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The Connection Between the

Physiological and Psychological
Reactions to Sexually Explicit Materials:
A Literature Summary Using Meta-
Analysis
Mike Allen , Tara M. Emmers-Sommer , Dave D'Alessio , Lindsay
Timmerman , Alesia Hanzal & Jamie Korus
Published online: 03 Apr 2008.

To cite this article: Mike Allen , Tara M. Emmers-Sommer , Dave D'Alessio , Lindsay Timmerman ,
Alesia Hanzal & Jamie Korus (2007) The Connection Between the Physiological and Psychological
Reactions to Sexually Explicit Materials: A Literature Summary Using Meta-Analysis, Communication
Monographs, 74:4, 541-560, DOI: 10.1080/03637750701578648

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03637750701578648

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 Communication Monographs
Vol. 74, No. 4, December 2007, pp. 541
560

The Connection Between the

Physiological and Psychological
Reactions to Sexually Explicit
Materials: A Literature Summary Using
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Meta-Analysis
Mike Allen, Tara M. Emmers-Sommer, Dave D’Alessio,
Lindsay Timmerman, Alesia Hanzal, & Jamie Korus

The results of the investigations providing data on the connection between measures of
sexual arousal and positive psychological affect indicate a positive relationship whether
measured directly (r.212) or by a comparison of manipulation check data (r.223).
Female research participants demonstrate more negative emotional responses than men
exposed to the same content (r .248), but the level of physiological arousal favors
men by a much smaller magnitude (r .134). The response to pornography on the basis
of gender reflects not only a physiological difference in reaction but a psychological
interpretation of that reaction as well.

Keywords: Pornography; Physiology; Meta-Analysis; Media Effects; Gender

The impact of sexually explicit materials (pornography) in promoting attitudes

hostile to women (Allen, Emmers, Gebhardt, & Giery, 1995) and aggressive behavior
in individuals (Allen, D’Alessio, & Brezgel, 1995) has been demonstrated in the
empirical literature. The media experience of a person reacting to sexually explicit

Mike Allen (PhD, Michigan State University, 1987) is a Professor and Chair at the University of Wisconsin,
Milwaukee, where Lindsay Timmerman (PhD, University of Texas, Austin, 2001) is an Assistant Professor and
Jamie Korus (BA, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, 2000) is a MA student. Tara Emmers-Sommer (PhD,
Ohio University, 1995) is a Professor at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Dave D’Alessio (PhD, Michigan
State University, 1997) is an Associate Professor at the University of Connecticut. Alesia Hanzal (MA, University
of Arizona, 2004) is a PhD candidate at the University of Arizona. The authors wish to thank anonymous
reviewers for their suggestions and Alan Sillars for his assistance and direction on this manuscript.
Correspondence to: Tara Emmers-Sommer, Department of Communication Studies, 4505 Maryland Parkway,
University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV 89154. E-mail: tara.emmerssommer@unlv.edu

ISSN 0363-7751 (print)/ISSN 1479-5787 (online) # 2007 National Communication Association

DOI: 10.1080/03637750701578648
 542 M. Allen et al.

material is not simply cognitive. Most persons define sexual material in terms of the
expectation of a physiological reaction (sexual arousal) as well as a psychological state
associated with that arousal. Understanding the connection between physiological
arousal and psychological reaction/interpretation of that experience should play a
fundamental role in understanding the impact of sexual materials on individuals. The
connection between physiological response and ultimate psychological integration of
the response into one’s psychosexual system might not be simple. The fact that a
particular set of material is sexually arousing does not necessarily indicate the
psychological state (affect) of the person viewing the material.
This paper initially explores the issues of how a person exposed to sexually explicit
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media materials experiences both a physiological as well as psychological reaction to

that material. The next section considers the possibility of gender differences as
explained by social expectations for gender. The empirical examination of these issues
is then represented using a meta-analysis.

Labeling the Reaction to Media Materials

A primary issue in the mediated experience of sexually explicit materials (as well as
any other mediated experience) is how an individual cognitively labels any reaction.
Two people might experience physiological reactions to a sexually explicit stimulus;
however, one person might be stimulated by the material, label the experience as
positive, and interpret the event as pleasant. Another person experiencing the same
material and the same physiological reaction might experience shame or disgust
due to the physiological reaction generated; a very unpleasant affective reaction. The
issue is that the physiological experience, even if the same for different individuals,
might generate a different psychological reaction. In other words, physiological
reactions can be objectively measured, but determining the affective experience is
something subjectively created by the person, and no automatic and necessary link
might exist between the two. Conceptually, these differing scenarios are explained by
theories such as differential emotions theory (Izard, 1991). Izard argued that emotion
involves neural (e.g., heart rate, hormones), experiential (e.g., experience and
meaning), and expressive (e.g., facial, vocal) components. For example, emotional
variation exists between men and women (Canary & Emmers-Sommer, 1997). This
assumption is important given the study of sexual materials involves not only a
physiological reaction, but the psychological labeling of that experience, which in
turn generates an interpretation of the event. The reaction to sexually explicit
material requires a psychological labeling or interpretation of that physiological
arousal.
Sexuality is not simply the result of a physiological reaction to various stimuli. The
person might be aroused physiologically and, yet, find the process humiliating,
shameful, or disgusting. Alternatively, an individual could be physiologically aroused
and find the experience to be pleasurable and exciting. A heterosexual man might
become sexually aroused by the picture of a child, but instead of finding plea-
sure from this reaction, he might feel shame or anger. Given Izard’s (1991) tripartite
 Physiological and Psychological Reactions 543

