1. What do you mean by Data Communication?

The process of transmission of information from one location to another location is called data communication. Certain hardware,software and procedures are used in Data Communication. 2. What is Simplex? Simplex is one direction. Ex: Keyboard to cpu. 3. What is half duplex?
A half-duplex (HDX) system provides communication in both directions, but only one direction at a time (not simultaneously). Typically, once a party begins receiving a signal, it must wait for the transmitter to stop transmitting, before replying (antennas are of trans-receiver type in these devices, so as to transmit and receive the signal as well). Ex- Walkie Talkie

4. What is Full duplex? A full-duplex (FDX), or sometimes double-duplex system, allows communication in both directions, and, unlike half-duplex, allows this to happen simultaneously. Land-line telephone networks are full-duplex, since they allow both callers to speak and be heard at the same time. A good analogy for a full-duplex system would be a two-lane road with one lane for each direction. Ex-Mobile phone 5. What is Network? A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams. 6. What is distributed Processing? Distributed processing is a phrase used to refer to a variety of computer systems that use more than one computer (or processor) to run an application. This includes parallel processing in which a single computer uses more than one CPU to execute programs. More often, however, distributed processing refers to local-area networks (LANs) designed so that a single program can run simultaneously at various sites. Most distributed processing systems contain sophisticated software that detects idle CPUs on the network and parcels out programs to utilize them. 7. What is Point to Point Connection? In networking, the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link protocol commonly used in establishing a direct connection between two networking nodes. It can provide connection authentication, transmission encryption , and compression. 8. What is Multipoint Connection? 9. What is Topology? A connection with more than two endpoints or nodes.

Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer. 10. Define Lan man and Wan. One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network. Common examples of area network types are:

LAN - Local Area Network WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network WAN - Wide Area Network MAN - Metropolitan Area Network SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area Network CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area Network PAN - Personal Area Network DAN - Desk Area Network

LAN and WAN were the original categories of area networks, while the others have gradually emerged over many years of technology evolution. 11. Define Internet. The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail. 12. What is a Protocol? A uniform set of rules that enable two devices to connect and transmit data to one another. Protocols determine how data are transmitted between computing devices and over networks. They define issues such as error control and data compression methods. The protocol determines the following: type of error checking to be used, data compression method (if any), how the sending device will indicate that it has finished a message and how the receiving device will indicate that it has received the message. Internet protocols include TCP/IP (Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), and SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). 13. What is TCP/IP Protocol Model? The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a descriptive framework for the Internet Protocol Suite of computer network protocols, The TCP/IP model describes a set of general design guidelines and implementations of specific networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over a network. TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. Protocols exist for a variety of different types of communication services between computers. 14. Describe the functions of the five layers. Link Layer The Link Layer (or Network Access Layer) is the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the link in Internet literature. This is the lowest component layer of the Internet protocols, as TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent. As a result TCP/IP is able to be implemented on top of virtually any hardware networking technology.

The Link Layer is used to move packets between the Internet Layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device driver for the network card, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets. These will perform data link functions such as adding a packet header to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over a physical medium. The TCP/IP model includes specifications of translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to data link addressing, such as Media Access Control (MAC), however all other aspects below that level are implicitly assumed to exist in the Link Layer, but are not explicitly defined. This is also the layer where packets may be selected to be sent over a virtual private network or other networking tunnel. In this scenario, the Link Layer data may be considered application data which traverses another instantiation of the IP stack for transmission or reception over another IP connection. Such a connection, or virtual link, may be established with a transport protocol or even an application scope protocol that serves as a tunnel in the Link Layer of the protocol stack. Thus, the TCP/IP model does not dictate a strict hierarchical encapsulation sequence. Internet Layer The Internet Layer solves the problem of sending packets across one or more networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is calledrouting.[8] In the Internet Protocol Suite, the Internet Protocol performs two basic functions:

Host addressing and identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical addressing system (see IP address). Packet routing: This is the basic task of getting packets of data (datagrams) from source to destination by sending them to the next network node (router) closer to the final destination.

