Displacements and Strains

Referring to the adjacent figure, let PQ be a line within a body with P ≡ ( x , y , z )∧Q ≡( x+ dx , y +dy , z+ dz)
This line after deformation becomes P ' Q' with P ' ≡ ( x , y , z )∧Q ' ≡(x+ d x , y+ d y , z+ d z ).

Now we have ds 2=( PQ )2=dx 2 +dy 2 +dz 2 and d s 2=( P ' Q ' )2=d x 2+ d y2 + d z 2. The difference in coordinates of P
and P’ gives the displacement components of P in the directions of x,y and z axes. These components are u , v∧w
respectively. Hence:
u=x−x , v= y− y ∧w=z−z
∴ x=x+u , y = y+ v∧z =z+ w
∴ d x=dx+ du , d y=dy +d v ∧dz=dz + dw
Then the square of the segment d s is:
2 2 2 2
d s =( dx + du ) + ( dy +dv ) + ( dz +dw )
2 2 2 2 2 2
¿ dx +dy +dz +2 du . dx+ 2 dv . dy +2 dw . dz +du + dv + dw
2 2 2 2
¿ ds + 2 ( du . dx+ dv . dy +dw .dz ) + du + dv + dw
∴ d s 2−ds 2=2 ( du . dx+ dv . dy + dw . dz )+ du2 +dv 2 +dw 2
The displacements u , v∧w depend on the coordinates x,y and z of point P. hence differentiating u , v∧w we get:
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂w
du= dx+ dy+ dz , dv = dx + dy + dz , dw= dx+ dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
The expression for d s 2−ds 2 becomes:

{ [( ) ( ) ( ) ]} { [( ) ( ) ( ) ]}( dy )
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 ∂u 1 ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂v 1 ∂u ∂v ∂w
d s −ds =2 + + + ( dx )2 +2 + + +
2
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y 2 ∂y ∂y ∂y

{ [( ) ( ) ( ) ]} ( )
2 2 2
∂w 1 ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂ u ∂ v ∂ u ∂u ∂ v ∂ v ∂ w ∂ w
+2 + + + ( dz )2 +2 + + + + dxdy
∂z 2 ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂ y ∂x ∂x ∂ y ∂x ∂ y ∂x ∂ y

+2 ( ∂∂ wy + ∂∂ vz + ∂∂uy ∂u∂z + ∂∂ vy ∂∂ vz + ∂∂ wy ∂∂wz ) dydz +2( ∂∂ wx + ∂∂ uz + ∂∂ ux ∂∂ uz + ∂∂ vx ∂∂ vz + ∂∂ wx ∂∂wz ) dxdz

Note that the quantity d s 2−ds 2 shows whether the segment PQ changed in length or not. i.e. whether
deformations occurred at P or not. Moreover the coefficients of ( dx )2, ( dy )2, ( dz )2, dxdy , dydz and dxdz are all
dimensionless quantities. These coefficients are called strains. The left hand side of the above equation may be
written in the form:
2 2 2 2 2
d s −ds =2 ε x ( dx ) +2 ε y ( dy ) +2 ε z ( dz ) + 2 γ xy dxdy +2 γ xz dxdz +2 γ yz dydz
Where:

[( ) ( ) ( ) ] [( ) ( ) ( ) ] [( ) ( ) ( ) ]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
∂u 1 ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂v 1 ∂u ∂v ∂w ∂w 1 ∂u ∂v ∂w
ε x= + + + , ε y= + + + , ε z= + + +
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y 2 ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂z 2 ∂z ∂z ∂z
 ∂u ∂ v ∂ u ∂ u ∂ v ∂ v ∂ w ∂w ∂ w ∂ u ∂u ∂u ∂ v ∂ v ∂ w ∂ w
γ xy = + + + + , γ xz= + + + + ,
∂ y ∂ x ∂x ∂ y ∂ x ∂ y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂ z ∂ x ∂ z ∂ x ∂ z ∂x ∂z
∂w ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w
γ yz = + + + +
∂y ∂z ∂ y ∂z ∂ y ∂z ∂y ∂z

( )
2
∂u
If the displacements u , v∧w are small, then strains will be small. For small displacements, the quantities ,
∂x

( )
2
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
,…, , , … are very small so they may be ignored. In this case, the strain expressions for small
∂x ∂x ∂ y ∂x ∂ y
displacements become:
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂ v ∂u ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v
ε x= , ε y= , ε z= , γ xy = + , γ xz= + , γ yz = +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂ y ∂x ∂ z ∂y ∂z
ε x , ε y and ε z are longitudinal strains while γ xy, γ xz and γ yz are shearing strains.
ε x is the rate of change of u with respect to x-axis
ε y is the rate of change of v with respect to y-axis
ε z is the rate of change of w with respect to z-axis
All these strains define the change in length per unit length of fibers parallel to x,y and z axes.
∂ v ∂u
For the shearing strain γ xy, it is the change in angle BAC in the figure below. i.e. γ xy = + .
∂x ∂ y

Referring to the figure above:

( )
∂u
u+ dy−u
side AC rotates by an angle of −1 ∂y ∂u
tan =
dy ∂y

( )
∂v
v+
dx−v
side AB rotates by an angle of −1 ∂x ∂v
tan =
dx ∂x
∂u ∂ v
hence total change in angle BAC is: +
∂ y ∂x
The six strain components defined above form the state of strain at a point. Since the strains are functions of
displacements, then to get continuous and consistent strains, displacements must be continuous and consistent.
Continuity of displacements means that there should be no gaps or discontinuity. Displacement consistency means
that displacements should be consistent with the boundary conditions. For example at a fixed end, displacement
components u , v∧w should be zero.
There is another important condition for strains at a point, which is compatibility. Take for example the two-
dimensional strains at a point are:
∂u ∂v ∂ v ∂u
ε x= , ε y=, γ xy = +
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂ y
If the displacements u∧v are continuous, the strains evaluated using the above equations are automatically
continuous. On the other hand, if we have the strains and we want to evaluate the displacements, we will have a
problem. This problem is that we have three equations in only two unknowns ¿). We say that the system of equations
is ‘over determined’ which means that there are more than on solution of the equations. Hence there should be
another condition for strains which is “compatibility”. It can be proved that the compatibility condition for the above
2-D strains is:
 2 2 2
∂ ε y ∂ ε x ∂ γ xy
2
+ 2=
∂ x ∂ y ∂ x ∂x
For three-dimensional strains the compatibility conditions are:
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
∂ ε y ∂ ε x ∂ γ xy ∂ ε y ∂ ε z ∂ γ yz ∂ ε z ∂ ε x ∂ γ xz
2
+ 2= , 2
+ 2= , 2
+ 2=
∂ x ∂ y ∂ x ∂x ∂z ∂ y ∂ y∂ z ∂x ∂ z ∂ x∂ z

( ) ( )
2 2
2 ∂ ε x ∂ −∂ γ yz ∂ γ xz ∂ γ xy 2 ∂ ε y ∂ ∂ γ yz ∂ γ xz ∂ γ xy
= + + , = − + ,
∂ y∂ z ∂x ∂ x ∂ y ∂z ∂ z∂ x ∂ y ∂ x ∂ y ∂z

( )
2
2∂ ε z ∂ ∂ γ yz ∂ γ xz ∂ γ xy
= + −
∂ x∂ y ∂z ∂ x ∂ y ∂z
If these compatibility conditions are satisfied, the strain expressions can be treated as six equations that can be
solved for the displacements u , v∧w .

Transformation of plane strains:

If we have the state of strain ε x , ε y and γ xy, related to Cartesian axes x and y, then we can transfer this state to any
other Cartesian axes x' and y'. Considering line AB in the following figure which upon straining changes to line A'B'

The line AB is parallel to axis x' and we want to develop the relation between the extensional strain ε x ' in the
direction of x'-axis and the strains ε x , ε y and γ xywhich are related to the x and y axes. From the above figure, it can
be seen that the elongation of the line AB is EB' which makes an angle α with AB (or x'-axis). The component of EB' in
x'-direction is EB ' cosα . From detail A in the figure, it can be seen that:
' '
E B cosα=du . cosθ+ dv . sinθ , but for small angle α we have cosα ≈ 1, hence E B =du . cosθ+ dv . sinθ.
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
But we have du= dx+ dy and dv = dx + dy . Dividing by ds we get:
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

( ) ( )
'
EB ∂u dx ∂ u dy ∂ v dx ∂ v dy
= + cosθ + + sinθ
ds ∂ x ds ∂ y ds ∂ x ds ∂ y ds
'
dx cosθ∧dy
Hence, noting that = =sinθ the extensional strain ε x ' = E B is:
ds ds ds

( ) ( )
'
EB ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
ε x '= = cosθ + sinθ cosθ+ cosθ+ sinθ sinθ
ds ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Or ε x '=
∂u
∂x
2
cos θ +
∂v 2
∂y
sin θ+
∂u ∂ v
+
∂ y ∂x ( )
sinθ . cosθ hence,
2 2
ε x ' =ε x cos θ+ ε y sin θ+γ xy sinθ. cosθ
Using trigonometric relations this formula may be written as:
ε x + ε y ε x −ε y 1
ε x '= + cos 2 θ+ γ xy sin 2 θ
2 2 2
π
For a line making 90o with AB, we substitute θ with θ+ .to get:
2
2 2
ε y '=ε x sin θ+ε y cos θ−γ xy sinθ. cosθ
ε x +ε y ε x −ε y 1
ε y '= − cos 2 θ− γ xy sin 2θ
2 2 2
For the shear strain, γ x' y ' we see that this strain is equal to the sum
rotations of lines AB and the one perpendicular to it. In the figure
above, the rotation of AB is the angleα . Considering the figure above, we
''
B E
have tanα= . Line B''E is given by:
ds
''
B E=dv . cosθ−du . sinθ−EB ' sinα
'
EB '
Now we have: ε x ' = , hence E B =ε x ' . ds giving
ds
'
E B sinα=ε x ' . ds . sinα ≅ 0 for small strain and angle α . Line B''E then
becomes ( using Taylor's expressions for du and dv):
B' ' E= ( ∂∂ vx dx + ∂∂ vy dy) cosθ−( ∂∂ ux dx+ ∂∂ uy dy) sinθ
''
B E
Now we have the angle α = (assuming A ' B' ' ≅ A ' E) . then:
ds

( ) ( )
''
B E ∂ v dx ∂ v dy ∂u dx ∂ u dy
α= = + cosθ− + sinθ i.e.
ds ∂ x ds ∂ y ds ∂ x ds ∂ y ds
α=
∂v
∂x
2
cos θ−
∂u
∂y
2
sin θ+
∂ v ∂u
−
∂ y ∂x (
sinθcosθ )
+π
The rotation of the line perpendicular to line AB is obtained by replacing the angle θ in the expression of α by .
2
∴ α θ +π /2=
∂v 2
∂x
sin θ−
∂u
∂y
cos 2 θ−
∂v ∂u
∂ y ∂x
− (sinθcosθ )
The strain γ x' y ' is then the sum of α and α θ+ π /2 but remembering that α is counter-clockwise(+ve) while α θ+ π /2 is
clockwise(-ve). Then,