approach to emotion, it is appropriate to examine the separate affective and cognitive

responses to sexually arousing material. The question remains open about whether
the magnitude of arousal is or is not connected to a particular psychological labeling
or emotional connection to the experience. Izard’s theory approaches emotions as
comprising of ‘‘holistic, independent, and/or interdependent components’’ (Canary
& Emmers-Sommer, 1997, p. 26).
The data presented in previous studies have almost exclusively focused on male
subjects (given that males are the perpetrators of the vast majority of sexual crimes)
and have not included female participants. However, women do consume sexually
explicit material and, in fact, are the targeted audience for some films (e.g., Candida
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Royale and Femme productions). An earlier meta-analysis of five studies with a total
of 40 participants (Allen & D’Alessio, 1993) demonstrates that the magnitude of
sexual arousal (as measured by genital blood volume increase) was the same for both
men and women. This finding suggests that female arousal not only occurs, but tends
to match male levels. The psychological labeling of this experience, however, might be
different for men and women. Therefore, the reflection or cognitive evaluation of the
state is unclear. Izard (1991) suggests the possibility of inconsistency between
components of emotional reaction. The consideration in this current investigation is
whether such inconsistencies are based on gender. Specifically, the question posed in
this investigation focuses on whether gender differences exist in the reaction to sexual
materials.

Explanations for Sex and Gender Differences

The drive to engage in sexual behavior is biologically manifest, particularly for men
(Buss, 1989). From a gender role theory standpoint, the drive to engage in sexual
behavior is more expected and accepted for men compared to women (Eagly &
Wood, 1999). In a word, society tends to label promiscuous men as ‘‘studs’’ and labels
promiscuous women as ‘‘sluts’’ (Emmers-Sommer, 2002). Aligned with biological
expectations, then, men are socialized to be more sexually active than women and are
less likely than women to be sanctioned for relational infidelity. By contrast, women
are socialized to be sexually passive and faithful in romantic relationships. Thus,
whereas men are socially celebrated for sexual conquests, women acting on sexual
impulses risk social denigration, putting reputations at stake, and being perceived as
‘‘loose’’ (e.g., Burt, 1980; Byers, 1996).
One of the great difficulties in examining the effects of pornography is the
variability of sexual experience and preference. One argument is that men and
women experience and respond to sexual images differently (Brown & Schultze 1993;
Fisher, 1983), perhaps reflecting a difference in the degree of sexual arousal. Another
possibility is that the physiological response to sexual materials experienced by men
and women is similar, but the psychological characterization or labeling of that
response differs. Mosher (1965, 1966, 1968, 1971) coined the term ‘‘sex guilt’’ to
characterize the disparity between pleasing physiological reactions that create
psychological distress. The distress stems from the participation in an activity
 544 M. Allen et al.

(viewing sexually explicit material) that is inconsistent with social expectations; the
impact of enjoying ‘‘bad’’ conduct creates a feeling of guilt. The result is a mismatch
between what should be a pleasing physiological sensation that receives a
psychologically negative labeling. Gender role theorists characterize arousal and the
acceptance of that arousal as privileging men (Buss, 1989; Eagly & Wood, 1999;
Schmitt, Shackelford, Duntley, Tooke, & Buss, 2001).
Women typically act as gatekeepers and harmonizers in relationships (Byers, 1996;
Emmers-Sommer, 2002). Thus, intra- or extradyadic behaviors that might jeopardize
the stability of the relationship are frowned upon socially and relationally (e.g.,
‘‘cheater,’’ ‘‘homewrecker’’). Baumeister’s (2000) formulation proposes a theory of
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erotic plasticity that argues for more attitude/behavioral inconsistency for women
than men. Baumeister’s formulation has women putting various needs for assurances
from a partner ahead of the perception of self-need. For example, the reaction to
sexual material involving a desire outside of the primary relationship might create
dissonance such that the woman might experience the feelings as a threat to the
established set of relational expectations. Related to this current investigation, then,
the experience of sexual arousal might not be perceived and labeled positively by a
woman given relational and social taboos associated with women and sexuality
experience.
Heiman and Hatch (1980) focus on the idea that sexual arousal for men primarily
focuses on genital reaction. The authors contrast this view of male sexuality with a
female view that differentiates between feelings of ‘‘excitement’’ and ‘‘sensuousness.’’
The authors point to an expectation of greater male consistency between his arousal
and a psychologically positive reaction. If men are more likely to define pleasurable
sexuality in terms of his genital response then materials that are more sexually
arousing to males would be more psychologically satisfying. Research by other
scholars (Gagnon & Simon, 1973; Mosher & Abrahamson, 1977) confirms this
relationship between positive emotional and sexual responsiveness.
This manuscript provides an empirical summary and examination of the available
data on the relationship between physiological arousal and the psychological
interpretation of that arousal. The goal is determine what that connection is and
to examine how gender relates to that connection. Specifically, do men and women
experience physiological arousal similarly? And, second, how similarly do men and
women label that arousal? A meta-analysis provides greater clarity and consistency in
evaluating the findings existent in the extant literature.

