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On the excitation of a circular loop antenna by

travelling-and standing-wave current distributions
a
S. ADENIYI ADEKOLA
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering , University of Lagos, Akoka,
Yaba , Lagos , West Africa , Nigeria
Published online: 25 Apr 2007.
To cite this article: S. ADENIYI ADEKOLA (1983) On the excitation of a circular loop antenna by travelling-and standing-wave
current distributions, International Journal of Electronics, 54:6, 705-732, DOI: 10.1080/00207218308938771
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207218308938771
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INT. J. ELECTRONICS, 1983, VOL. 54, No.6, 705-732
Tutorial review paper
On the excitation of a circular loop antenna by travelling-

and standing-wave current distributions
S. ADENIYI ADEKOLA t
Presented here is an exact fonnulation of the electric and magnetic (EM) fields
Downloaded by [The University of Manchester Library] at 22:50 18 December 2014
radiated by a circular loop antenna, assuming both travelling. and standing-wave

cur-rent distributions. By using a differential current element positioned in an
azimuthal direction as the starting point, the paper systematically develops the
EM fields radiated by the circular loop via a vector potential theory. This approach
leads to a general integral representation for tho radiation characteristics of the loop
antenna where we completely evaluate the resulting expressions. when the excita-
tions of the loop assume travelling- and atanding-wave distribution forms. In
addition, this paper briefly examines a method to generate approximately such
current distributions by coupling the loop to a two- or four. wire transmission line.
Furthermore, the paper discusses a graphical representation of the current distribution
plotted as a function of frequency or loop size. From the field expressions determined,
we derive generalized closed-form results for some important design parameters for
the loop antenna. These parameters include the radial component of the Poynting
vector, the total power radiated by the loop, the directivity, the radiation resistance,
and the effective area and height of the antenna. when we specialize to the
important case of uniform current excitation, the exact values of the parameters
deduced from the general expressions, are summarized and exhibited in a compre-
hensive table. This table facilitates the computations of these important physical
parameters. Further analysis involving small argument and asymptotic approxi-
mations in the results for the travelling-wave current excitation leads to closed-form
expressions in terms of tabulated functions. Numerical results presented, include
the fields radiated by the loop when the standing-wave current excitation admits n
Fourier series representation. The present approach via potential theory reveals
that the fields can be calculated in any arbitrary direction: this is consistent with a
previous observation of Knudsen (1951, 1953) who employed a different approach.
1. Introduction
Many years ago, Knudsen (1953) used a limiting approach to calculate the
electromagnetic fields radiated by a circular loop antenna, and successfully
elucidated the incompleteness of an earlier result reported by Sherman (1944)
who, by implication, concluded that the fields can only be determined along
the loop axis, and in a plane that is perpendicular to the loop axis. Sherman's
solution is limited by a somewhat restrictive assumption concerning the argu-
ment of the Bessel function appearing in the solution of the problem. Later,
Martin Jr. (1960), by using a direct integration method, gave an outline of the
appropriate vector potentials of the problem, but the actual field expressions
were not explicitly determined.
Motivated by these developments, we establish compact expressions here
for the electromagnetic fields of the loop via a vector potential formulation in
Received 23 August 1982; accepted 30 Septem ber 1982.

t Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of
Lagos, Akoka, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria, West Africa.
70U S. Adeniyi Adekola
a ITIlLIlnCr similar to the one used by Martin Jr. (1960). First, from the field
expressions determined for a travelling-wave current excitation, explicit
derivations, given in generalized closed-forms, are made in this paper, for the
following quantities, that are of practical interest: the radial Poynting vector
of thc ficlds radiated by the loop, the total power radiated, the radiation
rcsistance, the average power density, the directivity, and the effective area
and height of the loop antenna. The above parameters, deduced from the
generalized expressions stated above for a special case of uniform current
excitation, are provided in the form of a table for ease of reference. Also,
after some simplifying and analytical approximations, we evaluate the design
parameters itemized for small argument approximations, as well as for asymp-

totic conditions. Second, when the standing-wave distribution assumed for
thc current excitation is represented by a Fourier series, it is found that the
numerical results computed from the analytical. expressions derived are
consistent with a major conclusion of Knudsen (1953), that the field can be
calculated in any arbitrary direction.
2. Formulation
We consider a radiating circular source of radius a, lying in the XY plane,
as indicated in Fig. 1. A differential current element of length dl' = ad</>',
positioned along the azimuthal direction ~', is used as the starting point.
~:--+---+----l----,,.....-----_Y
-
Figure 1. Problem geometry of the circular loop antenna described in the spherical
coordinate system.
Excitation 0/ 0 circular loop antenna 707
The field radiated by the loop is to be determined at the far field point
symbolized by P in Fig. I.
The vector potential A of the problem is readily written as
A = (/l-/47T) JJJ
v·
J'([exp (- jkR)]/R) d V'
where /l- is the permeability, V' represents a volumetric region bounded by a

regular surface S', J' stands for the current density per unit area flowing in
the circular loop, k is the wavenumber, R = jill = Ii' - i" [, described in Fig. I,
is the distance between the source point and the field point P, i' and i" are
the vectors from the origin to the field and source points, respectively, and j
is of course, v(- I). All the primes used here indicate quantities relating
to the source point. If t: is the total current flowing in the loop, then
l' =4/1(¢'), where ~', defined clearly in Fig. I, is a unit vector in the azi-
muthal direction, and the volume integral becomes a line integral, because,
then d V' goes over to ad¢'. Consequently, the vector potential stated above
reduces to the expression
A = (/l-/47T) § ¢'IW)[(exp (- jkR))/R] ad¢' (I)
where an exp (jwt) time variation assumed has been suppressed here, and
henceforth. When we invoke the well-known far field approximations in the
geometry depicted in Fig. 1, the distance R appearing in the denominator of
eqn. (I) can be approximated as R csr, while R that appears in the phase
term, can be written as R c::: r - r . i", where r( = i' /I i' I) is a unit vector in the
radial direction. A careful examination of :Fig. 1 also shows that the follow-
i!1g representations can easily be made
r= x cos ¢ sin e+ 17 sin ¢ sin e+ i cos e
i" = xa cos ¢' + ya sin ¢'
r . i" =0 sin ecos (¢- ¢')
where (x, y, i) are the unit vectors in the (x, y, z) directions, respectively.
If we carry out the integration along the circular loop, and then employ
the approximations discussed in the preceding paragraph, eqn. (I) becomes
2"
_4 =[(/l-aexp (- jkr))/47Tr] J ~'I(¢') exp (jkosin e cos (¢-¢')) d¢' (2)
o
rt is well known that, in' the far field where r is very large, E is given by
E= -jw(A-rA r)= -.iw(OAe+~A¢) (3)
where w is the frequency in rad/s, and A r, A o and A¢ stand for the r-, e- and
¢-components of the vector potential, respectively.
We now proceed to show how A e and A¢ can be determined such that the
e- and ¢-components of the electric field can be evaluated. Since it is well
known that in the far field the transformation from the rectangular cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z) to the spherical polar coordinates (r, e, ¢) is given by
e cos ¢ esin ¢ e
)( ~ )
sin sin cos
(J( cos e cos ¢
-sin ¢
cos e sin ¢
cos ¢
-sin e
o
(3 oj
708 S. Adeniyi Adekola
it follows naturally, with appropriate specialization, that
(A ~:) =( :~:::::: .:~:::::: ~:~nOo )(:0:)·

y
Equation (3 a) implies that

-sin</> cos</> 0
(3b)
~'= -x' sin <P' +Y' cos </>' (3 c)