γ x' y ' =α−α

θ+
π
2
=
∂v
∂x
cos 2 θ−
∂u 2
∂y
sin θ +
∂v ∂u
− (
∂ y ∂x
sinθcosθ−
∂x )
∂v 2 ∂u
sin θ +
∂y
cos2 θ+
∂v ∂u
−
∂ y ∂x (
sinθcosθ )
∴ γ x ' y' = ( ∂∂ vx + ∂∂uy )cos θ−( ∂∂uy + ∂∂ vx ) sin θ+2( ∂∂ vy − ∂∂ ux ) sinθcosθ or using the expressions for ε , ε
2 2
x y

and γ xy, we get:

γ x' y ' =γ xy ( cos 2 θ−sin2 θ ) −2 ( ε x −ε y ) sinθcosθ
Applying trigonometric relations we get:
γ x' y ' =−( ε x −ε y ) sin 2θ+ γ xy cos 2 θ
Principal strains:
To locate the principal strain axes, i.e the axes x' and y' at which extensional strains will be maximum or minimum,
γ xy
we differentiate either ε x ' or ε y ' with respect to θ and equate to zero. This will gives tan2 θ= . which gives
ε x −ε y
 γ xy ε x −ε y
sin 2 θ= and cos 2 θ=
√ ( ε −ε
x y
2
) + γ xy
2
√( ε −ε ) +γ
x y
2
xy
2

Substituting these expressions in ε x ' and ε y ', we get the principal strains as:

√( )( )
ε x −ε y 2 γ xy 2
ε x +ε y
ε max= ± +
min 2 2 2

Transformation of three dimensional strains:

Stress-strain relations:
It is necessary in order to predict the behavior of a structure to know the relations between stresses and strains.
These relations are dependent on the material of the structure. The relation between stress and strain may be
assumed to linear and the strains to be small. In this case the principle of superposition may be applied.
For the six stress components and six strain components, the relation may be described by Hook’s law which may be
written as:
ε x = A11 σ x + A12 σ y + A13 σ z + A 14 τ xy + A 15 τ yz + A 16 τ zx
ε y = A21 σ x + A 22 σ y + A 23 σ z + A24 τ xy + A25 τ yz + A 26 τ zx
⋮
γ zx= A 61 σ x + A 62 σ y + A 63 σ z + A 64 τ xy + A 65 τ yz + A66 τ zx
Also, stresses may be given in terms of strains as follows:
σ x =C 11 ε x +C 12 ε y +C13 ε z +C14 γ xy +C 15 γ yz +C 16 γ zx
σ y =C 21 ε x + C22 ε y +C 23 ε z +C 24 γ xy +C25 γ yz +C 26 γ zx
⋮
γ zx=C 61 ε x +C 62 ε y +C 63 ε z +C 64 γ xy +C 65 γ yz + C66 γ zx
It may be proved by energy considerations that Aij = A ji and C ij =C ji. This reduces the number of coefficients Aij
and C ij to 21 different constants for each (i.e. 21 A’s and 21 C’s). These constants must be determined by
experiments.
For a homogeneous material, the coefficients Aij and C ij are constant throughout the body but depend on direction.
If the material is homogeneous and isotropic, then the coefficients Aij and C ij do not depend on direction and are
constant throughout the body.
1 1
In a isotropic and homogeneous material we have A11 = A22= A33= , A 44= A55= A 66= ,
E G
−ϑ
A12= A 13=A 21=A 23= A 31= A 32= . All other coefficients are zeros. This gives the strains in terms of stresses as
E
in the following expressions:
σx ϑ ϑ 1
ε x= − σ − σ = [ σ −ϑ ( σ y + σ z ) ]
E E y E z E x
σx σy σz 1
ε y =−ϑ + −ϑ = [ σ y −ϑ ( σ x +σ z ) ]
E E E E
σx ϑ σz 1
ε z =−ϑ − σ y + = [ σ z−ϑ ( σ x +σ y ) ]
E E E E
γ xy =τ xy /G, γ yz =τ yz /G, γ xz=τ xz /G
Where: E= modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus
G= shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity
ϑ = Poisson’s ratio
The quantities E,G and ϑ are related to each other by the relation:
E
G=
1+ϑ
Solution of the above normal strain equations for the stresses gives us:
 ϑE ( ε x + ε y + ε z ) E
σ x= + ε
( 1+ϑ ) ( 1−2 ϑ ) 1+ ϑ x
ϑE ( ε x + ε y +ε z ) E
σ y= +
εy
( 1+ ϑ ) ( 1−2 ϑ ) 1+ϑ
ϑE ( ε x +ε y + ε z ) E
σ z= + ε
( 1+ϑ )( 1−2ϑ ) 1+ϑ z
And reversing the above shearing strains gives the shearing stresses as: τ xy =G γ xy, τ yz=G γ yz , τ xz =G γ xz
Depending on the stress and strain quantities we may have 'plane stress' or 'plane strain' problems:

** Plane stress:

If all stresses lie in one plane say the x-y plane, then the
problem is called plane stress problem. Here we have:
σ z =τ xz=τ yz =0 , σ x ≠ 0 , σ y ≠ 0 ,
τ xy ≠ 0

** Plane strain:
In this case, all non-zero strains lie in one plane say x-y plane. Here we have:
ε z =γ xz =γ yz =0 , ε x ≠ 0 , ε y ≠ 0 , γ xy ≠ 0

Following are two properties related to stresses and strains. These are dilatation and bulk modulus.