Method
Literature Search
The literature was electronically searched using the key words ‘‘pornography’’ and
‘‘sexually explicit materials’’ in the PsycINFO, ERIC, and ComIndex databases. In
addition, various literature reviews dealing with this topic were targeted for specific
and more thorough examination (Allen, D’Alessio, & Brezgel, 1995; Allen, D’Alessio,
 Physiological and Psychological Reactions 545

Emmers, & Gebhardt, 1996; Allen, D’Alessio, & Emmers-Sommer, 1999; Allen,
Emmers, et al., 1995; Brancroft, 1978; Emmers-Sommer & Allen, 1999; Hearold,
1979, 1986; Linz, 1989; Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994; Lyons, Anderson, & Larson,
1994; Lalumiere & Quinsey, 1994; Malamuth & Briere, 1986; Mosher, 1988; Murrin &
Laws, 1990). This database generated over 2500 potential manuscripts for inclusion
that were collected and examined. Every manuscript’s reference section and footnotes
were examined for additional potential data points. The entire bibliography of
material is available from the first author. Two persons examined each of the 2500
manuscripts and if either person determined the manuscript could include data, the
manuscript was included for further examination. Approximately 300 manuscripts
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were determined to require more detailed investigation. A manuscript was considered

as a potential source of data in this experiment if both of the following conditions
existed:

(a) the investigation had to employ a methodology generating data in a quantitative

form permitting the calculation of an effect estimate; and
(b) the investigation had to involve the exposure of a person to some form of sexually
explicit mass media (audio, visual, written, video).

A number of investigations that were considered for inclusion were ultimately not
used. Articles were excluded if they: (a) focused on sexual practices or attitudes of an
individual but not related to use of mass mediated sexual material (Abramson, 1973;
Abramson, Mosher, Abramson, & Woychowski, 1977; Arafat & Cotton, 1974;
Athanasiou & Shaver, 1971; Barclay, 1971; Brown, Amoroso, & Ware, 1976; Campagna,
1985
86; Mosher & White, 1980), (b) included no measure of physiological sexual
arousal for the participants (Abramson & Mosher, 1979; Bauserman, 1998; Byrd, 1977;
Hamrick, 1974; Linz, Donnerstein, & Penrod, 1984; Malamuth, Heavey, & Linz, 1993),
(c) included no measure of psychological reaction to the sexual material (Baron & Bell,
1977; Beck, 1984; Botto, Galbraith, & Stern, 1974; Dekker & Everaerd, 1989; Lentz &
Zeiss, 1983
84; Meuwissen & Over, 1990), (d) examined the effectiveness of
intervention on sexual conditioning (Beck, Barlow, Sakheim, & Abrahamson, 1987),
(e) focused on participants’ evaluation of how sexual materials would affect others
(Mayerson & Taylor, 1987), and/or (f) contained data that were presented in a manner
that prevented the calculation of an effect size (Amoroso, Brown, Pruesse, Ware, &
Pikley, 1971; Bozman & Beck, 1991; Byrne, Fisher, Lamberth, & Mitchell, 1974; Ceniti &
Malamuth, 1984; Howard, Reifler, & Liptzin, 1971; Mullin, 1993; Norris, 1989).