(3 c) is used in eqn. (2), we can write the vector potential such
When eqn.
that
."1- =x"A ,,+1/A'A 11 (4 )
where
2.
A x= - [(JLfl exp (- jkr»/41rr] J sin </>'1«/>')
o
x exp [jka sin 0 cos (</> - </>')] d</>' (4 a)

while
A,,=[(JLa exp (-,jkr»/4m] J cos </>'1(</>')

o
x exp [jka sin 0 cos (</> - </>')] d</>' (4 b)
An examination of eqn. (3 b) reveals that the 0- and </>-components of the
vector potential can be described by expressions given by
."1 0 = cos 0 cos </>Ax+cos O·sin </>A lI }
and (4 c)
."1(> = - sin </>A x + cos </>A 11
1£ use is made of eqns. (4 a) and (4 b) in eqn. (4 c), then we obtain the follow-
ing equations for the component potentials A o and A¢
An = [{JLa exp ( - ,jkr»/41rr] cos 0 J 1(</>') sin (</> - </>')

o
x exp [jka sin 0 cos (</> - </>')] d¢/ (4 d)
and
2.
A¢=[(l"fleXp (-jkr»/4m] J I(</>') cos (q,-q,')
o
x exp [jka sin 0 cos (</>- </>')] d</>' (4 e)
When these expressions are employed in eqn. (3), we readily obtain the 0-
and </>-components of the electric field given as
2fT
En(O, </» = [( - jWJLa exp (- jkr»/41rr] cos 0 Jo I(</>') sin (</> - </>')
x exp [jka sin 0 cos (</> - </>')] d</>' (5)

Excitation of a circular loop antenna 709
and
E1>( e, cP) = [( - jWfLa exp ( - jkr))/41'r] J J (.p') cos (cP - cP')

o
x exp (jka sin ecos (cP - cP')) dcP' (6)
Equations (5) and (6) reveal that the field radiated by the circular loop
antenna in free space, consists of e- and cP-components. We seek to analyse
these components further in the following, where travelling- and standing-wave
distribution that are of great practical significance, are assumed for the excita-
tion currents.
3. Travelling-wave current representation

Let us now examine analytically, the field generated in free space, when
the electric current in the loop assumes a travelling-wave distribution. This
is important because it enables us to obtain some physically meaningful
interpretations of the results, and because it may serve as a check with other
solutions obtained previously in the literature through a different approach,
Consider, for example, a current excitation described as
(7)
where J o is a complex constant. The symbol n is an integral number which

makes the current phase to increase by multiples of 21' as the current travels
round the loop. When eqn. (7) is substituted into eqn. (5), this current
distribution generates an electric field in free space given by
Eo(e, cP) = [( - jWfLaJo exp (- jkr))/41'r] cos e J exp (jncP')

o
xsin(cP-cP')exp(j'cos(cP-cP'))dcP' (8)
where' =ka sin e, If we make a change of variables, eqn. (8) simplifies to

the following expression after a few steps
Eo(e, cP) = [(jwfLal o exp (- jkr))/41'r] cos e exp (jncP) . tr
X exp (jn1'/2){J nHal +J n-Ial) (9)

When we employ the recurrence property of the Bessel function, eqn. (9)
si mplifies to
Ee( e, cP) = [(jwfL(21'a)J 0 exp ( - jkr))/41'r] cos e

x exp [jn(cP+1'/2)] . {(nJ"allg} (10)
If we now use the fact that WfL =k"l' where "I( = 1201') is the intrinsic imped-
ance of free space, and if G( = 21'a) denotes the loop circumference, where a
is the radius of the loop, then the substitution of these identities in eqn. (10)
yields '
(ll )
710 8. Adeniyi Adekola
where
F~(O, </» = (ng).J"W cos 0 exp [in(g, + 7T/2)J (II a)
Hence
Ih'~(O, </»1 = [n.J,,(ka sin 0)· cos OJ/(kasin 0) ( 12)
where the vertical bars denote an absolute quantity. Because of the depend-
ence of eqn. (11 a) on the exponential term exp [jn(</> + 7Tj2)J, P~(O, </» may
be termed a spiral-phase field (Knudsen 1953).
In It similar manner, an expression for the </>-component of the electric
field will. now be derived when a travelling-wave current distribution is used

as the excitation function. Thus, if we substitute eqn. (7) in the integrand
of eqn. (0) for I ¢(</>'), then the application of certain standard routine steps,
gives the </>.component of the electric field generated in free space as
Because WIJo = k.", and C = 27T(I. as previously stated, we finally have
(14 )
where
(14 (I.)
which implies that
(15)
where the prime used here indicates differentiation with respect to the argu-
ment. The phase dependence of the field on the azimuthal angle </>, is according
to the manner described by eqns. (ll a) and (14 (I.). Because the relations
lJo(O, </» = - E¢(O, </»1"1 and fJ¢(O, </» = Eo(O, </»/." are true for distant fields
radiated in free space, the corresponding magnetic fields are easily deducible
from the results stated above. When these relations are employed, then the
corresponding magnetic fields are given by
( 16)
and
IJ¢(O, </»= [(jkC/ o exp (-,ikr))/47Tr]F o(O, </» (17)
where the auxiliary fields denoted by Fo(f), </» and F'¢( 0, </» are already
defined by eqns. (II a) and (J 4 a), respectively.
:3.1. Generalized closed-form evaluations oj the antenna parameters

We shall investigate some important design parameters of the loop antenna
here. Because the determination of these parameters depends on a knowledge
of the Poynting vector of the fields radiated which are derived in the preced-
ing paragraphs, we shall therefore use the Poynting vector as the starting
point.
Consider, for example, the radial outward flow of complex power per unit
area described by an expression given by (Jordan and Balrnain 1968)
(18)
where the starred symbols denote complex conjugate quantities. In order
to determine the total power radiated, the Poynting vector of the far field,
which is given by the formula above, can be integrated over a large sphere
of radius r such that (Wolff 1966)
2n 11"
IVT = J J P r r 2 sin B·dB de/> (19)

o 0
where IYT stands for the total power flowing through the sphere, P; given by
eqn. (18) is the radial component of the Poynting vector, dA = 1'2 sin 8 d8 de/>
is the infinitesimal area of the solid angle of the sphere defined in the preceding
discussion, and I' is, of course, the distance from the origin to the field point
which is described in Fig. 1. By virtue of eqns. (11), (11 a), (14), (14 a), (16)
and (17), the radial component of the Poynting vector given by eqn. (18),
admits the following determinantal representation after some mathematical
manipulations
where
(20 a)
Again, the prime used above denotes differentiation with respect to the argu-
ment. Equation (20) simplifies to what follows accordingly
(21 )
where, with {= ka sin 8
(21 a)
and
p"nW=K(n 2g 2)J;W sin 2 8 (21 b)
A close examination of eqn. (21 a) reveals that it simplifies to
(21 c)
Consequently. if we substitute eqns. (21 c) and (21 b) in eqn. (21) we obtain
r, n({) = K{( 2n 21{2)J 10 2W -J1O+1WJ n- 1W- [n 2/(ka )2]Jn2W} (22)
This is a well-structured equation which is explicitly expressible in terms of
well known tabulated functions. Indeed, we have the following compact
form (Abramowitz and Stegun 1964, p. 360)
00
P/,(8) = (TJl02/2r2) . (kaI2)2n+2 I Ko(n, m)

