EDUC 101 REVIEWER - includes putting ideas into practice in the real world,

being street smart, selecting activities and settings that

CHAPTER 5
INTELLIGENCE
- is a very general mental capability that, among other
things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems,
think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly
and learn from experience.
- Adaptive view of intelligence views it as organism’s ability
to adapt, or to solve the problem that it faces; focusing on
adaptation recognizes different organisms (and people)
must solve different survival problems.
match one’s abilities, and changing settings as much as
possible to match one’s abilities
3. Creative
- involves generating new or different ideas— creating,
inventing, discovering, or hypothesizing
Gardner’s theory of intelligence that proposes that there are
various independent intelligences rather than just a dominant g
factor.

Psychometrics: Measuring the Mind

1. Assumes that intelligence is a mental capacity that can be

measured by analyzing performance on mental tests
(psychometric = “measuring the mind”)
2. Galton believed differences in adaptive ability were hereditary
and that intelligence could be measured with battery of tests

2 COMPONENTS OF INTELLIGENCE
1. FLUID INTELIGGENCE
- Application of reasoning skills to novel situations that
includes reasoning and problem solving
- Linked to working memory
2. CRYSTALLIZED INTELIGGENCE
- Linked with long-term memory or knowledge

TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE

SPEARMAN AND FACTOR G

- Spearman developed factor analysis to analyze
correlations among test scores, in hopes of
determining whether multiple factors are necessary
- Spearman proposed that two factors underlie test
performance; g, or general intelligence, a common
factor that applies to performance on all tests; s a
specific factor, unique to a particular test
- Spearman’s view was influential but has come under
much scrutiny and criticism over the years

Intelligence as “g” general intelligence.

- g can be thought of as a cognitive capability that
cannot be directly observed, but that accounts for all
sorts of intelligent behavior and learning.
- experts would agree that intelligence can be domain-
specific, that is mathematics, literacy and social
competence.
Sternberg’s and Gardner’s theory of intelligence are helpful
because they emphasize that there are many kinds of abilities,
Robert Sternberg’s 3 Components of Successful Intelligence. 3 not just general intelligence.
FACEST
1. Analytic
- ability to recognize and define a problem, generate a History of intelligence tests
solution, and evaluate progress toward a solution. - Modern intelligence testing was launched in 1905 by
- measured on typical intelligence tests. Binet, who devised a scale to measure a child’s mental
2. Practical age.
 - Terman revised the Binet scale to produce the
Stanford-Binet in 1916, which introduced the
intelligence quotient (IQ).
- In 1939, Wechsler published an improved measure of
intelligence for adults, which introduced the deviation
IQ score based on the normal distribution
- refers to innate ideas, or concepts and principles that are
genetically preprogrammed in the human brain.
What Predicts Individual Differences in Intelligence?
1. GENES
- Higher g could be due to differences in information
processing, such as working memory and processing
speed, which could be due to brain differences, such as
dendrite branching and myelination.
- g, is substantially heritable estimated at 0.20 to 0.80
2. HOME ENVIRONMENT
- quality of a child’s home environment predicts later
intelligence
3. SCHOOLING
- School attendance also affects intelligence. Students who
drop out of school early, are chronically absent, and delay
starting kindergarten have lower intelligence than
comparable peers

GROUP DIVERSITY IN INTELLIGENCE

1. GENDER
2. SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
3. CULTURE
4. ETHNICITY
THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
TEST BIAS
- Many characteristics are distributed in a pattern
- exists when a test unfairly penalizes a group of test takers
represented by this bell-shaped curve.
because of their gender, SES, cultural background, or other
5-1b INDIVIDUAL DIVERSITY IN INTELLIGENCE: STABILITY OF characteristic that is not relevant to the purpose of the
INTELLIGENCE test

STABILITY COHORT EFFECT – RISING INTELLIGENCE

- refers to whether a child’s rank on a trait remains the - Researcher James Flynn documented the worldwide
same over time. pattern of rising intelligence scores, which is now termed
the Flynn effect

HABITUATION

- is a reduction in attention to a repeatedly presented or

continuously available stimulus (the familiar stimulus),
which could be a picture of a face or a checkerboard
pattern.

DISHABITUATION

- attention that has become habituated is renewed after a

change in the stimulus.

CORE KNOWLEDGE
 - Middle childhood may be the latest one can start in some,
but not all, domains in order to develop world-class
expertise.

ADOLESCENCE (13 TO 19 YEARS)

- Expertise is the result of practicing hundreds of hours, for

several years, so it is seldom manifest before the teens.