Coding of Study Features

Type of physiological measurement. The physiological response of the participants
could be handled using a variety of different instruments. The coding of the
physiological responses was treated at either: (a) self-report, or (b) utilization of a
device intended to measure sexual arousal. The division is based on the possibility
that while persons might be aware of the state of their sexual arousal, they may be
embarrassed to report it in response to the various stimuli. Given that one of
 546 M. Allen et al.

the issues under consideration is the possibility that the physiological response would
be labeled as something other than sexual arousal, a physiological response of a large
magnitude might not be self-reported as arousing if the individual psychologically
interprets the state differently.
Type of psychological measurement. There exists a variety of psychological responses
that could be measured after exposing a group of study participants to sexually
explicit material. The choice in this investigation was to examine the affective or
emotional reactions (both positive and negative) generated in the participants by the
material or the level of sexual guilt experienced by the person. Affective measures
provide an evaluation of the participant’s emotional experience (positive or negative).
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Sexual guilt is an expression of shame or remorse about the feelings of sexual arousal
generated by the stimulus.
Type of media sexual stimulus. This code reflects the nature of the material in terms
of the means of presentation. Sexually explicit material could consist of still pictures,
audiotaped stimuli read to the participants, videotapes of the scenes, or read textual
depictions.1
Type of association measurement between psychological and physiological outcomes.
There are two possible methods of examining the relationship between psychological
and physiological measures: (a) direct correlations, and (b) comparisons on the basis
of magnitudes of manipulations. The examination of direct effects is relatively simple;
the investigation provides an effect estimate that correlates the sexual arousal measure
with the measure of emotional response to the material.
Examining the relationship between the types of manipulations requires some
explanation. Many investigations, although they do not directly report the association
between physiological arousal and psychological response, do report manipulation
check data involving: (a) the difference in degree of psychological characterization of
the experience, and (b) the difference in the degree of physiological sexual arousal.
Each manipulation is a comparison either to a nonsexual control group reaction or to
a pretest measurement. The manipulation check data provides a basis for under-
standing what impact both psychologically and physiologically the material produces
in the participant.
Sex of participants. The sex of the participants was recorded and the data divided
on that basis whenever the analysis provided enough information to consider men
and women separately. Only biological measures of sex were considered, no
psychological or behavioral measures were used. Cases of transsexuals were not
included in this analysis due to the difficulty of assigning an appropriate value (the
number was too small to consider treating as a separate category).
Impact of sex guilt. Sex guilt refers to the feelings that a person has about sexual
experiences involving regret, shame, or anger (Abramson & Mosher, 1975; Mosher,
1972, 1973). The fundamental hypothesis relevant to this investigation is that a
person might experience sexual arousal but feel negative affect rather than positive
affect. The particular experience of sexual arousal is associated with the use of sexual
images in the mass media. The belief that explicit sexual images in the media
(pornography) are something that cause disgust creates an emotional label for the
 Physiological and Psychological Reactions 547

experience. A person who feels guilty in general about the enjoyment of experience of
sexuality should feel more negative about any physiological reaction generated by
pornography. Conversely, a person who feels little guilt about sexuality and the
experience of physiological arousal should not have negative emotional reactions to
pornography, rather those feelings or affect should be positive.

Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis was guided by the procedure outlined by Hunter and Schmidt
(1990). The process for statistical analysis in meta-analysis proceeds in five phases.
First, the statistical information is converted from each study into a common metric,
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correcting for various sources of bias or artifact (correction for attenuation,

restriction in range, dichotomization of continuous variables, and bias in r). Second,
the effects from each study are averaged to generate an average association across the
sample of studies. The third step consists of assessing the variability of the observed
sample of effects, or homogeneity testing. The fourth step considers whether the
differences observed between individual effects are the result of sampling error or
indicate the probable existence of some moderator variable. The final step might
involve the examination of various systematic sources of influence (often called
moderator variables) that could contribute to the variability of the observed effects.
The test for homogeneity uses a chi-square examination of effect. Homogeneity, or
a nonsignificant chi-square, indicates that the level of variability among the individual
effects can be explained or accounted for by random sampling error. Heterogeneity, or
a significant chi-square, indicates that more variability in the sample of effects exists
than would be expected due to sampling error. The test is essentially between the level
of variability that is expected due to random sampling error, and the level of variability
that is observed in the actual sample of correlations generated from the primary data
reports. Heterogeneity indicates the possible existence of some type of moderator
variable(s) that should be considered in subsequent testing. Any interpretation of the
average correlation in the presence of heterogeneity should be cautious, given the
average might not reflect a single distribution of associations but might be an average
across more than one set of samples.
One possible issue for a meta-analysis is the existence of unpublished studies
demonstrating a null result that would challenge the finding. Rosenthal (1979) termed
this the ‘‘file drawer’’ problem and argued for a technique to demonstrate the degree to
which this is a problem. Hedges and Olkin (1985) provide a formula for a ‘‘fail safe N’’
(see pp. 305
306) that can be used to estimate the number of null studies that would
have to exist for a finding to become nonsignificant. Using a p value of .05, that
estimate is provided for each of the average effects estimated in this meta-analysis.

Results
Connection between the Psychological and Physiological Reaction
Table 1 provides the 33 estimates of a connection between some type of positive
emotional reaction to exposure to sexually explicit material and some measure of
 548 M. Allen et al.