111=0
x [(kaf2)2m-2[) o(n, m)(sin 8)2m+210-2

- (kaI2)2mVo(n, m)(sin /lj2m+2n] (23)
where
I<o(n, m)={[( -l)mr(2n+2m+ I)]/[m!r(n+m)r(n+m+ J)
xl'(2n+m+l)]} (230)
and
Uo(n, m)=n 2/[2(n+m)] (23 b)
while
Vo(n,lI/,) = {[(klL)2(n + m) + n 2(n + m + 1)]f[(klL)2(n + m)(n + m + I)]} (23 c)
and I'( . ) is the Gamma function which is tabulated (Abramowitz and Stegun
19(4), while m! is, of course, a factorial notation. The formal substitution
of eqn. (23) into eqn, (19), followed by a utilization of some standard formulae
given by Gradshteyn and Ryzhik (1965, p.3), now leads to the following
closed-form expression for the generalized total power flowing from the
circular loop antenna
00
IV T"(kn) = (7T"/1 0 2/2) . (ka)2"+2 L I<o(n, m)

m=O
x [( Uo(n, m)l'(2m + 2n - 1 )/(4m + 4n - 3)!!)(ka)2m-2

- (Vo(n. m)r(2m+ 2n+ J)/(4m+4n+ 1)!!)(ka)2m] (24)
where (2n)!! = 2·4 ... (2n) or alternatively expressed as (2n)!1 = (n!)2". while
(2n + I)!! = ',3 ... (2n + I). On employing the expression Rrn(ka) = 2 IVTn(ka)/l o2
for the radiation resistance (Wolff 19(6). the radiation resistance is directly
deducible from eqn. (24). This is given by
00
Rr"(ka) ':"7T,,/(ka)2"H L I<o(n, m)No(m, kn) (25)

m=O
where
N 0('11/" kn) = l( Uo(n, m)l'(2m + 2n -1)/(4m + 4n - 3)!!)(ka)2m-2
- (Vo(n, m)r(2m + 2n + 1)/(4m+ 4n + 1 )!!)(ka)2m] (25 n)
~'urthermore, because the average power density can be determined from the
expression P,wn(ka.) = IV T"(ka)/47Tr2, we find without difficulty that
00
P,wn(klL) = ("/1 0 2/8r2)(ka)2"+2 L I<o(n. m)N o('m, kn) (26)

111=0
where eqn, (2,511,) defines the quantity symbolized by No(m, kn), while Pat,"(ka)
is the average power density.
From the structure of eqn. (2:3) it is clear that the maximum of that
expression occurs at the point where () is identically equal to 7T/2. Con-
sequently, this maximum value, denoted by Pr n(7T/2), is given by
00
Prn (7T/ 2) = ("/1 0 2/2r2) . (ka/2)2"H L I<o(n, m)

111=0
Excitation 01 a circular loop antenna 713
In view of the directivity definition given by Dn(ka) = Pr n(1T/2)/Pavn(ka)

according to Wolff (1966), the directivity of the circular loop antenna of
interest here can be obtained if use is made of eqns. (26) and (27). Thus we
have
Dn(ka) = [ Jo Ko(n, m)( Uo(n, m)(ka/2)2m-2 - Vo(n, m)(ka/2)2m) JI

[ 22n m~o Ko(n, m)No(m, ka) J (28)
where Dn(ka) is the generalized expression for the directivity of the loop
antenna. We are now in a position to determine expressions for the effective

area and height of the loop. First, we consider the effective area of the loop.
In this connection, we note that G=gDn(ka), where G is the antenna gain,
and g is the loop efficiency. Consequently, because the effective area is
given by Aen(ka) = ;>"2G/41T, where A is the wavelength, we obtain the following
expression for this physical quantity
(29)
where Dn(ka) is given by eqn. (28). It is important to note that if the antenna
is perfectly efficient, then the efficiency gis identically equal to unity. Accord-
ing to Weekes (1968), the value g=1O-5 can be used as a suitable figure for a
loop antenna that is of interest here. Since the effective height, hen (ka), of
the loop antenna, has been given by Wolff (1966) in the form hen(ka)=
{4R,n A en/11 p/2, it follows directly from eqns. (25) and (29) that
hen(ka) = [(;>..(ka)n+l)/2 n] . {g ,Jo Ko(n, m)[Uo(n, m)(ka/2)2m-2
(30)
It is probably proper to remark here that we need to make some simpli-

fying approximations for meaningful practical applications of the results
obtained above. For example, the properties of these fields for small values
of the loop size are of great practical utility. In addition, there may be
instances in practice, where the antenna parameters for large loop sizes may
be required. Because of these reasons, we shall, in what follows in § 4 of
this paper, investigate the small and large argument approximations of the
results derived in the preceding paragraphs. Before examining the approxi-
mations just alluded to however, we shall consider an important special case
which may be of physical interest.
3.2. A special case

Let us now discuss a special case where the index symbolized by n in the
preceding equations is identically equal to zero. If we are content with this
condition, it should be noted that, the antenna parameters for this particular
case are directly deducible from the generalized results previously derived.
This special case corresponds to a case of physical significance. For example,
7/4 S. Adeniyi Adekola
Description of antenna
Symbols parameters Exact values
P,O( 0) Radial component of the [('1I O' /2r' )(ka/2 )' ] L [,Bm(ka/2)·m
Poynting vector 11/
x sin· m 0]
W TO(ka) Total power radiated by [(1T7Jl o'/2)(ka)'] L [YII/(ka)'m]
the loop m
R,O(ka) Radiation resistance [1T7J(ka)'] L [YII/(ka)'m]

'"
Pa"O(ka) Average power density [('1I o'/8r' )(ka )' ] L [Ym(ka)·m]
II'
DO(ka) Directivity ( ~ [,Bm(ka/2).m]) I(~ [Ym(ka).m])
A."(ka) Effective area (,W;; [,Bm(ka/2)·m] )

I(41T ~ [Ym(ka).m])
h."(ka) Effective height ka): ( g; [,Bm(ka/2).m]) 1/.
Generalized antenna parameters of a circular loop antenna for a uniform current

distribution.
an examination of eqn. (7) reveals that thc antenna excitation current exhibits
a uniform distribution pattern when n. is identically equal to zero, since it is
then dependent upon 1 0 alone.
The Table summarizes the evaluations of the antenna parameters for this
condition, based upon the generalized expressions established in the previous
section. The new coefficient symbolized by f3m appearing in that table,
assumes the following value .
f3,.. = ( - 1) m +l 1'(2/1/ + I) )/(/1/1 (/1/ + I )1'(m )1"(m + I)) (31)
while thc coefficient I'll/ which is also used in the Table,.is related to f3". by
means of
I'm = (f3,..r(2/1/ + 1))/(4/1/ + I)!! (32)
In the Table, the symbol ~ designates summation from zero to infinity.

11/
4. Simplifying approximations for the travelling-wave current loop

It has been shown previously that, an assumption characterized by
lea sin (J < 2 (or a < AI1T) is valid for low frequency approximations of circular
loop antennas, while the condition that a> A can be employed for high frequency
approximations without a sensible error (Wolff 1966). Based on these assump-
tions, we shall consider in this section, the small argument and the asymptotic
Excitation 0/ a circular loop antenna 715
approximations of the antenna parameters established in § 3. First, we start

with a discussion of the small argument approximations. The asymptotic
behaviours are considered next.
4.1. Small argument approximations