IP can carry data for a number of different upper layer protocols. These protocols are each identified by a unique protocol number: for example, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively. Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as ICMP (used to transmit diagnostic information about IP transmission) and IGMP (used to manage IP Multicast data) are layered on top of IP but perform internetworking functions. This illustrates the differences in the architecture of the TCP/IP stack of the Internet and the OSI model. Transport Layer The Transport Layer's responsibilities include end-to-end message transfer capabilities independent of the underlying network, along with error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers). End to end message transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection-oriented, implemented inTransmission Control Protocol (TCP), or connectionless, implemented in User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The Transport Layer can be thought of as a transport mechanism, e.g., a vehicle with the responsibility to make sure that its contents (passengers/goods) reach their destination safely and soundly, unless another protocol layer is responsible for safe delivery. The Transport Layer provides this service of connecting applications through the use of service ports. Since IP provides only a best effort delivery, the Transport Layer is the first layer of the TCP/IP stack to offer reliability. IP can run over a reliable data link protocol such as the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC). Protocols above transport, such as RPC, also can provide reliability. For example, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues to provide a reliable byte stream:

data arrives in-order data has minimal error (i.e. correctness) duplicate data is discarded lost/discarded packets are resent includes traffic congestion control

The newer Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism. It is Message-stream-oriented not byte-stream-oriented like TCP and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multi-homing support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport SS7 over IP), but can also be used for other applications. User Datagram Protocol is a connectionless datagram protocol. Like IP, it is a best effort, "unreliable" protocol. Reliability is addressed through error detection using a weak checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video, Voice over IP etc.) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like DNSlookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a datagram protocol that is designed for real-time data such asstreaming audio and video. TCP and UDP are used to carry an assortment of higher-level applications. The appropriate transport protocol is chosen based on the higher-layer protocol application. For example, the File Transfer Protocol expects a reliable connection, but the Network File System (NFS) assumes that the subordinate Remote Procedure Call protocol, not transport, will guarantee reliable transfer. Other applications, such as VoIP, can tolerate some loss of packets, but not the reordering or delay that could be caused by retransmission. The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention certain well known ports are associated with specific applications. (See List of TCP and UDP port numbers.) Application Layer The Application Layer refers to the higher-level protocols used by most applications for network communication. Examples of application layer protocols include the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and theSimple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).[9] Data coded according to application layer protocols are then encapsulated into one or (occasionally) more transport layer protocols (such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP)), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data transfer. Since the IP stack defines no layers between the application and transport layers, the application layer must include any protocols that act like the OSI's presentation and session layer protocols. This is usually done through libraries. Application Layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as "black boxes" which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate, although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the end point IP addresses and port numbers. As noted above, layers are not necessarily clearly defined in the Internet protocol suite. Application layer protocols are most often associated with clientserver applications, and the commoner servers have specific ports assigned to them by the IANA: HTTP has port 80;Telnet has port 23; etc. Clients, on the other hand, tend to use ephemeral ports, i.e. port numbers assigned at random from a range set aside for the purpose. Transport and lower level layers are largely unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers and switches do not typically "look inside" the encapsulated traffic to see what kind of application

protocol it represents, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some firewall and bandwidth throttling applications do try to determine what's inside, as with the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). It's also sometimes necessary for Network Address Translation (NAT) facilities to take account of the needs of particular application layer protocols. (NAT allows hosts on private networks to communicate with the outside world via a single visible IP address using port forwarding, and is an almost ubiquitous feature of modern domestic broadband routers).

15. What is Multiplexing?

multiplexing (also known as muxing) is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing originated in telegraphy, and is now widely applied in communications.

16. What is ISO-OSI Model?

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection effort at the International Organization for Standardization. It is a prescription of characterizing and standardizing the functions of a communications system in terms of abstraction layers. Similar communication functions are grouped into logical layers. An instance of a layer provides services to its upper layer instances while receiving services from the layer below.