Table 1 The Association Between Physiological Arousal and Positive Psychological

Reaction
Studya Date Affect Measure Physiological r n Gender Stimuli
(Positive) Measure Description

Byrne 1965 Sex Guilt Self-Report .175 88 Male Written

Emotion Self-Report .247 88 Male Written
Coyne 1988 Emotion Physiological .180 88 Male Film
1988 Emotion Physiological .335 88 Male Film
Griffitt 1975 Emotion Self-Report .410 60 Mixed Slides
Griffitt 1978 Sex Guilt Self-Report .580 80 Mixed Slides
Heiman 1975 Emotion Physiological .422 44 Male Audio
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1977 Emotion Physiological .362 77 Female Audio

Heiman 1980 Emotion Self-Report .475 16 Male Audio
Janssen 2003 Emotion Self-Report .440 15 Male Film
Emotion Self-Report .450 15 Female Film
Katz 1970 Sex Guilt Self-Report .000 120 Male Film
Kelley 1984 Sex Guilt Self-Report .127 146 Mixed Film
Kelley 1985 Emotion Self-Report .295 185 Mixed Slides
Kelley 1985 Emotion Self-Report .127 185 Mixed Slides
Kutschinky 1971 Emotion Self-Report .022 72 Mixed Film
Sex Guilt Self-Report .180 72 Mixed Film
Emotion Self-Report .176 72 Mixed Slides
Sex Guilt Self-Report .007 72 Mixed Slides
Laan 1993 Emotion Physiological .348 97 Female Film
Morokoff 1985 Sex Guilt Self-Report .440 92 Female Slides
Mosher 1979 Sex Guilt Self-Report .240 80 Female Film
Emotion Self-Report .203 80 Female Film
Rowland 1987 Emotion Self-Report .000 16 Male Film
Schill 1972 Sex Guilt Self-Report .320 111 Male Written
Schill 1980 Sex Guilt Self-Report .096 42 Male Written
Schmidt 1969 Emotion Self-Report .380 99 Male Slides
Stock 1983 Emotion Self-Report .349 75 Female Audio
Emotion Physiological .195 75 Female Audio
Guilt Self-Report .112 75 Female Audio
Guilt Physiological .127 75 Female Audio
White 1979 Emotion Self-Report .639 25 Male Slides
Sex Guilt Self-Report .604 25 Male Slides
a
First author listed only, see References for complete citation.

physiological arousal. The average correlation was positive, r.212, k 33, N2552,
var. r .039, indicating that as physiological arousal increases, so does the positive
emotional feeling or labeling a person feels about the experience (fail safe N estimates
531 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant). Thus, the stronger the
physiological arousal, the stronger the level of positive emotional feeling experienced
about the event. There is reason to interpret this finding with caution, however,
because the amount of variability was greater than expected due to sampling error,
x2 100.16(32, N 2552), p B.05. This variability indicates the probable existence of
a moderator variable; however it should be noted that all the effects are either zero or
greater than zero, thereby indicating the moderator would distinguish between two or
more classes of positive effects.
 Physiological and Psychological Reactions 549

Examining type of measure as a moderator. The 33 estimates were divided on the

basis of whether the study employed a self-report measure of physiological arousal
(26 estimates) or used only a measure of genital blood volume for sexual arousal
(seven reports). The self-report measures demonstrate a positive association between
physiological arousal and positive emotions, r .195, k 26, N 2089, var. r .044,
based on a heterogeneous set of estimates, x2 91.86(25, N 2089), p B.05 (fail safe
N estimates 788 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant).
Studies using measures of genital blood volume increase report a significantly
larger association between physiological arousal and reporting a positive emotional
response (z 2.02, pB.05, average correlation, r .289, k 7, N463, var. r 
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.0380, and the sample of effects is homogeneous, x2 7.23(6, N 463), p .05

(fail safe N estimates 110 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant). What
this indicates is that the connection between self-reported sexual arousal and
psychological reaction is not as positive as the actual physiological reaction compared
to psychological reaction; however, the difference is not significantly different
(p .052).
Examining gender as a moderator. An examination of whether the effect differed
based on the gender of the participants was undertaken. The first set of 10 studies had
only female participants and the observed effect was a positive correlation between
physiological arousal and positive emotional affect, r .260, k 10, N7417,
var. r .011, based on a homogenous sample of correlations, x2 9.06(9, N 741),
p .05 (fail safe N estimates 254 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant).
The 14 studies with male participants generated a positive correlation between
physiological arousal and positive emotional affect, r .213, k 14, N865,
var. r .046, based on a heterogeneous set of effects x2 47.37(9, N 865), p B.05
(fail safe N estimates 243 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant).
The nine studies that used a mixed sample generated a positive correlation between
physiological arousal and positive emotional affect, r .149, k 9, N 944,
var. r .058, but the effect was still heterogeneous x2 39.2(8, N 944), p B.05
(fail safe N estimates 36 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant). The
impact of gender did not provide a set of results that could be used as a moderator to
explain the original heterogeneity.
Comparison of the average correlations finds no significant difference (p .05)
between the male and female means and the male and mixed average effects. The only
significant difference was the female mean correlation, which was significantly greater
(p B.05) than the average correlation for the mixed gender group.
Examining type of stimulus as a potential moderator. An examination of the use
of different media or channels for presentation of material finds that studies using
sexual material presented in a written form reported a positive correlation between
physiological arousal and positive emotional affect, r .233, k 4, N 329, var. r 
.006, reflecting a homogeneous set of estimates, x2 1.85(3, N 329), p .05 (fail
safe N estimates 25 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant).
Material presented in an audio format generated a positive association between
physiological arousal and psychological reaction, r .271, k 8, N 525, var. r .024,
 550 M. Allen et al.