When the radius of the loop is less than about one-third of a wavelength,
such that ka sin e< 2, then we can use the small argument approximation of
the Bessel function given by
.]nW --+ ( 2 )n/ f (n + l ) (33)
,-0
Equation (33) substituted into eqn. (20) readily gives the following expression
for the absolute value of the radial component of the Poynting vector when
n>O
(34)
provided that a < >'/1T, while the factor denoted by K is given by eqn. (20 a).
If use is made of the expression of eqn. (20 a) for the factor K, then the above
quantity can be written alternatively as
(34 D.)
It may be stated here that when the antenna parameters for a uniform current
distribution are of interest, in which case the index n assumes a value of 0,
we may resort to the use of the Table, discussed earlier, to evaluate those
parameters. This is because, the values given in that table are exact, and
those parameters can be computed from the evaluations provided in the
table for any desired value of ka or ka sin e, whether the small argument
approximations or the asymptotic values are required. Because ~ =ka sin e,
eqn. (34) simplifies to
(35)
where
(35 a)
When the quantity described by eqn. (34) is used in the integrand of eqn. (19),
we obtain the total power flowing through a sphere of radius r at the far
field, which is characterized by TV Tn(ka), given below, after a few steps
(Gradshteyn and Rvzhik 1965)
TV Tn(ka) =1TTJl o2 X1(n)(ka)2n (36)
where
X1(n) = {[(2n + I)!! - n(2n - 1)1! 1/[2 f(n)(2n - I )1!(2n + 1 )!! J} (36 a)
while
(2n - 1 )!1 = 1.3.5.( ... )(2n - 5)(2n - 3)(2n - I)
If we employ a procedure similar to the one discussed under eqn. (24),
then the radiation resistance is directly deducible from eqn. (36) to give an
expression described as
(37)
71H S. Adeniyi Adekola
Similarly, by virtue of eqn. (36), we can evaluate the average Poynting

vector, namely
(38)
An cxamination of eqn. (35) reveals that the maximum value of that expression
is
(39)
Consequently, on introducing the relation discussed under eqn. (27) for the
diroctivity, we obtain the following expression for the directivity
(40)
where Xo(n) and X1(n) are as defined earlier. It is easy to show that the
directi vity expression described by eqn. (40) can be written in a more convenient
form given as
(40 a.)
after utilizing the fact that ·(2n-I)!!=7T-1/22nr(n+·~) (Abramowitz and
Stegun I !JH4, p.258). Based on this directivity expression, the effective
area can be evaluated as
(41 )
This enables us to compute the effective height of a small loop in the form
(42)
provided that It < A/7T.

H should .be remarked that, all the known' results. derived elsewhere
(Knudsen I !J53) by way of a limiting series process, can be re-established
here by using the present formulation.
4.2. ASYlllptotics
H is stmightforward to show through a complex variable approach that,
thc asymptotic behaviour of the Bessel function .Jna) is
(43)
.It follows directly from this equation that

(44)
and that
(45)
We now deduce two other useful expressions from eqn. (45) when we replace
n by (n+l) to get
(45 a.)
and if we use (n -1) instead of n in eqn. (45) to obtain

(45 b)
In order to determine an expression for the radial component of the Poynting

vector for the asymptotic condition by making use of eqn. (22), we first employ
the recurrence relation of the Bessel function such that
On squaring this quantity, we deduce directly an alternative representat.ion

for the first term of eqn. (22) as
(2n 2 n2)J n 2({) = itJ n_1 2( {) +J n+l 2( {) + 2J,,_IWJ ,,+I({)} (45 c)
By substituting the asymptotic values described by eqns. (44.), (45 a) and
(45 b)in eqn. (45 c), we observe that the first term of eqn. (22) vanishes
because
(45 d)
for all values of n. Consequently, for large radiating loops where the radius
of the loop is greater than a wavelength, we obtain the following expression
for the Poynting vector when eqns. (44) and (45) are substituted into the
second and third terms of eqn. (22)
Pr"W ~K{( -l)n+l[n 2 + (ka)2] sin 2{ - [n 2 _ (ka)2]}f[17{(ka)2] (46)
where K has been described by eqn. (20 a) given earlier. Equation (46)
written in an alternative form when use is made of eqn. (20 a) for K, gives
Prn(ka) -1]I o2{( _1)"+I[n 2 + (ka)2] sin (2ka sin 0)
-[n 2- (ka )2]} / [817r 2ka sin OJ (47)
Therefore, if we employ eqn. (47) in eqn. (19), the total power radiated by the
large loop for the asymptotic condition stated above, then simplifies to the
compact expression that follows after a few steps (Adekola 1980)
(48)
where
(49)
where no( . ) is the highly convergent zeroth-order Weber function which is
tabulated (Jahnke et al. 1960), and where a>'\. It therefore follows from
eqns. (48) and (49), and what has been discussed earlier in § 3.1 concerning
the average power density, that the average power density for the asymp-
totic condition becomes
(50)
Similarly, the radiation resistance assumes the following form

R:(ka) = (171]/2) . [.pon(ka)/(ka)] (51 )
Lt may not be amiss to remark here that if the loop radius is greater than
about one-third of a wavelength, but not large enough for asymptotic approxi-
mations, the approximate formulae derived above cannot be used. We then
have to resort to more precise evaluations by making use of the exact expres-
sions evaluated for the antenna parameters and which are described by eqns.
(20) to (30). respectively.
It is important to note here, however, that the small argument charac-

toristics pass over to the asymptotic behaviours in the region where the
argumcnt is approximately equal to the order of the Bessel function in
question, that is, when ~ ~n.
4.3. Jusiijicaiion. oj the simplijying approximations

One of the practical utilities of the simplifying approximations considered
above is that one can determine a priori, the characteristics of the field
patterns described by eqns. (12) and (15) without extensive explicit computa-
tions. The result so predicted serves both as a check with, and as a useful
guide in experimental measurements and computer calculations. Con-
sequently, accidental errors which may be incurred, can be easily detected

and completely eliminated.
In order to demonstrate this point, let us first of all employ the approxi-
mation that n" 0'3'\, stated earlier in this section. When we invoke this
approximation, it is readily shown that the normalized field expressions
represented by eqns. (12) and (15) pass over into
[0, Yo sin 0], for n = 0
11-"'0 I, IB'¢I] = { Yn(sin O)n-I[eos 0,11,
(12 a)
for n,pO
where
(12 b)
It is worthwhile mentioning that both IFol and IF¢I are independent-of 4>,
und that I B'o I has zero value when n = O. Furthermore, it is readily confirmed
that when 'It,p 0, IF oI exhibits maximum values at
(12 c)
It is also clear that when 'It = 0, the maximum direction of radiation of IF¢I
occurs at the plane of the loop, that is when 0= ,"/2. When n,p 0, eqn. (12 a)
shows that the maximum radiation of IF¢I still occurs at the plane of the
loop. However, eqns. (12 (e) and (12 c) indicate that the field strength JFol
now exhibits maxima at the first and fourth quadrants. As analytical
examples, if 'It assumes the numerical values of I, 2 and 4, then the first set
of maximum points 01 , according to eqn. (12 c), takes the values 0°,45°,60°,
respectively, while the second set of maximum points occurs at 180°, 135°, 120°
for the respective values of n stated above.
Based on the information revealed in the preceding developments, the
pattern behaviours when experimental field measurements of small loops are
made, can be easily conjectured. This n priori information is time saving
and helpful when actual loop measurements are carried out. While no experi-
mental measurements are made in this paper, the points alluded to in the last
paragraph concerning the small loop approximations, can be easily checked
by computing the exact field expressions of eqns. (12) and (15). The results
of these computations are reported in Figs. 2 and 3. Figure 2 depicts the
patterns computed from eqn. (15) describing IF ¢ I. Figure 2 (a) describes
the field pattern when n=2, anda=0·2.\, whilen=4 in both Figs. 2 (b) and (c)
for values of the loop radius a = 0·2'\ and a = 0'4'\, respectively. All these
patterns depict maximum radiation in the. plane of the loop, that is, when
&= 90°. These observations are in agreement with what has been conjectured
in the previous paragraph through simplifying approximations.
Figure 3 depicts the patterns computed from eqn. (12) for IFni. Figure
3 (a) shows that when n = 1, and a = 0·2,\, the pattern maximum values occur
at 0° and 180°. However, if n=2, and a=0·2,\, the two maximum points of
the field strength shown in Fig. 3 (b) occur at 45° and 135°, while Fig. 3 (c)
indicates that when n = 4, the maxima occur at 60° and 120°. All these
observations are also in conformity with the theoretical values predicted by
H-+-+-t-l90'
l.---~_- / 120'
I ::;'2~ I
180'
(a)
H-t-~9O'
~
~
(b)
0'020'
0'10
0·08
0'06
0'04 r---.I:...-"V'!:-""<
0'02
0'00 H-+-++--+H90'
F4l
~
180'
(c)
Figure 2. Exact patterns computed from eqn. (15) for IF¢I.
0'
IF. CO, III I 1-0
0"
If.(O,1ll I
0.8
0-5
~
0-4
0'3
0'2 60"0
30'
0-6
0'4
60'\
0'1 0-2 0
0·0 _+H-49O' 0·0 ~--+--+-+-J90"
180"
(a) (d)
0-30 0"
0" 0-25
0·20 0-20
0'15 0'15
0'10
0'10
0-05 0-05
0·00 90" 0·00 90"
180'
In.2, a.O-lAl
(b) (e)
",1F.<O,;ll
0'060~'
0' •
IFeCO.llll •
g:~~~~3060'' '
30' -,
004 60"\
0-005 (l 0-Q2 0
0·000 90' 0-00 90'
120· 120"
150" 180. 150·
180'
n"'".-4;-,-a",".-c0"'-2"'A"1
-'-:1 In.4. a.0·4AI
(e) (f)
Figure 3. Radiation patterns of /Fol obtained from the exact form (eqn. (12)).
the simplifying approximations. Indeed, Figs. 3 (d), (e) and (f) confirm the
same observations for a = 0·4'\.
4.3.1. Some graphical representations