17. How data is transmitted in a medium? Transmitted in the form of bits (1s and 0s of computer code) 18. Compare analog and digital signals. 19. Define bandwidth. 20. What are the factors on which data rate depends? Data rate depends on three factors: a. The bandwidth available b. The level of the signals we use c. The quality of the channel (the level of noise) 21. Define bit rate and bit Interval. Bit Rate-The transmission rate of binary symbols (0 and 1), equal to the total number of bits transmitted in one second sent or received across a network or communications channel, abbreviated as bps (bits per second), a measure of data transmission speed. Bit interval, also known as bit time, refers to the amount of time a digital signal is left at a particular voltage level to indicate a value. Usually, the level will indicate the value of a single bit, but it is possible to encode more than a single bit in a voltage level, thereby transmitting more than one bit in a single bit interval. In general, the longer the bit interval, the slower the transmission rate. For example, when encoding a single bit at a time, a bit interval of .01 second means a transmission rate of only 100 bits per second (bps). 22. What is Nyquist Bit rate formula? The Nyquist rate is the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing, equal to twice the highest frequency contained within the signal.

23. Define Shannon Capacity. channel capacity is the tightest upper bound on the amount of information that can be reliably transmitted over a communications channel. By the noisy-channel coding theorem, the channel capacity of a given channel is the limiting information rate (in units of information per unit time) that can be achieved with arbitrarily small error probability. 24. What is sampling? Sampling is the key technique used to digitize analog information 25. Define Pulse amplitude modulation. Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) is the transmission of data by varying the amplitude s ( voltage or power levels) of the individual pulses in a regularly timed sequence of electrical or electromagnetic pulses. 26. What is nyquist Theorem? 27. What are the modes of Data Transmission? Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex connections 28. What is Asynchronous data transmission mode? Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a standard switching technique designed to unify telecommunication and computer networks. It uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing,[1][2] and it encodes data into small, fixed-sized cells. 29. What is synchronous data transmission mode?
Synchronous systems negotiate the communication parameters at the data link layer before communication begins. Basic synchronous systems will synchronize the signal clocks on both sides before transmission begins, reset their numeric counters and take other steps. More advanced systems may negotiate things like error correction and compression.

30. Name the Different types of Multiplexing. space-division multiplexing (SDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and code division multiplexing (CDM) 31. Define Pulse code modulation. Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the standard form for digital audio in computers and various Blu-ray, Compact Disc and DVD formats, as well as other uses such as digital telephone systems. A PCM stream is a digital representation of an analog signal, in which the magnitude of the analogue signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, with each sample being quantized to the nearest value within a range of digital steps. 32. What is FDM? 33. What are the different Types of transmission medium? 34. What are different guided medium? Twisted Pair , Optical Fibers , Coaxial cables 35. Describe the different guided medium. 36. What is wireless communication?

37. What do you mean by switching? Switching is a process which uses the hardware address or MAC address of a device to switch a packet from one device to another. 38. What are the switching methods? 39. What are the duties of Data link Layer?
Data Link layer is the 2nd layer of the OSI model. It is used for the reliable transfer of data across data link being used. Data Link Layer gets the raw data from physical layer try to make physical link reliable and provides the methods to activate and maintain the link. It gives guarantee to the higher layers that data send by this layer will be free of errors. It attempts to detect and recover the data that it gets from physical layer. It uses two protocols as HDLC and LLC for providing its services. HDLC is known as high Level Data link Control. It is used on point to point data links. It can also be used on multi point data links. We can use it in a number of different ways because it is a general purpose data link control protocol. LLC is known as Logical Link Control. Its function is to provide reliable transfer of data across the data link between two communication bodies. By using unacknowledged connectionless service user can initiate the transfer of data service with minimum protocol overheads. By using connection oriented services user can establish a logical connection, before sending the transfer of any data service.

40. What are the types of the errors? 41. What do you mean by Redundancy? 42. Define Parity check. parity checking refers to the use of parity bits to check thatdata has been transmitted accurately. The parity bit is added to every data unit (typically seven or eight bits ) that are transmitted. The parity bit for each unit is set so that all bytes have either an odd number or an even number of set bits. 43. Define CRC. 44. What is hamming Code? 45. What do you mean by flow Control? In data communications, flow control is the process of managing the pacing of data transmission between two nodes to prevent a fast sender from outrunning a slow receiver. It provides a mechanism for the receiver to control the transmission speed, so that the receiving node is not overwhelmed with data from transmitting node. Flow control should be distinguished from congestion control, which is used for controlling the flow of data when congestion has actually occurred [1]. Flow control mechanisms can be classified by whether or not the receiving node sends feedback to the sending node. Flow control is important because it is possible for a sending computer to transmit information at a faster rate than the destination computer can receive and process them. This can happen if the receiving computers have a heavy traffic load in comparison to the sending computer, or if the receiving computer has less processing power than the sending compute 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. What do you mean by error Control? Define Stop n Wait ARQ. Define Go-Back ARQ. Define Selective Repeat ARQ What do you mean by pipelining? Is there any pipelining in error control? What is HDLC?