and the sample of correlations was homogeneous, x2 6.60(7, N 525), p .05 (fail
safe N estimates 121 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant).
Sexual stimuli presented in the form of still pictures generated a positive
association between physiological arousal and psychological labeling of that response,
r .224, k 11, N 1041, var. r.065, but the set of estimates was heterogeneous,
x2 67.38(10, N1041), p B.05 (fail safe N estimates 222 studies must exist to make
the effect nonsignificant).
Finally, the investigations using a film as the sexual stimulus reports a positive
average correlation between physiological arousal and positive emotional affect, r 
.134, k 10, N 657, var. r .028, and was estimated using a homogeneous set of
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estimates, x2 18.24(9, N 657), p .05 (fail safe N estimates 33 studies must exist
to make the effect nonsignificant).
A comparison of the average effects finds no significant differences between the
effects (p .05) with the exception of a significant difference between the average
effect for film and pictures (z 2.44, p B.05).

Examining the Connection on the Basis of Manipulation Sizes

This assessment is an association between the measurement of positive emotional
affect and the level of sexual arousal as measured by the reported changes. The data
are reported for each investigation in Table 2. This assessment is based on the
correlation between positive emotional affect and the level of sexual arousal, using
those studies that reported these measures as manipulation checks only (i.e., did not
provide a basis for a direct report of the relationship between arousal and affect). The
correlation between the two effects, based on 13 studies, is positive (r .223, p B.05),
indicating that the level of positive affect increases as the level of sexual arousal
increases. This is consistent with the report in the first set of results that provides a
direction examination or connection between the two assessments.

Table 2 The Connection of Physiological Arousal and Psychological Reaction Using the
Size of Manipulation
Studya Date Media Stimulus Affect r Arousal r n Gender

Baron 1979 Pictures Sex .417 .457 45 Female

Bond 1986 Text Sex .386 .249 104 Female
Griffitt 1978 Pictures Sex .110 .564 80 Mixed
Kelley 1985 Pictures Sex .127 .127 246 Mixed
Laan 1994 Film Sex .620 .403 53 Female
Mann 1971 Film Sex .217 .217 136 Mixed
Miller 1977 Pictures Sex .276 .325 55 Mixed
Mosher 1979 Film Sex .407 .624 215 Male
Przybyla 1984 Pictures Sex .025 .644 319 Mixed
Schmidt 1973 Text Sex .460 .089 240 Mixed
Schmidt 1975 Films Sex .193 .185 100 Mixed
Sirkin 1985 Audio Sex .166 .164 138 Male
Wallace 1971 Pictures Sex .290 .063 1083 Mixed
a
First author listed only, see References for complete citation.
 Physiological and Psychological Reactions 551

The Responses of Men and Women as a Basis for Comparison

Overall analysis for affect and arousal. Studies comparing the response of men and
women generated the data provided in Table 3.2 Women exhibit greater levels of
negative affect in response to sexual materials than men, r .248, k 19, N 3530,
var. r .029. This effect represents a heterogeneous sample of effects, x2 103.66(18,
N 3530), p B.05 (fail safe N estimates 1710 studies must exist to make the effect
nonsignificant).
The results comparing the level of physiological arousal found a difference between
the men and women, r .134, k 19, N 3530, var. r .024, indicating a higher level
of arousal for men to sexual material. This effect should be considered to represent a
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heterogeneous sample of effects, x2 84.20(18, N 3530), pB.05 (fail safe N

estimates 445 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant).
An examination of the effects correlating the magnitude of physiological arousal
with the differences in the level of psychological labeling finds a significant
association, r.165, p B.05. Basically, as the arousal difference increases,
indicating more male arousal when compared to women, the psychological difference
between men and women becomes larger as well. What this means is that the more
arousing the material is to men, the more psychologically positive the material
becomes to men when compared to women.
Examining the differences based on the type of stimulus. There were three types of
stimuli with sufficient data to permit analyses: (a) film, (b) written, and (c) pictures.
The studies using sexual materials in the form of a film report more positive male
emotional reaction, average r .304, k 9, N2329, var. r .022 (fail safe N