We now present some interesting graphs with a view to illuminating and
accentuating the significance of some of the parameters analytically derived
in this paper. Because the Poynting vector is the dominant factor used in
assessing the values of these parameters, coupled with the fact that it can be
effectively utilized in the characterization of the output of the loop antenna,
Excitation o] a circular loop antenna i21
we shall first treat the Poynting vector of the fields in some detail here.
Further significance of the Poynting vector in radiating systems is available
in many papers (see, for example, Moullin 1946, Wolff 1966).
Figure 4 (a) is the graphical representation of the Poynting vector described
by eqns. (35) and (35 a) for constant r(;;, 2D2j'\, where D is the diameter of
the loop). The figure shows how the Poynting vector varies with the polar
angle 0, in which the parameter n is in the range 2 ~ n ~ 10. Figure 4 (b)
shows the representation of eqn. (34 a) with the quantity n in the range 2 ~ n ~ 6.
It should be recalled that the variable ~ = ka sin O. We may note that the
curves appearing in Figs. 4 (a) and (b) have been appropriately normalized by
constant factors, such as 10 appearing in the equations describing them.
Once the Poynting vector has been computed, the determination of other
parameters becomes greatly facilitated, as will now be discussed. It is
interesting to point out in passing that all field parameters actually depend
on the auxiliary functions denoted by Xo(n) and X,(n), as are evidenced by
eqns. (35) to (42). For the sake of completeness, therefore, Figs. 4 (c) and
(d) respectively show the profiles obtained when Xo(n) and X,(n) are plotted
on a decibel scale. Thus, apart from suitable multiplicative factors, the
parameters described by eqns. (36) to (39), are structurally similar, since
the defining functions Xo(n) and X1(n) are themselves similar (Figs. 4 (c) and
(d)).
Figure 4 (e) typifies how the directivity expression defined by eqn. (40 a),
increases with n. Because of the similarity between eqns. (40 a) and (41),
the effective area has thesame behaviour as Fig. 4 (e), except for a multiplying
constant.
There are various engineering applications for which these parameters can
be used. Levy (1943) has pointed out, for example, that from the stand-
point of aircraft applications, the so-called antenna effect depends, in a
simple way, on the height of the loop, the number of turns used, and the
spacings existing between turns. In addition, if one multiplies the effective
height by the figure of merit Q, of the loop, the antenna would deliver a high
signal voltage to the amplifier grid of the receiver. The Q of the antenna
can be increased by mechanically coupling the loop to iron cores. Levy
(1943) further outlined how low-impedance and high-impedance loops can be
utilized for aircraft applications, giving the constructional details of a low-
impedance loop employed in military and transport aircrafts.
Because exact expressions have been determined for radiation resistance
in this paper, the radiation resistance for any particular design which may be
of interest can be determined when a travelling-wave current distribution is
assumed. If the radiation resistance is much lower than required, a ferrite
core can be inserted so as to raise the value of the resistance. This is because
the magnetic intensity in the core is correspondingly raised by the insertion
of a ferrite .core in the windings (Wolff 1966). Wolff has shown that the
voltage appearing at the terminals of the loop is expressed in terms of the
effective height he' of the loop as V = Eke; where E is the electric field. The
effective height is proportional to the square root of the radiation resistance
as already discussed in this paper.
In the following, we shall investigate the electromagnetic fields associated
with a standing-wave current excitation.
-8
-20 -4
-40
.s• -8
~
o
~. -60 f -12
.,
ca::. -16
-80
-18 '--'--L-'---.J'---'-'
-100 L..:!J1WlL........L-...LJ
(a) (e)
-20
-60
'9
~ -80
-100 WlJU-,--,-...w-Lw
o 02 0-4 0-6 081-0
-_. ~
(b) (d)
1-0 r-r-r-,--,--r---.-.-=--r-,
0-8
~ 06
~
u
0·4
~ 02
0- 0 ....d.-:':---.l.-:l,...-JL....,L-L-L-.L.J
0:- 50
(e)
Figure 4. Computed antenna parameters such as the Poynting vector (p,n{~)), and
the directivity.
5. Standing-wave current representation

If we choose a standing-wave current distribution, we can represent the
current excitation by a Fourier series in a form given by
00
I¢>(q,')=Iocos(kaq,')= L ancosnq,' (52)

11=0 .
When determining the coefficients ans appearing in eqn_ (52), care must be
taken such that the limits of integration should be from -7T to 7T, in order
that the path of integration does not take us through the source. The
employment of certain standard and routine mathematical techniques, gives
the following evaluation of the coefficients ans after some simplifications
an = [( -l)n2kaI 0 sin (ka7T) J/[7T(k 2a2 - n 2)J (53)

provided that k 2 a 2 i' n 2 _
';' 1000 rr""":r--,---,-,-,-,---,----, 1000

M
o
2
900 K 600
95 980 UJ
a
...::;
~
600
a: a.
:t: :t:
!Z'" 970 ...'"z 400
~ 0-00'" ka"'0-16 UJ
a:
a 960 a:
~
u
200
~ 9500-00
~ 0-04 0-06 0-12 016018
UJ
>
~
0-0
..J
UJ
--~.~ka a: -200
-250
0-0 0-4 0-8 1-2
_ka
(a) (b)
M
'$1 ... 16-0
$1
UJ
a
12
~
.....
:t:
0-0
...z
z
~ -20-0 ~ -4·0
~ -40-0
a:
a-8-0
UJ
~ -60-0 ~ -12-0
!;i ~ 48-0'" ka.,50-0
-80 -0 L...J.-'-~LJ.-'--'-LJ.-'
..J -16-0 -'--'--L...l-,-.L..e-L--<--.J
..J
~ 10-0 10-4 "-6 11-2 11-6 12-0 ~ 48-048-446-849-2 49-650-0
--ka _ka
(c) (d)
Figure 5_ Profiles of the relative current distribution as a function of frequency or
loop size: '1/=0; ---,/>,=30°: -----q,'=45°; _ ..- ..-
r,b'=90°,
The expression determined for the antenna current, which has a functional
depcndence on frequency or loop size in the manner described by eqns. (52)
and (53), will be further investigated here. Figures 5 (a) and (b) show
graphically, the relative antenna current distributions computed from those
equations for variations at low frequencies which are restricted to values of
ka « 1·2. Wc can observe from Figs. 5 (c) and (d) how the current distri-
butions vary at high frequencies when lea is confined within the ranges
IO·O,.;ko,,.;12·0 and 48·0,.;ko,,.;50·0, respectively. .We can see from the
figures described above that, the amplitudes of the relative current distri-
butions at high frequencies are lower than those at low frequencies. We also
find from the figures that the current distributions at low frequencies do not
exhibit any symmetrical variations, whereas the absolute values of the

current amplitudes are symmetrical about integral values of ka at high
frequencies.
If we now use the current excitation defined by eqn. (52) in the fields
expressed by eqns. (5) and (6), it follows that one may find the (J- and q,-
components of the electric field in the following forms, after a few manipula-
tions
Eo((J, q,) = [(exp (- jkr))/r]Po((J, q,) (54)
where
00
F o((J,<!»=[(-,/cot(J)/2] L njna"sin(nq,)J,,(ko,sin(J) (54 oj