** Dilatation:
For an infinitesimal element of sides dx, dy and dz, the volume is dV =dx . dy . dz . If this elements was
strained, the sides become (1+ ε x ) , dy (1+ ε y ) and dz (1+ ε z ) and the new volume becomes:
d V =dx ( 1+ ε x ) . dy ( 1+ ε y ) . dz ( 1+ ε z )=dx . dy .dz ( 1+ ε x +ε y + ε z + ε x ε y + ε x ε z +ε y ε z + ε x ε y ε z )
For small strains, the multiples ε x ε y , ε x ε z ... can be neglected. The volume of the strained element becomes:
d V =dx . dy . dz ( 1+ ε x +ε y + ε z )
The change in volume is: d V −dV =dx . dy . dz ( ε x +ε y + ε z )=dV ( ε x +ε y + ε z ). Then the sum of extensional strains
is:
d V −dV
ε x +ε y + ε z =
dV
Which may be thought of as change per unit volume. This quantity is called "dilatation, e" . i.e.:
e=ε x +ε y + ε z
The dilatation is an invariant quantity. i.e. it does not depend on the orientation of the x,y and z axes. Hence:
e=ε x +ε y + ε z=ε 1+ ε 2 +ε 3
Where ε 1 , ε 2 and ε 3 are the principal strains (on which there are zero normal stresses).

**Bulk Modulus:
If we substitute the expressions of ε x , ε y ∧ε z in the expression of e, we get:
σx σ σ
e=ε x +ε y + ε z= ( 1−2 ϑ ) + y (1−2 ϑ ) + z ( 1−2 ϑ )
E E E
 ( 1−2 ϑ )
¿ ( σ x +σ y + σ z )
E
Since E∧ϑ are constants, it follows that the normal stresses are invariants, i.e. σ x +σ y + σ z =constant .
If a body is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of uniform intensity p, then:
σ x =σ y =σ z =−p
( 1−2 ϑ ) (1−2 ϑ )
∴ e=( σ x +σ y + σ z ) =−3 p
E E
−p E
∴ =k=
e ( 1−2 ϑ )
The quantity k is called "modulus of compression" or "bulk modulus"

Stresses:
 Axes x and z define the plane of a
cut section
 Axis y is perpendicular to the cut
section
 θ x, θ y ∧θ z are angles between
the incremental force ∆ F
applied on incremental area ∆ A .

∆F
 The stress at a point is defined by: σ = lim . This stress is in the direction of ∆ F .
∆ A →0 ∆A
 The stress can be resolved in5to a normal stress (normal to the cut section, parallel to y-axis ) and a
shear stress (in the plane of the cut section).
 The shear stress can be resolved into two shearing stresses in the directions of x and z axes.
 The normal stress is denoted by σ or more specifically concerning the above figure it is denoted by σ y .
the shear stresses regarding the above figure is denoted by τ yx ∧τ yz. The first subscript refers to the axis
perpendicular to the cut section while the second subscript refers to the axis parallel to the stress.
 If we extract a finite element of sides ∆ x , ∆ y∧∆ z, the normal and shearing stress components appear
as in the following figure. Note that there are six faces for this element. Each face is subjected to a
normal stress and two shearing stresses. The stresses at the face located at y + ∆ y are equal to those
stresses at face located at y plus the changes in these stresses along y-direction. Same for other faces.
Apparently, there are 18 stress components acting on the six faces of the element. In addition to these
stress component, the are ,in general, the so-called body forces X b, Y b and Z b (forces per unit volume).
 This element must be in equilibrium. Hence: ∑ F x =0 , ∑ F y =0, ∑ F z=0,∑ M x =0 , ∑ M y =0,
and ∑ M z=0. Applying these equations reduces the number of unknown stress components to only
six.
Applying the equilibrium equation ∑ F x =0 with the help of Fig.2, we get:

( σ + ∂∂σx ∆ x) ∆ y . ∆ z−σ ∆ y . ∆ z+(τ

x
x
x yx +
∂y )
∂ τ yx
(
∆ x . ∆ z−τ yx ∆ x . ∆ z + τ zx +
∂z )
∂ τ zx
∆ x . ∆ y−τ zx ∆ x . ∆ y + X b ∆ x . ∆ y . ∆
Divide by ∆ x . ∆ y . ∆ z, we get:
∂ σ x ∂ τ yx ∂ τ zx
+ + + X b=0
∂ x ∂ y ∂z
Similarly, applying ∑ F y =0 and ∑ F z=0, we get:
∂ τ xy ∂ σ y ∂ τ zy ∂ τ xz ∂ τ yz ∂ σ z
+ + +Y b=0 and + + + Z b=0
∂x ∂ y ∂z ∂x ∂ y ∂z
Now applying ∑ M x =0 we get (see Fig.3 for dimensions):

(
− σy+
∂σ y
∂y )
∆ y ∆x .∆ z z+( ∆z
2 )
+σy .∆ x.∆ z z+ (
∆z
2 )(
+ τ yz +
∂ τ yz
∂y ) (
∆ x . ∆ z ( y + ∆ y )−( τ yz . ∆ x . ∆ z ) . y− τ xy +
∂ τ xy
∂x
∆x )

( )
∂σy ∆z
Neglecting higher order terms (like ∆ y . ∆ x . ∆ z z+ ) and after simplifying we get:
∂y 2
τ yz . ∆ x . ∆ x . ∆ z=−τ zy . ∆ x . ∆ x . ∆ z , or τ yz=−τ zy
Similarly, using ∑ M y =0 and ∑ M z=0 we get τ xy =−τ yx and τ zx =−τ xz
Hence the number of stress components reduce to only six components namely: σ x , σ y , σ z , τ xy , τ yz and τ zx . These
stress components define the state of stress at a point.
Note that in the above moment equation, the body forces were not included. This is because as the sides of the
element approach zero the effect of the body forces diminishes.