Table 3 Examining the Connection on the Basis of Gender

Studya Date Stimulus Affect Arousal N

Abramson 1975 Film .102 .091 152

Byrne 1973 Mixed .302 .000 42
Cowan 1994 Film .258 .275 182
Garcia 1984 Written .243 .199 125
Gardos 1999 Mixed .443 .201 371
Goodes 2000 Internet .235 .331 506
Griffitt 1973 Pictures .194 .153 40
Jakobovits 1965 Written .000 .252 20
Keir 1972 Film .435 .157 348
Kutchinsky 1971 Film .243 .130 72
Miller 1980 Pictures .037 .129 50
Mosher 1973 Film .319 .106 355
Mosher 1977 Film .000 .000 198
Mosher 1994 Film .421 .266 395
Norris 1991 Written .130 .211 86
Schmidt 1970 Film .133 .060 256
Sigusch 1970 Pictures .040 .110 100
Steele 1974 Pictures .198 .184 200
Veitch 1979 Written .086 .172 32
a
First author listed only, see References for complete citation.
 552 M. Allen et al.

estimates 846 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant), and greater levels
of physiological arousal for men, average r .087, k 9, N 2329, var. r .023 (fail
safe N estimates 51 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant), and both
average correlations were based on heterogeneous samples, emotional reaction,
x2 50.61(8, N 2329), p B.05, and physiological arousal, x2 54.41(8, N2329),
p B.05.
Studies using a written sexual stimulus demonstrated more male arousal, average
r .171, k 5, N 463, var. r.008 (fail safe N estimates 20 studies must exist to
make the effect nonsignificant), and less positive female emotional labeling of that
experience, average r .039, k 5, N 463, var. r .034 (the average effect is
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already nonsignificant so fail safe N cannot be computed). The information on

affective responses was heterogeneous, x2 15.85(8, N 2329), p B.05, whereas
the data sets for physiological arousal indicate homogeneity, x2 3.79(8, N2329),
p .05.
Studies employing still pictures as sexual materials generated greater male sexual
arousal when compared to women’s arousal, average r .126, k 3, N 190, var. r 
.0004 (fail safe N estimates 20 studies must exist to make the effect nonsignificant),
but women reported less positive emotional reactions, average r .031, k 3,
N 190, var. r.0003 (the average effect is already nonsignificant so fail safe N
cannot be computed). Both sets of data indicate homogeneity among the estimates
used to generate the average effects physiological, x2 0.07(2, N 190), p .05, and
affective, x2 0.05(2, N 190), p .05.
Comparisons of the affective responses indicate that the film and written average
effects are significantly different (pB.05). No difference was found on the basis of the
average arousal comparisons (p .05). The overall pattern of results is consistent with
the overall finding that men experience greater levels of physiological arousal and
report more positive emotional reactions to sexual material than women.

Conclusions
The first two sets of results, direct examination and comparison of manipulations,
support the general idea that as persons are physiologically aroused by sexual
material, they view or label the experience as a positive emotional one. This indicates
that the state of physical arousal generated by sexually explicit material is generally
associated with increases in positive affect or labeling of the experience.
An earlier meta-analysis (Allen & D’Alessio, 1993) found that the sexual arousal (as
measured by an increase in genital blood volume) had the same magnitude for each
sex. That meta-analysis was limited to five studies with a total of 40 participants. This
investigation accumulates more studies and a much larger sample size. A formal test
of the statistical difference between the average effects finds no difference (p .05).
The current investigation examines not only emotional or physiological reaction to
sexually explicit material, but whether sex moderates that connection as consistent
with stereotypical views of gender appropriate behavior (which are partially
generated by the media, see Herrett-Skjellum & Allen, 1996).
 Physiological and Psychological Reactions 553