Short for High-level Data Link Control, a transmission protocol used at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI seven layer model for data communications. The HDLC protocol embeds information in a data frame that allows devices to control data flow and correct errors. HDLC is an ISO standard developed from the Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) standard proposed by IBM in the 1970's. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. What do you mean by Point to Point Protocol? What do you mean by Point to Point Protocol stack? What do you mean by line control protocol? What do you mean by authentication protocol? What do you mean by Network control protocol? What do you mean by CSMA? What is Bluetooth? What is IP address? What do you mean by Sub netting?

Subnetting is essentially the modification of a single IP network to create two or more logically visible sub-sections. It entails changing the subnet mask of the local network number to produce an even number of smaller network numbers, each with a corresponding range of IP addresses. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. What are the advantages of Optical Fibers? What are the disadvantages of Optical Fibers? What are the propagation types of radio waves? What do you mean by Geosynchronous Satellites? What are the factors that determine the suitability of a medium? What do you mean by Medium access control (MAC) sub-layer ? What do you mean by ALOHA? What is Pure ALOHA? What is Slotted ALOHA? What do you mean BY persistent CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)? What do you mean BY non-persistent CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)? What do you mean BY p-CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)? What is FDDI? What are Firewalls? What is Repeater? What is Bridge? What is Router? What is Gateway? What do you mean by Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)? What do you mean by Data Terminating Equipment (DCE)? What is Protocol Stack? What is Peer? What is broadcasting? What are the advantages of broadcasting network? What do you mean by Point to point Network? What are design issues of Layers? What is the protocol of the application layer? What is the protocol of the transport layer? What is TCP?

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. TCP is one of the two original components of the suite, complementing the Internet Protocol (IP), and therefore the entire suite is

commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP provides reliable, ordered delivery of a stream of bytes from a program on one computer to another program on another computer. TCP is the protocol that major Internet applications such as the World Wide Web, email, remote administration and file transfer rely on. Other applications, which do not require reliable data stream service, may use the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which provides a datagram service that emphasizes reduced latency over reliability. 90. What is UDP? The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members of the Internet Protocol Suite, the set of network protocols used for the Internet. With UDP, computer applications can send messages, in this case referred to as datagrams, to other hosts on an Internet Protocol (IP) network without requiring prior communications to set up special transmission channels or data paths. The protocol was designed by David P. Reed in 1980 and formally defined in RFC 768.UDP uses a simple transmission model without implicit handshaking dialogues for providing reliability, ordering, or data integrity. Thus, UDP provides an unreliable service and datagrams may arrive out of order, appear duplicated, or go missing without notice. UDP assumes that error checking and correction is either not necessary or performed in the application, avoiding the overhead of such processing at the network interface level. Time-sensitive applications often use UDP because dropping packets is preferable to waiting for delayed packets, which may not be an option in a real-time system.[1] If error correction facilities are needed at the network interface level, an application may use the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) which are designed for this purpose. 91. 92. 93. 94. Define IP? What is client server model? What kind of information does the computer needs for TCP/IP internet? What is Domain Name System (DNS)?

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical distributed naming system for computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities. Most importantly, it translates domain names meaningful to humans into the numerical identifiers associated with networking equipment for the purpose of locating and addressing these devices worldwide.

95. What is TELNET? Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a bidirectional interactive textoriented communications facility using a virtual terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet control information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). 96. What do you mean by Local login and remote login? 97. What is Network virtual Terminal? 98. What do you mean by Simple Mail Transfer protocol? 99. What is HTTP? 100. What is Url? 101. What is HTML?