AGE TRENDS IN INTELLIGENCE What Predicts Individual Differences in Expertise?

INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD (PRENATAL TO 2 YEARS) DELIBERATE PRACTICE

- Habituation and recognition memory studies demonstrate
that 3- to 5-month-olds have many cognitive abilities like
object permanence, a sense of time and quantity,
understanding of causation reasoning, and categorization.
EARLY CHILDHOOD (3 TO 5 YEARS)
- activities that are specifically designed to increase
competence and that: (1) are goal-directed; (2) require
effort and concentration; (3) require teachers who
structure the practice, analyze performance, and provide
feedback; (4) involve repetition with refinement; and (5)
are not inherently motivating.

- There are few reliable and valid measures of intelligence in USE OF TIME
early childhood.
- A classic study of teens who were talented in art, athletics,
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (6 TO 12 YEARS) music, math, and science found that they were well
disciplined in using time
- There are no age trends in intelligence test scores because
intelligence tests are designed for comparison to same-age GENES AND INNATE ABILITY
peers.
- Research suggests that in some cases expertise arises from
ADOLESCENCE (13 TO 19 YEARS) an interaction between the environment (e.g., practice,
access to expert teachers) and genetically based
- Intelligence scores are largely stable after age 11, but are
predispositions
least stable before age 11.
MOTIVATION
5-2 TALENT AND EXPERTISE
- Children who become expert may have a higher level of
TALENT AND EXPERTISE
drive to improve and a greater willing- ness to practice.
- Expertise refers to having a high level of skill or
knowledge.
- Talent also refers to having a high level of skill, but it is
often used to refer to natural or innate ability.

AGE TRENDS IN TALENT AND EXPERTISE

INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD (PRENATAL TO 2 YEARS)

- Some talents may begin to emerge during toddlerhood.

EARLY CHILDHOOD (3 TO 5 YEARS)

- Talents valued by a culture are often introduced in early

childhood, and children are given more practice in those
talents.

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (6 TO 12 YEARS)

 4. School
- Quality

5-3 ACHIEVEMENT

• Academic achievement is usually measured in one of two ways:

1. Teacher- assigned grades or grade point average (GPA).

Grades are subjective and can vary by teacher, school, and
district.
2. Standardized test scores. Tests are standardized when
everyone has the same testing materials, time,
instructions, and scoring standards. Standardized tests
allow comparison of students’ knowledge across teachers,
schools, and districts.

INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD (PRENATAL TO 2 YEARS)

- Achievement is not measured in infants and toddlers.

EARLY CHILDHOOD (3 TO 5 YEARS) CLASSROON IMPLICATION

- The achievement gap emerges in preschool

- Grades are not given in preschool

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (6 TO 12 YEARS)

- Small class size in the primary grades may promote slight

increase in achievement National and international trends
in achievement begin to be tracked in 4th grade.

Adolescence (13 to 19 Years)

- The SES and racial achievement gaps are largest in high

school
- Grades tend to get worse from late elementary through
high school.

What Predicts Individual Differences in Achievement?

1. Child
- child factors that contribute to higher achievement include
emotional and social competence
2. Family
- maternal depression, parental substance use, family
stress, and family investment
3. Culture
- Cultural mismatch