Mosher’s (1966, 1968) views on the sex guilt response by female respondents
receives limited validation. The responses demonstrate that women do respond
positively to sexual materials. That is, women, while experiencing sexual arousal, do
experience, on average, positive affect in response to the arousal. That level of arousal
is smaller than that experienced by men and the level of positive psychological
response is less than that experienced by men. Viewed in absolute terms (whether the
psychological affect is negative), the findings are inconsistent with Mosher’s
argument; viewed in relative terms (level of positive affect among men versus
women), the findings are consistent.
The last set of results supports the idea that women react less positively to the
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experience of sexual arousal than men. That difference is not explainable simply as a
function of women experiencing less sexual arousal. While men do experience more
arousal, the magnitude of the negative affect reported by women was greater. This
indicates that the size of the difference is more than simply the result of a small
difference in the magnitude of sexual arousal. This finding suggests that women are
interpreting the arousal pattern differently. Considering Malamuth’s contention
(1996), such gender differences could be explained on the basis of the expectations
for sexual behavior. While the physiological reaction occurs, women might view the
material as less emotionally pleasing for a variety of reasons. For example, as noted
earlier, women are socialized to experience sexual gratification with caution due to
the potential personal, relational, or social risk of being viewed in a sexual fashion.
Second, because the outcome of the relationship or the interaction between the man
and woman in the sexual depiction is not associated with outcomes that women seek
from sexual encounters, women might incur an unpleasant experience with the
sexually explicit material. Specifically, women are more inclined to value the
relationship, not sexual objectification (Byers, 1996; Emmers-Sommer, 2002).
Women seek relational outcomes associated with various resources (e.g., good
provider) (Buss, 1989), and the failure of the woman to obtain those outcomes from
the sexual encounter makes the depiction ‘‘incomplete’’ and the outcome uncertain.
According to Malamuth’s perspective, the women are simply viewing the outcomes of
a single sexual encounter that, regardless of any physiological feeling, is devoid of
other necessary rewards for the encounter to be viewed as desirable and beneficial.
What this implies is that the content of the interaction, to be found satisfying or
pleasant for women, must include some additional (as well as different in many cases)
information. This view is consistent with the analysis by Fine (1988) of the
socialization pattern of adolescent women (particularly from lower SES) that fails to
account for or recognize sexual desire. The impact of abstinence or antisex education
programs provides feelings of guilt and shame as a basis for the evaluation of sexual
desire.
Future research needs to examine the nature of expectations for what outcomes are
sought by sexual interaction. If the material in this set of studies used classic male-
oriented materials, it may very well be the case that the difference between men and
women in terms of emotional reaction reflects the failure of the material to include
content that women would find desirable as part of the sexual encounter. If an
 554 M. Allen et al.

experiment was to compare how material targeted toward a heterosexual male

audience differs from material targeted at a heterosexual female audience, the effects
may not exist, or they might reverse themselves to match the particular content of the
material. A meta-analysis examining the difference between men and women and
conflict style preference finds that men prefer more competitive styles and women
more cooperative means of resolving conflict (Gayle, Preiss, & Allen, 1994). However,
when the stimulus situations are rated on the basis of the probability of being
encountered by men and women the gender difference vanishes (Gayle et al., 1998).
What this suggests is that the differences observed in this meta-analysis may be
explained by the nature of the stimulus favoring a male point of view of sexuality.
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Additional research must be conducted to determine whether female-oriented

material would produce the same results.
The issue of how an individual’s sexual orientation (in all its forms) influences
the reaction to material containing sexual images creates a fundamental challenge for
the understanding of the effects of pornography. The choice to consume a media
image with a high degree of sexuality should be related to the assumptions about the
gratification provided by that image. While sexual images are prevalent in many
forms of media that a person may be involuntarily exposed to, the majority of explicit
sexual images require a choice to consume (renting or buying a film, book, or
magazine).
One issue that could not be addressed was the order of the reactions by the person
to the media. Miller, Byrne, and Fisher (1980) tested the idea that the ordering of the
physiological and psychological effects is important. This ordering is critical because
the distinction between deciding that material is sexual, and therefore generating a
physiological response, versus experiencing a physiological response that one must
emotionally label represents a fundamentally different set of processes.
The problem of those arguing for limitations on the basis of the panoply of meta-
analytic findings linking harm and/or other effects to pornography is that the effects
are not uniform across the population. The findings do support the views of Izard
(1991) and Buck (1999), who argue for the need to consider the physiological
reaction as a lower order biological process that requires and causes or creates the
need for additional higher order interpretation. This meta-analysis provides evidence
that simple physiological explanations are insufficient to explain reactions and
require a higher order connection to a psychological state or evaluation to interpret
the perspective of the participant.
The data in this report provide for a more complete understanding of the
connection between the physiological and the psychological responses generated by
erotic material. Understanding this possible relationship assists in interpreting and
contextualizing the possible set of theoretical issues that require consideration when
examining the impact of media on social behavior and attitudes. The overall results of
this summary indicate that the connection between physiological response and
ultimate psychological integration of the response into one’s psychosexual system is
not simple. The fact that a particular set of material is sexually arousing does not
necessarily indicate the psychological state (affect) of the person viewing the material.
 Physiological and Psychological Reactions 555

Notes
[1] Based on the suggestions of one reviewer, an effort was made to code for the content of the
stimulus (nudity, consensual sex, forced sex) similar to other previous meta-analyses (Allen,
D’Alessio, & Brezgel, 1995; Allen et al., 1999; Allen, Emmers, et al., 1995). Unfortunately, the
data do not exist in the variety or in a recoverable format to permit this analysis.
[2] It should be noted that examination of the three data tables demonstrates only a few studies
that occur across the tables. That means that the data showing a greater sex difference in
emotional versus physiological response is largely independent of the data that shows a
similar correlation between emotional and physiological responses for males and females.
This fact should be taken into consideration when comparing the implications of each
analysis. Incomplete and inconsistent reporting of statistical information contributed to this
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outcome.

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