At a surface element, the outside surface is subjected to distributed forces that are resolved into X s ,Y s∧Z s with
units of force per unit area. Referring to Fig.4, the element is a tetrahedron having surface side of area ∆ S and the
other three sides each is normal to one axis. The areas of these sides are . ∆ S , m . ∆ S and n . ∆ S where l , m∧n are
3
the direction cosines of the normal to the surface side. The volume of the tetrahedron is √2 lmn ∆ S 2 .
3
The internal sides of the tetrahedron are subjected to normal and shearing stresses. In general there are body forces
distributed over the volume of the tetrahedron with resultant components X b , Y b and Z b.
Referring to Fig.5 and considering the force equilibrium in x-direction we get:
3
Xb √
2lmn
∆ S 2 + X s ∆ S−σ x l ∆ S−τ yx m ∆ S−τ zx n ∆ S=0
3
As ∆ S approaches zero, the volume approaches zero hence the body force term vanishes. The above equation
reduces to:
X s−σ x l−τ yx m−τ zx n=0 i.e. X s=σ x l+ τ yx m+ τ zx n
Similarly considering forces in y and z axes, we get:
Y s =τ xy l+ σ y m+ τ yz n , Z s=τ xz l+τ yz m+ σ z n

Effect of axes rotation:

** Two dimensional case: referring to Fig.6, assume that we have a 2-D element lying in the x-y plane with a state of

stress σ x , σ y ∧τ xy and having σ z =τ xz=τ yz =0 and we want to determine the state of stress regarding x’ and y’ axes.
In other words what are the expressions of σ x ∧τ x y . Assume that the area of the inclined plane is dA. the areas
' ' '
perpendicular to the x and y axes are dAcosθ∧dAsinθ respectively. The stresses parallel to x and y axes need to
resolved into components parallel to x’ and y’ axes. Summing up the forces parallel to x’ axis (∑ F x =0 ), we get: '

σ x dA=( σ x cosθ ) ( dAcosθ ) + ( σ y sinθ ) ( dAsinθ ) + ( τ xy sinθ ) ( dAcosθ ) + ( τ xy cosθ ) ( dAsinθ )

'

∴ σ x =σ x cos 2 θ+ σ y sin2 θ+ 2 τ xy sinθcosθ

'

Similarly, from ∑ F y =0, we get: τ x y =−( σ x −σ y ) sinθcosθ+τ xy ( cos θ−sin θ )

2 2
' ' '

2 1 2 1
Using the relations sin 2 θ=2 sinθcosθ ,sin θ= ( 1−cos 2 θ ) ∧cos θ= ( 1+cos 2θ ), we get:
2 2
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σx= ' + cos 2 θ+τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
−σ x −σ y
τ x y=
' ' sin 2θ +τ xy cos 2θ
2
To get the normal stress in the direction of y’, replace θ by θ+ π /2 in the expression of σ x . We get: '

σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σ y= ' − cos 2 θ−τ xy sin 2 θ
2 2
To determine the value of θ that gives maximum or minimum normal stress, differentiate σ x with respect to θ and '

equate to zero:
dσ x ' σ x −σ y 2 τ xy
= (−2sin 2 θ ) +2 τ xy cos 2θ=0∨tan 2 θ=
dθ 2 σ x −σ y

Then: (see adjacent figure)

τ xy
sin 2 θ=

√( )
2
σ x −σ y 2
+ τ xy
2
σ x −σ y
2
cos 2 θ=

√( )
2
σ x −σ y 2
+τ xy
2

Substituting for sin 2 θ and cos 2 θ in the expression for σ x , we get: '

( √( )
σ x −σ y

( √( )
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y 2 τ xy
σx= ' + +τ xy
2 2 σ x −σ y 2
2
+τ xy 2 ) σ x −σ y 2
2 )
+ τ xy 2

( ( )
)
2
σ x −σ y 2
+ τ xy

√(
σ x+ σ y 2
¿ + or
σ +σ
σx= x y+
σ x −σ y 2
)
+τ xy2

√( 2 ) + τ
2 σ −σ
2 '
2 2
x y 2
xy

Thus is one of the two principal stresses which will be 90 o apart. The other principal stress occurs at an angle θ+ π /2
from the axis x’. replacing 2 θ by 2 θ+ π in the expression of σ x (noting that cos (2 θ+ π ) =−cos 2 θ and '

sin ( 2 θ+ π )=−sin 2 θ ) , we get:

( √( )
σ x −σ y

( √( )
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y 2 τ xy
σx= ' − −τ xy
2 2
) )
2 2
σ x −σ y σ x−σ y
+ τ xy 2 + τ xy 2
2 2
 ( ( )
)
2
σ x −σ y 2
+τ xy

√(
σ x+ σ y 2
¿ − or
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y 2
) 2

(√ σ −σ2 ) +τ
2 2 σx=
' − + τ xy
x y 2
2 2
xy

Hence, the principal stresses are given by:

σ max=
min
σ x +σ y
2
±
σ x −σ y 2
2
+τ xy
√(
2
)
Substituting for sin 2 θ and cos 2 θ and using the above expression for tan2 θ in the expression for τ x y we get: ' '

τ x y=
'
−σ x −σ y
2
' sin 2θ +τ xy cos 2θ=
−σ x −σ y
2
tan 2θ+ τ xy cos 2 θ ( )
( 2 ( σ −σ )+ τ ) cos 2 θ=(−τ
(
¿ −
σ −σ
) 2τ x y

x
xy

y
xy xy +τ xy )=0

This means that the shearing stresses are zero when the normal stresses are principal(maximum or minimum).