CHAPTER 6 – ATTACHMENT AND PERSONALITY
Attachment a deep and enduring affectionate bond that connects one
person to another across time and space.
Attachment hierarchy is the vertical organization of primary and
secondary attachment figures for a specific child, with a preferred
attachment figure at the top.
Secure base an attachment figure who engenders a child’s
confidence and security, because of willingness to be available when
needed while the child explores novel environments.
Ethology, the subdiscipline of biology concerned with the study of
animal behavior, helps explain attachment. From an evolutionary
perspective, the ultimate purpose of animal (including human)
behavior is to pass on genes. This means that species develop
attributes that help closely related kin survive to pass on their shared
genes.
Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) a 22-minute laboratory task
designed to test quality of attachment in which children under age 6
are stressed by maternal separation and stranger presence.
Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) a lengthy interview designed to
determine adolescents’ or adults’ “state of mind” regarding the
quality of attachment to each parent.
Secure (balanced, autonomous) attachment is a form of attachment
characterized by feelings of security, open communication, and
mutual delight.
Avoidant (defended, dismissing) attachment is a form of insecure
attachment characterized by anxiety, emotional distancing, rejection,
and anger.
Resistant (coercive, preoccupied) attachment is a form of insecure
attachment characterized by exaggerated emotions, clinginess, and
intense attachment behaviors.
Disorganized (controlling, unresolved) attachment is a form of
insecure attachment characterized by no coherent pattern of response
to the parent.
Internal working models (IWMs) memories and expectations of the
self and others that influence whether children approach or avoid
others, with either positive or hostile emotions.
Sensitive responsiveness is a style of interaction in which an adult
reads the child’s cues accurately and responds promptly and
appropriately.
School bonding a sense of belonging at school and having a network
of relationships with peers and teachers.
Behavioral inhibition is the tendency to be wary and restrict one’s
approach to new people, events, or objects.
Temperament individual differences in reactivity (in emotions,
motor activity, or attention) and the ability to control this reactivity.
Personality is a constellation of traits that distinguishes one person
from another.
Personality traits the tendency to behave, think, and feel in certain
consistent ways. Five traits that account for much of the variation in
personality are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN).
Openness to experience a personality trait that includes curiosity,
exploration, imaginative dreaming, creativeness, good self-
expression, and being smart.
Conscientiousness a personality trait contrasted with lack of
direction. It includes getting things done, not giving up easily, being
dependable, planning ahead, and orderliness.
Extraversion, a personality trait contrasted with social inhibition. It
includes high energy; talkativeness; emotional expressiveness; and
being fast-paced, reactive, and full of life.
Agreeableness, a personality trait contrasted with antagonism. It
includes thoughtfulness, warmth, kindness, cooperation, and getting
along with and pleasing others.
Neuroticism, a personality trait contrasted with emotional stability. It
includes nervousness, worry, perseverating or falling apart under
stress, insecurity, and needing reassurance.
Personality types, clusters of personality traits that tend to occur
together. The most identified in children are resilient, overcontrolled,
and under controlled types.
Resilient personality type characterized by very high levels of
openness and conscientiousness, above average levels of extraversion
and agreeableness, and very low levels of neuroticism.
Overcontrolled a non-resilient personality type characterized by
high agreeableness and neuroticism, and particularly low
extraversion.
Under controlled a non-resilient personality type characterized by
particularly low agreeableness and conscientiousness, but also low-
average neuroticism and openness.
Sibling-contrast bias is the tendency of family members to report
greater differences among siblings than actually exists by evaluating
them relative to each other.
Epigenetics is a process in which phenotype, or gene expression, is
altered through social experience, or other mechanisms, rather than a
change in DNA.
Allele a variation of a gene. For example, a gene that influences
dopamine in the brain may have different alleles, one that leads to
high levels of dopamine and another that leads to low levels.
Differential susceptibility children differ in the extent to which they
are susceptible to a good or bad environment based on their genotype.
Goodness of fit the degree of match between temperament and
environmental demands, values, or expectations.
CHAPTER 7:
SELF CONTROL AND DISCIPLINE
Self-control is the ability to inhibit impulses, obey rules, ignore
distractions, be patient, and stay focused on a task.
Delay of gratification means delaying what you desire in the
moment in order to get something more desirable in the long term.
AGE TRENDS IN SELF CONTROL AND COMPLIANCE
Infancy and Toddlerhood (Prenatal to 2 Years)
• Infants have little self-control or ability to perceive or comply with
demands.
• The ability to comply with demands emerges in toddlerhood.
• Toddlers argue with their mothers on average about 20 times per
hour and disobey many commands.
• Toddlers are just beginning to develop self-control. Their delay of
gratification is measured in seconds.
Early Childhood (3 to 5 Years)
• Delay of gratification is measured in minutes. It is greater for larger
treats.