,,=0
and
(55)
while
00
/I'¢((J, q,)=[( -,/kn)/2] L j"an cos (nq,)J',,(ko sin (J)

n=O
(55 n)
where 0,,, is described by eqn. (53). The determination of the electric fields
of eqns. (54) to (55) makes the evaluation of the corresponding" magnetic
fields straightforward. Because if we utilize the far field relations described
by Ho((J, q,) = - E¢((J, q,)/,/ and H¢((J, q,) = Eo(fJ, q,)/,/ as usual, then the corres-
ponding magnetic fields we obtain are
Ho((J, q,)=[(exp (- jkr))/r]Go((J, q,) (56)
where
00
Go((J, q,) = (kn/2) L jnn" cos nq,J',,(ka sin (J) (56 a)

.-0
and
(57)
while
00
G.p((J, q,) = [( - cot (J)/2] L njno,,, sin (nq,)J ,,(kn sin (J) (57 a)
1/=0
The analytical results presented here indicate that the fields can be calculated
in any direction, which is a conclusion consistent with the one reached by
Knudsen (1953), who employed a different approach, i.e. a limiting series
process.
A possible method of how the currents stipulated in this section and in
§ 3 of this paper can be produced has been fully described by Chen and King
(1961). A summary of their interesting technique has been discussed more
recently (Collin and Zucker 1964). Basically, Chen and King (1961) have
demonstrated that, a travelling-wave current described in the form I(s) =
10 exp (jks), where the parameter denoted by s is measured along the loop,
can be induced approximately if one couples the loop antenna to a four-wire
transmission line. On the other hand, a sinusoidal or standing-wave current

represented by 1(s)=1 0 cos (ks) can be produced approximately if the loop
antenna is coupled to a two-wire line. It is of interest to note that the
complex constant represented by 1 0 , is a complicated function of the size of
wire and antenna dimensions, whose functional form has been explicitly
determined by Chen and King (1961). However, 10 has been treated as a
complex constant in this paper, for the sake of simplicity. Basically, the
experimental arrangement discussed by Chen and King (1961) consists of a
transmission line operating at about 750 MHz, a power oscillator with a
modulating audio frequency of 1·2 kHz at the output, a crystal detector, and,
of course, the loop antenna itself. Further engineering details concerning
system stability etc., are available in the paper by Chen and King (1961),
and will therefore not be repeated here.
5.2. On the advantages 0/ the present approach

Investigations reported previously (Sherman 1944, Foster 1944, Moullin
1946) are only special cases of the analysis given here. For example, although
Sherman (1944) also considered sinusoidal current distribution as in this
paper, his analysis is restricted to the axis and the plane of the loop, while the
present analysis remains applicable for arbitrary polar angle. Similarly,
Foster and Moullin (1946) merely treated the case when the loop is excited
by a uniform current.
In the following, attention will be focused on the numerical calculations
of the field expressions just derived when various loop sizes are used, and
when different operating carrier frequencies are employed.
6. Some numerical results