## For maximum and minimum shearing stresses differentiate τ x y w.r.to θ : ' '

( )
dτ x y −σ x −σ y
' ' σ −σ y
( 2 cos 2 θ ) +τ xy (−2sin 2 θ ) =0 tan 2 θ=− x
=
dθ 2 2 τ xy
Hence sin 2 θ and cos 2 θ can be written as:
σ x −σ y
−τ xy
2 cos 2 θ=

√(
sin 2 θ=

√( )
2
, σ x −σ y
)
2 2
σ x −σ y 2 +τ xy
+ τ xy 2
2
The expression for the principal shearing stress is:
σ x −σ y

√( )
2
−σ x −σ y 2 τ xy σ x −σ y 2
τ x y= =− −τ xy + τ xy

√( √(
' '
2 2
) )
2 2
σ x −σ y
σ x −σ y 2 2
+ τ xy
+τ xy
2 2
Using 2 θ+ π instead of 2 θ and noting that cos (2 θ+ π ) =−cos 2 θ and sin ( 2 θ+ π )=−sin 2 θ , we get:

( √( ) ( √(
σ x −σ y

√
−

) ( )
2
−σ x −σ y 2 τ xy σ x −σ y
τ x y=
' ' + = +τ xy 2
2 2
σ x −σ y 2
2
+τ xy 2 ) σ x −σ y 2
2 )
+τ xy 2

Or τ max=±
min √( σ x −σ y 2
2
+τ xy
2
)
It is of interest to whether the normal stresses are non-zeros at the principal shearing stresses. Substitute for cos 2 θ
and sin 2 θ in σ x : '

σ x −σ y
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y τ xy 2 σ x +σ y
σx= − +τ xy =

√( √(
'
2 2 2
) )
2 2
σ x −σ y 2 σ x −σ y 2
+ τ xy +τ xy
2 2
The normal stress parallel to y’ is:
 ( √( )
σ x −σ y

( √( )
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y −τ xy 2 σ x +σ y
σ y= ' − −τ xy =
2 2 2
) )
2 2
σ x −σ y σ x −σ y
+τ xy 2 +τ xy 2
2 2
Which means that when the shearing stresses are minimum or maximum, the normal will be of the same value.
## Moh’r circle:
From the expression of σ x we get: '

σ x +σ y σ x −σ y σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σx= ' + cos 2 θ+τ xy sin 2θ ∴ σ x − = cos 2 θ+ τ xy sin 2θ '
2 2 2 2
Squaring both sides we get:

( ) ( )
2 2
σ x+ σ y σ x −σ y 2 2 2
σx − = ' cos 2 θ+ ( σ x −σ y ) τ xy cos 2θ . sin 2 θ+τ xy sin 2 θ (a)
2 2
From the expression for τ x y , we get: ' '

−σ x −σ y
τ x y=' sin 2θ +τ xy cos 2θ
'
2
Squaring both sides gives:

( )
2
2 σ x −σ y 2 2 2
( τx y ) = ' '
2
sin 2 θ−( σ x −σ y ) τ xy cos 2 θ . sin2 θ+ τ xy cos 2 θ (b)

Adding equations (a) and (b) gives:

( ) ( )
2 2
σ x+ σ y σ x −σ y
σx − '
2
+( τ x y ) = ( cos 2 2θ+ sin2 2 θ ) + τ 2xy ( cos 2 2 θ+sin 2 2 θ )
' '
2 2
2 2
And since cos 2 θ+sin 2 θ=1 this last expression becomes:

( ) ( )
2 2
σ x+ σ y 2 σ x −σ y 2
σx − '+( τ x y ) = + τ xy ' ' (c)
2 2

Which is an equation of a circle of the form

( x−a )2+ y 2=R2 which is a circle with centroid located
on the x-axis at a distance a from the origin and having
a radius R.
We have for every value of θ , we have a point of
ordinate (σ x , τ x y ¿ which lies on the perimeter of a
' ' '

circle having σ x on the horizontal axis and τ x y on the

' ' '

vertical axis. The centroid of this circle will be on the

σ x+ σ y
horizontal axis at a distance of .
2
The following figure shows the details of such a circle. This circle is called Mohr’s circle for stress.
To construct Mohr’s circle:
1- Draw axes of σ x (horizontal) and τ x y (vertical).
' ' '

2- Plot the point (σ y , τ xy ¿ (assuming as shown in the figure above that the shear is positive on the face
subjected to σ y . The stresses σ yand τ xy define the state of stress at the point under consideration. These
stresses are supposed to be known.
σ x+ σ y
3- Locate the centroid of the circle on the horizontal circle which lies at a distance from the origin.
2

4- Draw the circle with radius R=

√( 2 )
σ x −σ y 2 2
+ τ xy which should pass through the point (σ y , τ xy ¿.

5- Draw the diameter passing through point (σ y , τ xy ¿. This diameter should intersect with the perimeter of
the circle at the point (σ x ,−τ xy ¿.
6- Determine the maximum and minimum normal stresses from the intersections of the circle with the
horizontal axis.

Example: Determine the principal stresses at points C and D of the beam shown. Consider elevations of y=0,0.15m
and 0.3m for each of points C and D. Neglect own weight.