• Children are able to generate their own strategies of self-distraction
to increase delay of gratification.
• Gender differences emerge; girl have more self-control.
• Individual differences in self-control predict important outcomes in
adolescence and adulthood.
• Direct defiance and passive noncompliance, which are less skilled
strategies, decline but negotiation, which is a more skilled strategy,
increases.
Middle Childhood (6 to 12 Years)
• Delay of gratification is measured in more minutes, suggesting
greater ability than preschoolers to control impulses.
• Children increase ability to control attention despite distractions.
• Individual differences in ability to resist impulses become stable.
Adolescence (13 to 19 Years)
• Adolescents have increased ability to control
their impulses. However, adolescents are not good at resisting the
allure of electronic devices.
• By early adolescence, youth have increased ability to consider the
consequences of their immediate actions for the near future. By late
adolescence, they can consider the consequences of their actions far
into the future, but this is still not fully developed.
INDIVIDUAL DIVERSITY IN SELF CONTROL
Children vary widely in their levels of self-control.
Stability Across Time
 Students with less self-control than their classmates are not
likely to simply outgrow the problem and may need
teacher’s help developing self-control.
Stability Across Situations
 It is easier for learners to inhibit their impulses if their
attention is diverted from temptations.
 Some children have low self-control regardless of the
situation.
Academic Achievement
 Learners of all ages who have high self-control tend to
have higher academic achievement.
Social Competence
 Learners with high self-control may also have higher
achievement because they tend to be less aggressive and
less prone to behavior problems at school than learners
with low self-control.
1. Cognitive abilities - intelligence and inhibitory control
> Children and youth with high IQs are more likely to wait for larger,
delayed rewards than to choose smaller, immediate rewards.
2. Practice and Fatigue
> Self-control can be fatigued by resisting temptation
> The more self-control is exercised without rest, the more likely it
will fail.
3. Attachment
> Children who have secure attachment and who have mothers who
are sensitive and positive are more likely to develop high self-control
than insecure children.
4. Religiosity
> Youth who are religious, on the average, exhibit more self-control.
5. Parental Monitoring
>Lack of parental monitoring is linked to low self-control, as well as
aggression, depression, dislike of school, drug use, sexual activity,
and
delinquency.
> Skillful monitoring may need to be subtle and
may be motivated by the child as well as the parent.
GROUP DIVERSITY IN SELF CONTROL
Gender
> In preschool, girls tend to have more self-control than boys
Socioeconomic Status
> Middle- or high-SES backgrounds, on average, have more self-
control
Culture
> Asian countries, or if they have a cultural heritage that values
conformity, they report greater respect for parental authority and less
expectation for making their own decisions.
Collectivism and Individualism
Collectivist Cultures
> the needs of the group are more important than
individual needs.
> Interdependence among people and harmonious relationships are
emphasized
> Identity stems from the group, and life satisfaction stems from
meeting group obligations.
Individualistic Cultures
> emphasize independence, self-reliance, personal freedom, rights,
and liberty above duties.
> Identity stems from personal accomplishments.
> Independence means that one wants to be an individual who is
unique, who can influence outcomes, and who is free of group
pressure.
Teach Students Self-Control Strategies
1. Select the situation: Help students understand that their behavior
is strongly influenced by the environment around them, so they need
to select adaptive environments.
2. Modify the situation so that it is more adaptive.
3. Look directly at the teacher.
4. Change the way that you think about a situation.
5. Set goals and monitor them. When you begin to pursue behavior
that does not fit your goals, stop yourself. Be sure to have a plan for
when you get off track, and how to get back on track.
Structure the Environment to Foster Self-Control
1. Reduce distractions and interruptions.
2. Exercise learners’ self-control, like a muscle,
but without fatiguing it.
3. Provide healthy foods.
4. Plan to do the classroom activities that require the most self-
control earlier in the day.
5. Use statements like “You are patient” to communicate positive
expectations.
6. Refer students with serious self-control problems to the school
counselor for intervention.
EFFECTIVE DISCIPLINE
•DISCIPLINE
- refers to attempts to correct misbehavior; it is a subset of
classroom management, which includes discipline and also
attempts to structure the classroom in a way that avoids the
necessity of disciplining.
3. Direct application of power
4. Threats to use 1, 2 or 3
Cost of power assertion
1. Child become less compliant
2. Children do not internalize values
3. Children resent the disciplinarian
4. Children need more and more coercion
5.Children imitate the aggression of the power assertive adult models
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
- power-assertive discipline that involves bodily harm to the child,
ranging in severity from light spanking to abuse.
1. Corporal punishment is associated with less
obedience in the long term.
2. Harsh physical punishments do not improve students' in- school
behavior or academic performance.
3. Many children who have been subjected to hitting, paddling or
other harsh disciplinary practices have reported subsequent problems
with depression, fear and anger.
4. These students frequently withdraw from school activities and
disengage academically.