The system of equations developed in the preceding section is solved here
with the aid ofan IBM 370/145 digital computer, in order to evaluate the
field intensities. Figures 6 to 8, computed from eqns. (54 a) and (55 a),
reveal that the fields are fully describable in all directions of space. We
carry out the computations at different planes in order to describe how the
fields behave in those planes.
Figure 6 shows, for example, the behaviours of the patterns at the planes
</>=22'5°, and </>=90°, when different antenna sizes are employed, and when
frequency variation is between ka= 1 and ka= 2. The highlight of Fig. 6 is
that while the maximum values of IFo(ll, 22'5°) I and IF o(8, 90°) I depend on
72(; S. Adeniyi Adekola
(0 ) (b)
27(1J-++-+-~8++-H90'
180"
(e) (d)
Figure 6. Radiation characteristics of the circular loop antenna. (a) Characteristics
of IF o(O,4»1 at 4>=22'5° cut: a=0·126'\; _ ..- a=0·25'\;
_ . - a=0·5'\; - - - a='\. (b) Beam patterns of IFo(O, 4»1 at 4>=90°
plane: a=0·125'\; _.-.- a=0'25'\; _ ..- a=0'5'\; - - -
0=,\; a=2'\. (e) Profiles of IF e(O,4») and IFII(O, 4»1 at 4>=90°
cut: ka=) ; _ ..- ko=2.
the size of the loop or the frequency employed, the maximum values of
1P¢(B, flOO) 1 occur when B equals flO°, irrespective of the loop size, or the
frequency used. When the size of the loop assumes values of 0·125'\ and
0·25,\, and when ka= I, the maxima of IFo(O, 22'5°)1 and IPo(B, flOO) 1 occur
ulong the axis of the loop, in these cases. A comparison of the pattern
characteristics denoted by !Po( B, 45° )1 and I Po(45° , 4»1 when variations of
II and 4> are effected, is described in Fig. 7. Values of ka and frequencies /
employed in that figure are within the ranges ),,; kas; 7, and 0·1 G Hz s; t,,;
1·25 G Hz, respectively, while the loop sizes are within 0·125,,; a/'\"; 1·0.
Figures 7 (a) and (I!) show that the patterns obtained when ka assumes a
value of unity, and when the radius assumes the values of 0·125'\ and 0·25,\,
respectively, are structurally similar. Pattern maxima in the cases just
described occur along the axis of the loop, while the maxima exhibited by
other 'cases shown in the figure, are in different directions. Symmetrical
properties, exhibited by 1F o(45°, .p)1 described in 'Figs. 7 (e) and (d), and
which occur about .p = 0° and .p = 90°, are also worth noticing. Field patterns
180·
(a) (b)
~. 180· 180·
(e) (d)
Figure. 7. Various directive beam patterns of the circular loop antenna excited
by a standing-wave current distribution: IFo(O, 4» 1 in 4>=45° planc. (a)
- - - - ka=l; - ..- ka=2; - . - ka=5; - - - ka=7. (b)
- - - a=0·125'\; - ..- a=0·25'\; _ . - a=0'5'\; - - - a='\.
IFo(O, 4»\ in 0=45° planc. (e) _ . - /=0,1 GHz; - - - /=0·25 GHz;
-·-·_·-/=0·5GHz; /=1·25GHz. (d) ka=l; _ . -
ka=2; -.-.-.- ka=5; - - - ka=7.
denoted by IFo(8, 45°)1 shown in Fig. 8 (a) reveal that while the field charac-
teristics computed for the frequency 0·1 GHz are symmetrical both about
the axis of the loop and the plane of the loop, the patterns described for
frequencies 0·3 to 1 GHz are only symmetrical about the plane of the loop.
It is of interest to note that both the beam-widths and the sidelobes reduce
with increasing frequency as shown in that figure. Figure 8 (b) shows the
pattern profiles computed when 4>=22'5°, for various frequencies.
6. I. Practical aqrplications
Figure 6 displays the radiation emanating from a circular loop antenna
whose features make it useful for practical applications, either as single
elements or an array of such elements at very high frequency (VHF) and
1'KJ' 90"
180'
(0)
180·
r6 = 22·5·
(b)
Figure 8. Directive beam patterns of the circular loop antenna. (0) IF e(8, 4»1 in
4>=45° plane: /=0,1 GHz; - ..- /=0,3 GHz; - . - /=
0·5GHz; - - - /=I·OGHz. (b) Characteristic profiles of IF e(8, 4» / at
4>=22'5° cut: /=0·1 GHz; _ ..- /=0'3 GHz; _ . - /=
0·5GHz.
ultra high frequency (UHF). As an example, Figs. 6 (a) and (b) exhibit the
so called double circle pattern when the loop radius assumes values of 0'125A
and O' 25 A, respectively. This is one of the prominent characteristics of the
circular loop which means the antenna to be used accurately as a direction
finder. Such a property has been employed with a high degree ofsuccess for
radio reception in aircrafts (Levy 1943). For the loop sizes just stated in
the preceding discussion, the polar plots of Figs. 6 (a) and (b) clearly indicate
that the minima exhibited by these patterns, are symmetrical, well defined
and sharp. This particular property is of great utility when the loop is
employed as a direction finder. The properties described above are also
worth noticing in Fig. 7 (a) when ka = 1, and in Fig. 7 (b) when the radius of
the loop assumes values of 0·125A and 0·25A, respectively.
It should be remarked here that the polar plot with sharp rmrurna con-
sidered above is a theoretical double circle pattern. Unfortunately, however,
when the loop is employed for engineering applications, there are other factors
adversely affecting the performance of the loop, in which case the perfect
nulls depicted in Figs. 6 (a.) and (b) are not easily realizable. In such circum-
stances, the patterns protrude near the minima and the pattern maxima also
tend to flatten out. Because of these shortcomings, the patterns deviate
markedly from the ideal double circle patterns; the loop is therefore practically
unemployable for direction finding if these distortions are not eliminated.
Levy (1943) has pointed out that two of the major causes of the aforementioned
distortion effects, which impair the practical applications of the loop are'
displacement current and the antenna effects. His explanation is that when
loop antennas are wound in solenoid form to produce directional characteristics,
the displacement current caused by the distributed capacitance created by
the turns of wire, produces an undesirable signal: in addition, the grounding
of this capacitance acts like a vertical antenna which causes what is known
in the literature as the antenna effect.
Furthermore, from the viewpoint of applications in aircraft construction,
Levy (1943) describes not only the removal of the antenna effect by shielding
the loop electrostatically (to remove extraneous noise and precipitation, in
addition), but also the removal of the displacement current effects by ade-
quately spacing the loop windings, to reduce the capacitance that may exist
in between turns. Other constructional details and engineering considerations
that would restore the double circle patterns have been adequately treated by
Levy (1943). He also pointed out that, the quality factor or figure of merit
of the loop denoted by Q, can be improved by introducing an iron core, which
when grounded can completely attenuate the undesirable antenna effects.
A further observation of Figs. 6 (a) and (b) for the patterns computed,
when the loop radius satisfies the inequality 0'5'\:;;; a:;;; .\, reveals that these
patterns are sensitive to sensible changes in the loop radius. The patterns
tend to concentrate more and more around the horizontal plane. When the
radius of the loop is of the order of a wavelength, the patterns, now associated
with reduced sidelobes, are more directive around the horizontal plane.
Figures 6 (a) and (b) show, for example, that the directive patterns are in
two directions symmetrically located around, and close to the plane of the
0
loop, that is, when the polar angle f) equals 90 for loops of the order. of a
wavelength. Consequently, when the loop is at resonance, such that a
standing-wave current circulates round the loop whose size is of the' order
of a wavelength, an array of such loops is capable of producing a pencil beam
with a very high gain near to the horizontal plane as the radius of the antenna
progressively increases.
Loop antennas designed for operation near resonance are of great practical
interest. Chen and King (1961) have previously described how a practical
arrangement of an end-fire array of such loops can be effected so as to produce
a pencil beam radiation in the end-fire direction. Characteristics similar to
those described in Figs. 6 (a) and (b), whose practical applications have been
fully discussed in the preceding paragraphs, can also be observed in the
patterns reported in Figs. 7 (a), (b) and (8) where variations of different para-
meters, such as frequencies and loop sizes, have been effected.
no S. Adeniyi Adekola
The results obtained in this paper are general, and may be readily specialized
to the results of Foster (1944), and Moullin (1946), who both employed uniform
antenna excitation current. Practical applicability of the uniform current
case has ulso been pointed out by Kandoian (1946).
7. Concluding remarks
Many important features of the circular loop antenna that are of practical
utility and significance, are revealed by the analytical exposition given in this
papcr. As an example, it is shown that when a travelling-wave current excita-
tion is employed, the circular loop antenna gives clectromagnetic field strengths
whose magnitudes are independent of the azimuthal angle .p, in the manner
described by eqns. (12) and (15). On the other hand, the phase behaviours
of the fields, as explicitly shown in eqns. (Ll a) and (14a), depend on the
ILzimuthal angle.p. The field expressions of the circular loop antenna resulting
from a truvelling-wuve current excitation agree with those obtained by
Knudsen (1!)5:~) who used a different approach to arrive at the same results.
When' the aforementioned current distribution is assumed, we derive a general-
ized expression for the radial component of the Poynting vector of the field
radiated by the loop antenna, as well as the total power radiated by it. These
are given in terms of tabulated Gamma functions (Jahnke et al. 1960,
Abramowitz and Stegun 1964). Other design parameters whose generalized
expressions we also develop in closed-forms, consist of the radiation resistance,
the directivity, the average power density, and the effective area and height
of the antenna. When the current flowing in the antenna assumes a uniform
distribution pattern, we deduce the quantities described above from the
generalized evaluations just stated, with the results summarized in a compre-
hensive table. This special case of uniform current distribution is of physical
interest.
Further analysis involving limiting and asymptotic approximations gives
closed form formulae for the parameters listed in the preceding paragraph.
The results obtained clearly demonstrate that these parameters functionally
depend on the electrical size ka, of the loop. Numerical results presented in
l?ig. 4- not only bring out the salient ,features concerning the characteristics of
the Poynting vector as a result of variations in the polar angle (J and the
quantity denoted by lai sin (J, but also show how the directivity increases
with the symbol n used in the formulation. In addition, the analysis here
considers some practical applications of these parameters.
I~xpressing the surface current along the loop as a standing-wave distri-
bution gives rise to compact expressions (obtained from the integral equations)
for the fields radiated by the loop antenna. Before deriving these results, the
untennn current assumed is first decomposed into a Fourier series. 'It is
pointed out that the travelling- and standing-wave current distributions
stipulated, can be produced in a manner similar to the method employed by
Chen and King (1961). This may be achieved by coupling the loop antenna
to a two- or four-wire transmission line. Numerical computations carried
out enable us to produce some graphical behaviours of the current as a function
of frequency or loop size. The highlights of the electromagnetic fields
provided when we assume a standing-wave current, excitation, are summarized
by the auxiliary fields represented by eqns. (54 a) and (55 a) for FeUl, <p) and
F¢(O, <p), respectively. It is clear from the results reported that the fields
can be described in any direction.
In contrast to the fields determined for the travelling-wave excitation, it
is found out that, the magnitudes of the fields radiated when a standing-wave
is used as the source distribution, exhibit azimuthal dependence. For a
clearer picture of the results reported, some numerical examples concerning
the characteristics of the patterns, are presented with the prevailing loop
sizes and frequencies assuming various values. We describe these numerical
results for the frequency range within 0·1 GHz and 1·25 GHz, for the varia-
tion of ka within 1 and 7, and sizes of the loop within 0·125'\:;;; a:;;; 2'\, where
a is the radius of the loop antenna. A significant point in the results is that,
the directivity of the patterns described in several planes considered, which
is revealed by the pattern beam-widths, increases with increasing frequency
and increasing loop sizes. This is in accordance with what we expect. Based
upon the pattern characteristics obtained from the above numerical computa-
tions, the paper discusses a number of practical applications of the loop.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Some discernible comments provided by an anonymous reviewer have
led to an improvement of an earlier version of this paper. These perceptive
comments are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
ABRAMOWITZ, M., and STEGUN, 1. A. (editors), 1964, Handbook 01 Mathematical
Functions (Washington, D.C.: Natl. Bur. Stand., U.S. GPO), p. 360.
ADEKOLA, S. A., 1980, An analysis of Fresnel zone and diffraction fields near the
boresight of practical acoustic radar antennas. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 67,
1357.
CHEN, K. M., and KING, R. W. P., 1962, A loop antenna coupled to a four-wire
line: and its possible use as an element in a circularly polarized end-fire
array. Proc. Inst. elect. Engrs, 109, 55.
COLLIN, R. E., and ZUCKER, F. J., 1969, Antenna theory-Part 1 (New York:
McGraw-Hill), pp.480-481.
FOSTER, D., 1944, Loop antennas with uniform current. Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs,
32,603.
GRADSHTEYN, 1. S., and RYZHIK, 1. M., 1965, Table 01 Integrals, Series and Products
(New York: Academic Press), p. 372.
JAHNKE, E., EMDE, F., and LOSCH, F., 1960, Tables 01 Higher Functions (New York:
}IcGraw-Hill), 16th edition, pp. 15, 253.
JORDAN, E. C., and BALMAIN, K. G., 1968, Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating
Systems (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.), p. 170.
KANDOIAN, A. G., 1946, Three new antenna types and their applications. Proc.
Lnst, Radio Engrs, 34, 70W.
KNUDSEN, H. L., 1951, The necessary number of elements in a directional ring
aerial. J. appl. Phys., 22, 1299; 1953, The field radiated by a ring quasi.
array of an infinite number of tangential or radial dipoles. Proc.Inst. Radio
Engrs, 41, 781.
LEVY, G. F., 1943, Loop antennas for aircraft. Proc. Inst. Radio Enqrs, 31, 56.
MARTIN, E. J., JR., 1960, Radiation fields of circular loop antennas by a direct
integration process. I.R-E. Trans. Anten'lUl-.' Propag., 8, 105.
732 Excitation of a circular loop antenna
l\iOULLIN, E. B., 1946, Radiation from large circular loops. J. Lnstn. elect.. Enqrs,
93,345.
SHERMAN, ,J. B., 1944, Circular loop antennas at ultra-high frequencies. Proc.Tnsi.
Radio Enqrs, 32, 534.
WEEKES, W., 1968, Antenna Engineering (New York: McGraw-Hill).
WOLFF, E. A., 1966, Antenna Analysis (New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.), pp. 14,
75.