2 2
10 x 6 10 x 6 10 x 1.5
Solution: R A = =30 kN , M C= =45 kN . m, M D =30 x 1.5− =33.75 kN . m
2 8 2
V C =0 ,V D =30−1.5 x 10=15 kN
Point C:

M C ∗y
y=0: σ = =0(since y=0),
I
V CQ
τ= =0 (since V C =0) ,
¿
This is a point of zero stress
 3
0.2∗0.6 4
y=0.15m: I= =0.0036 m
12
, M C =45 kN . m
M C ∗y 45 x 106∗150
σ= = 12
=1.875 MPa
I 0.0036 x 10
6 3
Q=200∗150∗225=6.75 x 10 mm
τ =0 since V C =0 .
Hence, the vertical axis passing
through C is a principal axis since
τ =0
σ max=1.875 MPa , σ min=0

1.875∗0.3
y=0.3m: M C =45 kN . m , σ = =3.75 MPa , τ =0 since V C =0
0.15
Hence, the vertical axis passing through C is a principal axis since τ =0
σ max=3.75 MPa , σ min=0.

Point D: M D =33.75 kN . m, V D=15 kN

M D∗y
y=0: σ = =0(since y=0),
I
6 3
Q=200∗300∗150=9 x 10 mm
V CQ 15000∗9 x 10
6
τ= = =0.188 MPa (+ve)
¿ 12
0.0036 x 10 ∗200

σ max=
min
0+ 0
2
±
2√(
0−0 2
)
+0.1872
σ max=0.1871 MPa , σ min=−0.187 MPa
The angle θ of the principal axes is given by:

( )
2 τ xy
( )
−1
1 1 −1 2∗ ( 0.188 ) 1 −1 1
θ= tan = tan = tan ( ∞ )= ∗90 °=45 °
2 σ x −σ y 2 0−0 2 2

y=0.15m:
M C ∗y 33.75 x 106∗150
σ= = 12
I 0.0036 x 10
¿ 1.406 MPa(comp)
6 3
Q=6.75 x 10 mm
6
15000∗6.75 x 10
τ= 12
=0.141 MPa
0.0036 x 10 ∗200
(+ve) σ max=0.014 MPa (tens) , σ min=−1.42 MPa (comp)

σ max=
min
−1.406+ 0
2
±
√(
−1.406−0 2
2
The angle θ of the principal axes is given by:
)
+0.1412

( )
2 τ xy
( )
−1
1 1 −1 2∗( 0.141 ) 1 −1 1
θ= tan = tan = tan (−0.2006 )= ∗−11.34° =−5.67 ° (clockwise)
2 σ x −σ y 2 −1.406−0 2 2

1.406∗0.3
y=0.3m: σ= =2.812 MPa ( comp ), τ =0 since Q=0
0.15
Hence the vertical axis passing through D is a principal axis since τ =0
 σ max=1.406 MPa , σ min=0.
===============

** Three dimensional case: referring to Fig.7, assume that plane ABC is a principal plane. Hence, there will be only
normal stress σ n occur on this plane.

Equilibrium in x-direction gives:

∑ F x =0 : ( l. σ n ) ( A )−( σ x ) ( l. A ) −( τ yx ) ( m. A )−( τ zx ) ( n . A )=0
∴ l. ( σ x −σ n ) +m . τ yx +n . τ zx=0 ……………………………………. (1)
Similarly,
∑ F y =0:l . τ xy+ ¿ m. ( σ y −σ n )+ n . τ zy =0 ¿ ……………………………………. (2)
∑ F z=0 :l . τ xz + ¿ m. τ yz +n . ( σ z−σ n )=0 ¿
……………………………………. (3)
To solve these equations, the following condition must be satisfied:

| |
σ x −σ n . τ yx τ zx
τ xy σ y −σ n τ zy =0
τ xz τ yz σ z −σ n
Expanding this determinant results in a third order equation in σ n. Solving this equation results three roots. These
roots are the principal normal stresses. Using one of these stresses in equations 1,2 and 3 the direction cosines of
the n-axis can be determined. This means that the directions of the three principal axes are determined. It should be
noted that all equations 1,2 and 3 have zero right hand sides. This means that these equations are not solvable. To
overcome this problem, we use the relation between l , m∧n namely l 2 +m2+ n2=1. . here it is possible to use any
two of equations 1,2 or 3 along with this last equation to determine the direction cosines.

Example: if the state of stress at point P w.r.to x,y, and z axes is given by:
σ x =50 MPa , σ y =30 MPa , σ z =25 MPa , τ xy =−20 MPa , τ xz=10 MPa∧τ yz =15 MPa
Determine the principal stresses and the principal axes.
Solution: for the principal stresses we have:

