6.

1 Electromagnetic Energy
CHEM 130 1. Explain the basic behavior of waves, including travelling
waves and standing waves

Ch. 6 2. Describe the wave nature of light

Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of 3. Use appropriate equations to calculate related light-wave
Elements properties such as frequency, wavelength, and energy

4. Distinguish between line and continuous emission spectra

5. Describe the particle nature of light

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Wave Electromagnetic (light) wave

Examples of waves:

Shaking the end of a rope

Dropping a pebble into a pond.
The expansion of air that accompanies a lightning
strike.

Kinetic energy is transferred through matter (the

rope, water, or air) while the matter remains Travels through vacuum at a constant speed
essentially in place. c = 2.998 × 108 m/s

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Wave Metrics Visual Representation of Waves

Wavelength ( )

Frequency ( )

Amplitude

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 Example: converting light metrics
A green apple reflects light that has a wavelength of 540 nm (1 nm = 1 × 10
m). What is the frequency of this light?

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Wave Interference Standing Waves (Guitar/violin string)

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Standing Waves Standing Waves

Standing waves (stationary waves) remain 1-D standing waves

constrained within some region of space. nodes are points on the line.

Only those waves having an integer number, n, of 2-D standing waves

half-wavelengths between the end points can nodes are lines on the surface.
form.

This is an example of quantization.

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 2-D Standing Wave Electrons behavior
radial nodes (circles) and angular nodes (lines).
Sometimes electrons behave as waves
Diffraction and interference

Sometimes electrons behave as particles

Have momentum
Electrons ejected like particles

Wave-particle duality

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https://youtu.be/wvJAgrUBF4w

Three problems 1. Emission Line Spectra

1. Emission line spectra When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are

heated, they radiate some of the excess energy as
2. Blackbody radiation light.

3. Photoelectric effect Each element displays its own characteristic set

of lines

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1. Emission Line Spectra 1. Line Spectra

Johann Balmer (1885) derived an equation to

describe line spectra for hydrogen.

Later utilized and modified by:

Johannes Rydberg (1888)
Niels Bohr (1913)

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 2. Blackbody Radiation 2. Blackbody Radiation

Heat a metal and it emits light Classical physics could not describe (ultraviolet
catastrophe)

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http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2015/08/03/red-hot-nickel-balls/#.XY0MRGZOloU

2. Blackbody Radiation 3. The Photoelectric Effect

electrons could be ejected from the surface of a

metal.
Assume that the vibrating atoms required The light had to have a frequency greater than some
quantized energies threshold frequency.
The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons changed
with frequency of the light, not brightness.
E = n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

The quantity h is Planck's constant.

h = 6.626 × 10

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3. The Photoelectric Effect Example: light and energy

What is the energy of photons from source that emits light with a wavelength
of 630 nm?
Einstein (1905)
Light is quantized in energy packets
The energy of each light packet or photon is

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 Neils Bohr (1913)
6.2 Bohr Model
To describe the interaction of light with electrons
in matter Bohr combined:
1. Describe the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom

2. Use the Rydberg equation to calculate energies of

light emitted or absorbed by hydrogen atoms whose energy is proportional to their
frequency

classical physics.

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The light absorbed or emitted would reflect

differences in the orbital energies of an electron

Or

Ei : initial electron energy

Ef : final electron energy.

Bohr assumed only certain values for the energy n: orbital number
difference ( E) were possible. As per Planck.
k: 2.179 × 10 18 J
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Exciting Hydrogen atoms electrons

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Example: Bohr model
What is the energy (in joules) and the wavelength (in meters) of the line in the
spectrum of hydrogen that represents the movement of an electron from Bohr
orbit with n=2 to the orbit with n=5? In what part of the electromagnetic
spectrum do we find this radiation?

Note: Only works for hydrogen

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6.3 Development of Quantum By the 1920s it became increasingly clear that very
Theory small pieces of matter follow a different set of rules

1. Extend the concept of wave particle duality that was

observed in electromagnetic radiation to matter as well The unquestionable separation of waves and
particles was no longer the case for the microscopic
2. Understand the general idea of the quantum mechanical world
description of electrons in an atom, and that it uses the
notion of three-dimensional wave functions, or orbitals,
that define the distribution of probability to find an
electron in a particular part of space

3. List and describe traits of the four quantum numbers that

form the basis for completely specifying the state of an
electron in an atom

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Describing An Electrons Orbit Waves or classical physics to understand reality?

View and electron as a wave De Broglie (1925)

Both are compatible

Integer number of wavelengths must fit into the
orbit for this standing wave.