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This article was downloaded by: [The University of Manchester Library]

On: 18 December 2014, At: 22:50

International Journal of Electronics

On the excitation of a circular loop antenna by

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207218308938771

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Tutorial review paper

On the excitation of a circular loop antenna by travelling-

radiated by a circular loop antenna, assuming both travelling. and standing-wave

Received 23 August 1982; accepted 30 Septem ber 1982.

parameters itemized for small argument approximations, as well as for asymp-

where /l- is the permeability, V' represents a volumetric region bounded by a

(J( cos e cos ¢

it follows naturally, with appropriate specialization, that

(A ~:) =( :~:::::: .:~:::::: ~:~nOo )(:0:)·

Equation (3 a) implies that

~'= -x' sin <P' +Y' cos </>' (3 c)

x exp [jka sin 0 cos (</> - </>')] d</>' (4 a)

A,,=[(JLa exp (-,jkr»/4m] J cos </>'1(</>')

An = [{JLa exp ( - ,jkr»/41rr] cos 0 J 1(</>') sin (</> - </>')

x exp [jka sin 0 cos (</> - </>')] d</>' (5)

E1>( e, cP) = [( - jWfLa exp ( - jkr))/41'r] J J (.p') cos (cP - cP')

x exp (jka sin ecos (cP - cP')) dcP' (6)

3. Travelling-wave current representation

where J o is a complex constant. The symbol n is an integral number which

Eo(e, cP) = [( - jWfLaJo exp (- jkr))/41'r] cos e J exp (jncP')

where' =ka sin e, If we make a change of variables, eqn. (8) simplifies to

X exp (jn1'/2){J nHal +J n-Ial) (9)

Ee( e, cP) = [(jwfL(21'a)J 0 exp ( - jkr))/41'r] cos e

F~(O, </» = (ng).J"W cos 0 exp [in(g, + 7T/2)J (II a)

Ih'~(O, </»1 = [n.J,,(ka sin 0)· cos OJ/(kasin 0) ( 12)

field will. now be derived when a travelling-wave current distribution is used

Because WIJo = k.", and C = 27T(I. as previously stated, we finally have

which implies that

:3.1. Generalized closed-form evaluations oj the antenna parameters

IVT = J J P r r 2 sin B·dB de/> (19)

P/,(8) = (TJl02/2r2) . (kaI2)2n+2 I Ko(n, m)

x [(kaf2)2m-2[) o(n, m)(sin 8)2m+210-2

IV T"(kn) = (7T"/1 0 2/2) . (ka)2"+2 L I<o(n, m)

x [( Uo(n, m)l'(2m + 2n - 1 )/(4m + 4n - 3)!!)(ka)2m-2

Rr"(ka) ':"7T,,/(ka)2"H L I<o(n, m)No(m, kn) (25)

P,wn(klL) = ("/1 0 2/8r2)(ka)2"+2 L I<o(n. m)N o('m, kn) (26)

Prn (7T/ 2) = ("/1 0 2/2r2) . (ka/2)2"H L I<o(n, m)

In view of the directivity definition given by Dn(ka) = Pr n(1T/2)/Pavn(ka)

Dn(ka) = [ Jo Ko(n, m)( Uo(n, m)(ka/2)2m-2 - Vo(n, m)(ka/2)2m) JI

antenna. We are now in a position to determine expressions for the effective

hen(ka) = [(;>..(ka)n+l)/2 n] . {g ,Jo Ko(n, m)[Uo(n, m)(ka/2)2m-2

It is probably proper to remark here that we need to make some simpli-

3.2. A special case

R,O(ka) Radiation resistance [1T7J(ka)'] L [YII/(ka)'m]

DO(ka) Directivity ( ~ [,Bm(ka/2).m]) I(~ [Ym(ka).m])

A."(ka) Effective area (,W;; [,Bm(ka/2)·m] )

h."(ka) Effective height ka): ( g; [,Bm(ka/2).m]) 1/.

Generalized antenna parameters of a circular loop antenna for a uniform current

f3,.. = ( - 1) m +l 1'(2/1/ + I) )/(/1/1 (/1/ + I )1'(m )1"(m + I)) (31)

In the Table, the symbol ~ designates summation from zero to infinity.

4. Simplifying approximations for the travelling-wave current loop

approximations of the antenna parameters established in § 3. First, we start

4.1. Small argument approximations

Similarly, by virtue of eqn. (36), we can evaluate the average Poynting

provided that It < A/7T.

.It follows directly from this equation that

and if we use (n -1) instead of n in eqn. (45) to obtain