| || |
σ x −σ n . τ yx τ zx 50−σ n −20 10
τ xy σ y −σ n τ zy = −20 30−σ n 15 =0
τ xz τ yz σ z −σ n 10 15 25−σ n
3 2
Expanding this determinant gives: σ n −105 σ n +2775 σ n−7250=0 which gives:
σ n=2.93 MPa ,∨σ n=62.37 MPa∨σ n=39.7 MPa
To locate the principal axes:
σ n=2.93 MPa
Using equations (1), (2) and (3) we get:
l . ( 50−2.93 )−20 m+10 n=0∨47.07 l−20 m+10 n=0
−20 l+m. ( 30−2.93 ) +15 n=0∨−20 l+27.07 m+15 n=0
10 l+15 m+ (25−2.93 ) n=0∨10 l+15 m+22.07 n=0
Since the right hand sides of these equations are zeros, use only two of them and the relation l 2 +m2+ n2=1. Using
the first two equations and this last relation gives:
47.07 l−20 m+10 n=0 …………………………… (a)
−20 l+27.07 m+15 n=0 ……………………………... (b)
2 2 2
l +m + n =1 ………………………………………. (c)
From equation (c) get n=± √ 1−l2 −m2 and substituting for n in the eqn. (a), we get:
47.07 l−20 m± 10 √ 1−l 2−m2=0
∴ 47.07 l−20 m=∓ 10 √1−l 2−m2
Squaring both sides and rearranging:
2 2
2315.58 l −1882.8 ml+500 m =100 …………………………. (d)
Substituting for n in eqn.(b), and following same steps, we get:
2 2
625 l −1082.8 ml+ 957.8 m =225 …………………………… (e)
Multiplying eqn. (d) by (-957.8/500) and adding to eqn.(e) we get:
2
2523.9 lm−3810.7 l −33.44=0
From which we get:
m=1.5098 l+0.0132/l ………………………………. (f)
Substituting for m in eqn. (d), we get:
2 0.0871
612.68 l −104.9+ 2
=0 ………………………… (g)
l
Multiplying by l 2, we get:
4 2
612.68 l −104.9l +0.0871=0
Hence, we get: l 2=0.1704 ,∨l 2=8.344 x 10−4.
From which we get: l=± 0.4128∨l=± 0.02889
Now we have eight cases corresponding to the four values of l . The direction cosines m and n will be determined for
each value of l then the equation 10 l+15 m+22.07 n=0 will be used to verify which set of l , m∧n is correct (by
verifying whether the L.H.S. equals zero or not).
0.0132
=0.6552 , n=± √1−0.1704−0.6552 =± 0.6327
2
## l=0.4128 : m=1.5098∗0.4128+
0.4128
For l=0.4128 , m=0.6552 and n=0.6327, using the above mentioned equation, we have:
L . H . S .=10 ( 0.4128 ) +15 ( 0.6552 ) +22.07 ( 0.6327 )=27.9 ≠ 0 not good
For l=0.4128 , m=0.6552 and n=−0.6327 :
L . H . S .=10 ( 0.4128 ) +15 ( 0.6552 ) +22.07 (−0.6327 ) ≅ 0 O. K .
## l=−0.4128: m=−0.6552, n=± 0.6327
For l=−0.4128, m=−0.6552 and n=0.6327,
L . H . S .=10 (−0.4128 ) +15 (−0.6552 ) +22.07 ( 0.6327 ) ≅ 0 O . K .
For l=−0.4128, m=−0.6552 and n=−0.6327 :
L . H . S .=10 (−0.4128 ) +15 (−0.6552 ) +22.07 (−0.6327 )=−27.9≠ 0 not good
## l=0.02889 : m=0.5005 ,n=± 0.8653
For l=0.02889 , m=0.5005 and n=0.8653,
L . H . S .=10 ( 0.02889 ) +15 ( 0.5005 ) +22.07 ( 0.8653 )=29.9 not good
For l=0.02889 , m=0.5005 and n=−0.8653,
L . H . S .=10 ( 0.02889 ) +15 ( 0.5005 ) +22.07 (−0.8653 )=−11.3 not good
## l=−0.02889, m=−0.5005 and n=± 0.8653,
For l=−0.02889, m=−0.5005 and n=0.8653,
L . H . S .=10 (−0.02889 ) +15 (−0.5005 )+ 22.07 ( 0.8653 )=11.3 not good
For l=−0.02889, m=−0.5005 and n=−0.8653,
L . H . S .=10 (−0.02889 ) +15 (−0.5005 )+ 22.07 (−0.8653 )=−26.9not good
Hence, from the above eight cases only two cases ar accepted namely:
l=0.4128 , m=0.6552 and n=−0.6327 and
l=−0.4128, m=−0.6552 and n=0.6327
It can be seen that the second set is the negative of the first ones which means that the axes corresponding to the
second set are of the opposite directions to the axes corresponding to the first set (since cos ( π +θ )=−cosθ ) .
Of course, these sets of axes correspond to the principal normal stress σ n=2.93 MPa. same procedure should be
done for the other two principal normal stresses.
An other procedure for determining the direction cosines:
Starting with equilibrium equations
47.07 l−20 m+10 n=0
−20 l+27.07 m+15 n=0
10 l+15 m+22.07 n=0
And since the R.H.S. of these equations are zeros, we may give any one of the direction cosines any arbitrary value
and substitute in any two of the above equations and solve for the other two direction cosines. Now using the
relation l 2 +m2+ n2=1. We can modify the values of the just obtained direction cosines (including the assumed one).
For the above case: let l=1. Using the first two equations we get:
47.07∗1−20 m+10 n=0 → 20 m−10 n=47.07 (1)
−20∗1+27.07 m+15 n=0 → 27.07 m+15 n=20 (2)
Solving for m and n, we get: m=1.5876 ,n=−1.5318
Now multiplying l , m∧n by any constant say α and use the relation l 2 +m2+ n2=1, we get:
( α∗1 )2 + ( α∗1.5876 )2+ ( α∗(−1.5318)) 2=1→ α 2+ 2.5205 α 2 +2.3464 α 2=1
∴ 5.8669 α 2=1 → α =± 0.4129
Then the actual direction cosines for the n-axis (using the +ve sign of α ) are:
l=0.4129 , m=0.6555 ,n=l=−0.6325
While the direction cosines for the opposite of the n-axis are (using the –ve sign of α ) are:
l=−0.4129 ,m=−0.6555 , n=l=0.6325
Following this procedure or the previous procedure for the other two principal stresses, we get:
For σ n=62.37 MPa: l=0.8457 ,m=−0.5188 , n=l=0.0198

For σ n=39.7 MPa: l=0.3144 , m=0.5491 , n=l=0.7744