× 10 34

m: particle mass
v: particle velocity
p: particle momentum

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Electron Diffraction (1927) How accurately can we measure the electron?

Light was known to diffract Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (1927)

Property of waves

believable = uncertainty in the position of the particle

x = uncertainty in the momentum of the
particle in the x-axis.

There is a fundamental limit to what we can know

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How do waves relate to energies? Main idea of the Schrödinger equation

Schrödinger equation (1926)

: Hamiltonian operator, a set of mathematical

operations representing the total energy of the
quantum particle.
: wavefunction of the particle.
E: total energy of the particle.

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Describing the electron Principle quantum number (n)

Four numbers are needed to describe the electron An integer

Larger n means greater energy

n is referred to as the principal quantum number

or shell number.

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Bohr Model Example: electron as a wave and particle
What is the wavelength and velocity of an electron in the n=1 orbit of a
hydrogen atom?

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the shape of the orbital.

1.

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Atomic Orbital Orbital Shapes

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 Magnetic quantum number (m ) Energies of Orbitals

m specifies the orientation of the orbital in space.

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Spin quantum number (ms) Pauli exclusion principle

Electron spin describes an intrinsic electron An electron in an atom is described by four

quantum numbers: n, l, ml, and ms.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

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6.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms

Name Symbol Allowed values Physical meaning
(Electron Configurations)
principal quantum n shell, the general
number region for the value
of energy for an
electron in the 1. Derive the predicted ground-state electron
orbital
configurations of atoms
angular momentum n 1 subshell, the shape
quantum number of the orbital
2. Identify and explain exceptions to predicted
magnetic quantum
number
ml orientation of the
orbital
electron configurations for atoms and ions

spin quantum ms +½ , ½ direction of the

number intrinsic quantum 3. Relate electron configurations to element
classifications in the periodic table
electron

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Orbital and Subshell Energy Electron configuration

An electron configuration consists of symbols

that contain three pieces of information:

1) principal quantum shell, n.

2) the letter that designates the orbital type (l).
3) A superscript number that designates the
number of electrons in that subshell.

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Electron Configuration Aufbau principle

Hydrogen atom

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Diagram for order of filling orbitals Electron configuration using periodic table

The arrow leads through each subshell in the filling

order

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Orbital diagram Orbital diagram with more electrons

Example: two electrons

Example: three electrons

up arrow: electron with ms = + ½.
down arrow: electron with ms = ½.

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Orbital diagram with more electrons Orbital diagram with more electrons
Example: six electrons
Example: five electrons

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Hunds Rule Valence and Core Electrons

Valence electrons

Core electrons

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Example: Core and valence electrons Abbreviated electron configurations

emphasizes the similarity of the configurations of

the same group

Group 1:
Li: [He]2s1
Na: [Ne]3s1
K: [Ar] 4s1

Group 2:
Be: [He]2s2
Mg: [Ne]3s2
Ca: [Ar] 4s2
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Electron Configuration Exceptions Ion Electron Configuration

They exist Cation

Last added electrons are first to be removed
Examples: Cu and Cr
Exception: transition metals lose from
highest n first
Cu:
Expect: [Ar]4s23d9
Actual: [Ar]4s13d10 Anion
Electrons are added according to Aufbau
Cr principle
Expect: [Ar]4s23d4
Actual: [Ar]4s13d5

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Example: Cation electron configuration Example: Anion electron configuration

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6.5 Periodic Variations in Element Covalent radius one-half the distance between the
Properties nuclei of two identical atoms when they are
covalently bond

1. Describe and explain the observed trends in

atomic size, ionization energy, and electron
affinity of the elements

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Covalent radii Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)

Down a group:

The electrons are added to a region of

space that is increasingly farther from
the nucleus.

Across a period:

A stronger pull is experienced by the

outermost electrons, drawing them
closer to the nucleus.
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Example: Lithium Example: Beryllium

Compared to Li there is another electron, but it

does not shield

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 Effective nuclear charge Ionic radius

Core electrons: Cation

Valence electrons:

More valence electrons add little to shielding

Anion
Adding electron to valence shell adds to electron-
electron repulsion

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Isoelectronic Ionization Energy (IE)

Example: Example

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Ionization energy trends Electron Affinity (EA)

Down a group:

Example:
Releases energy
Across a period:

Takes in energy

Successive Ionization Energies for Selected Elements (kJ/mol)

Element IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5 IE6 IE7
K 418.8 3051.8 4419.6 5876.9 7975.5 9590.6 11343
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Electron affinity trends

Down a group

Across a period

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