars and
literary men. They are lovers of liberty in Greece and Rome and in
the English Commonwealth, but they are lukewarm lovers of the
liberty of America in 1854. The universities are not, as in Hobbes’s
time, “the core of rebellion,” no, but the seat of inertness. They have
forgotten their allegiance to the Muse, and grown worldly and
political. I listened, lately, on one of those occasions when the
university chooses one of its distinguished sons returning from the
political arena, believing that senators and statesmen would be glad
to throw off the harness and to dip again in the Castalian pools. But if
audiences forget themselves, statesmen do not. The low bows to all
the crockery gods of the day were duly made:—only in one part of
the discourse the orator allowed to transpire, rather against his will, a
little sober sense.[148] It was this: ‘I am, as you see, a man virtuously
inclined, and only corrupted by my profession of politics. I should
prefer the right side. You, gentlemen of these literary and scientific
schools, and the important class you represent, have the power to
make your verdict clear and prevailing. Had you done so, you would
have found me its glad organ and champion. Abstractly, I should
have preferred that side. But you have not done it. You have not
spoken out. You have failed to arm me. I can only deal with masses
as I find them. Abstractions are not for me. I go then for such parties
and opinions as have provided me with a working apparatus. I give
you my word, not without regret, that I was first for you; and though I
am now to deny and condemn you, you see it is not my will but the
party necessity.’ Having made this manifesto and professed his
adoration for liberty in the time of his grandfathers, he proceeded
with his work of denouncing freedom and freemen at the present
day, much in the tone and spirit in which Lord Bacon prosecuted his
benefactor Essex. He denounced every name and aspect under
which liberty and progress dare show themselves in this age and
country, but with a lingering conscience which qualified each
sentence with a recommendation to mercy.
But I put it to every noble and generous spirit, to every poetic,
every heroic, every religious heart, that not so is our learning, our
education, our poetry, our worship to be declared. Liberty is
aggressive, Liberty is the Crusade of all brave and conscientious
men, the Epic Poetry, the new religion, the chivalry of all gentlemen.
This is the oppressed Lady whom true knights on their oath and
honor must rescue and save.
Now at last we are disenchanted and shall have no more false
hopes. I respect the Anti-Slavery Society. It is the Cassandra that
has foretold all that has befallen, fact for fact, years ago; foretold all,
and no man laid it to heart. It seemed, as the Turks say, “Fate makes
that a man should not believe his own eyes.” But the Fugitive Law
did much to unglue the eyes of men, and now the Nebraska Bill
leaves us staring. The Anti-Slavery Society will add many members
this year. The Whig Party will join it; the Democrats will join it. The
population of the free states will join it. I doubt not, at last, the slave
states will join it. But be that sooner or later, and whoever comes or
stays away, I hope we have reached the end of our unbelief, have
come to a belief that there is a divine Providence in the world, which
will not save us but through our own coöperation.
 VIII
THE ASSAULT UPON MR. SUMNER

SPEECH AT A MEETING OF THE CITIZENS IN

THE TOWN HALL, IN CONCORD, MAY 26, 1856

His erring foe,

Self-assured that he prevails,
Looks from his victim lying low,
And sees aloft the red right arm
Redress the eternal scales.

THE ASSAULT UPON MR. SUMNER

Mr. Chairman: I sympathize heartily with the spirit of the
resolutions. The events of the last few years and months and days
have taught us the lessons of centuries. I do not see how a
barbarous community and a civilized community can constitute one
state. I think we must get rid of slavery, or we must get rid of
freedom. Life has not parity of value in the free state and in the slave
state. In one, it is adorned with education, with skilful labor, with arts,
with long prospective interests, with sacred family ties, with honor
and justice. In the other, life is a fever; man is an animal, given to
pleasure, frivolous, irritable, spending his days in hunting and
practising with deadly weapons to defend himself against his slaves
and against his companions brought up in the same idle and
dangerous way. Such people live for the moment, they have properly
no future, and readily risk on every passion a life which is of small
value to themselves or to others. Many years ago, when Mr. Webster
was challenged in Washington to a duel by one of these madcaps,
his friends came forward with prompt good sense and said such a
thing was not to be thought of; Mr. Webster’s life was the property of
his friends and of the whole country, and was not to be risked on the
turn of a vagabond’s ball. Life and life are incommensurate. The
whole state of South Carolina does not now offer one or any number
of persons who are to be weighed for a moment in the scale with
such a person as the meanest of them all has now struck down. The
very conditions of the game must always be,—the worst life staked
against the best. It is the best whom they desire to kill. It is only
when they cannot answer your reasons, that they wish to knock you
down. If, therefore, Massachusetts could send to the Senate a better
man than Mr. Sumner, his death would be only so much the more
quick and certain. Now, as men’s bodily strength, or skill with knives
and guns, is not usually in proportion to their knowledge and mother-
wit, but oftener in the inverse ratio, it will only do to send foolish
persons to Washington, if you wish them to be safe.
The outrage is the more shocking from the singularly pure
character of its victim. Mr. Sumner’s position is exceptional in its
honor. He had not taken his degrees in the caucus and in hack
politics. It is notorious that, in the long time when his election was
pending, he refused to take a single step to secure it. He would not
so much as go up to the state house to shake hands with this or that
person whose good will was reckoned important by his friends. He
was elected. It was a homage to character and talent. In Congress,
he did not rush into party position. He sat long silent and studious.
His friends, I remember, were told that they would find Sumner a
man of the world like the rest; ‘’tis quite impossible to be at
Washington and not bend; he will bend as the rest have done.’ Well,
he did not bend. He took his position and kept it. He meekly bore the
cold shoulder from some of his New England colleagues, the hatred
of his enemies, the pity of the indifferent, cheered by the love and
respect of good men with whom he acted; and has stood for the
North, a little in advance of all the North, and therefore without
adequate support. He has never faltered in his maintenance of
justice and freedom. He has gone beyond the large expectation of