Applying the Principles of Effective Discipline: Persistent

THE GOAL OF DISCIPLINE Persuasion
1. You do not quit making the request until compliance is achieved,
SHORT TERM and
to influence children to behave appropriately right now. 2. You do not escalate demands by getting louder or by making
threats. Thus, you achieve compliance without encouraging the child
LONG TERM to expect coercion and threats.
to instill values and promote self-control.

Why Persistent Persuasion Should Work

TYPES OF COMPLIANCE 1. The discipline does not rely upon obvious power.
2. The interaction is not negative.
SITUATIONAL COMPLIANCE 3. The child can negotiate
> children comply with demands, but lack sincere commitment and
require sustained control by the authority figure. Applying the Principles of Effective Discipline: Skill
COMMITTED COMPLIANCE Development
> children accept the authority figure’s agenda as their own. “COLLABORATIVE AND PROACTIVE SOLUTIONS
APPROACH” components:
1. EMPATHY
4 Ways a Child Respond to Adult Directives
You have a deep desire to understand the problem from the learner’s
1. COMPLIANCE
point of view.
2. DIRECT DEFIANCE OR REFUSAL
2. DEFINE THE PROBLEM
(behavior problem for older children, but not for 1-2 years old;
Introduce your concerns into the conversation, for example, how will
declines between 2-5 yrs old)
the problem affect the learner.
3. PASSIVE NONCOMPLIANCE
3. INVITATION
(declines between 2-5 yrs old)
You and the learner brainstorm solutions that are realistic and
4. NEGOTIATION
satisfactory to both.
(increases as children develop social skills)
CHILD ABUSE is related to discipline because over half of physical
TYPES OF DISCIPLINE abuse instances may have started as attempts to correct behavior
using corporal punishment.
INDUCTION - a form of discipline in which the adult gives the
child a reason for why behavior must change or a rule must be 1. PHYSICAL ABUSE
complied with. refers to harming children physically, like hitting them with an
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTROL - a coercive form of discipline in object, or burning them with cigarette butts.
which the adult attempts to control the child’s behavior by inducing 2. EMOTIONAL ABUSE
guilt or fear of loss of love and affirmation. refers to nonphysical harm such as excessive criticism, blaming, or
POWER ASSERTION - a coercive form of discipline in which the telling them they are not loved or wanted.
adult controls the child’s behavior by virtue of greater power or 3. SEXUAL ABUSE
resources. It often includes an “or else” clause. refers to any type of sexual violation against a child, including
fondling, exhibition, or exposure to pornography.
Types of Power Assertion 4. CRIMINAL NEGLECT
1. Physical punishment refers to ignoring children or depriving them of food, shelter, and
2. Deprivation of materials or privileges adequate hygiene.

Classroom Management
refers to all aspects of managing the classroom, from setting clear
rules, to scheduling daily events, to the emotional relationship
between teacher and students.
1. Establish procedures or routines for common classroom activities
like arriving in the morning, handing in homework, dividing into
groups, and passing out materials.
2. Provide an interesting curriculum.
3. Avoid competitive activities that make some learners feel that no
matter how hard they try, they won’t be successful.
4. Have a few clear rules that everyone knows.
5. Create a physical environment that fosters appropriate behavior.
6. Avoid negative control
Possible reasons for positive child outcomes of authoritative
parenting
1. Authoritative parents tend to use inductive
discipline, which promotes self-control.
2. Authoritative parents’ warmth and respect for
their children’s views makes the children more willing to adopt their
parents’ views.
3. Authoritative parents are very clear about rules or standards for
behavior, so children know how to behave in a variety of situations.
4. Authoritative parents permit negotiation and compromise, when
appropriate, which fosters their children’s development of these
important social skills, even in very young children.
The Adolescent Challenge
Across cultures adolescents develop a greater desire for autonomy.
• Regardless of parenting style, from age 11 to 17 children view their
parents’ authority as less legitimate and feel less obligated to obey
parents than do younger children.
• It is normal for teens to moderately resist parental authority,
particularly in early adolescence.
> Authoritative parents are more likely to be viewed by adolescents
as legitimate authorities—and deserving of obedience
> Power imbalance between children and their
authoritarian parents diminishes, and authoritarian parents lose
control over adolescents
CHAPTER 8
Emotional Development
Emotional competence the ability to regulate your own emotions,
and read others’ emotions, so that you emerge from an emotional
event having accomplished your goals.
Emotion a subjective reaction to an important event, involving
physiological or observable behavioral change.
Appraisal the meaning given to an event.
Darwin’s work a step farther and identified six basic emotions that
he claims are innate to the human species:
1. Interest
2. Joy/happiness
3. Sadness
4. Anger
5. Disgust
6. Fear
Basic emotions universal, innate emotions appearing in the first
months of life (interest, joy, sadness, anger, disgust, and fear).
Social emotions complex emotions that emerge later than basic
emotions (shame, embarrassment, guilt, pride, and envy). Also called
“self-conscious” or “moral” emotions.
Social emotions are more complex and emerge later than basic
emotions because they require at least four cognitive abilities in
children: (1) awareness that they are a separate self from their
attachment figures, (2) awareness that rules exist, (3) ability to
evaluate their self against those rules, and (4) ability to judge whether
they caused something.
Positive emotions—like interest, happiness, or excitement—promote
learning and creativity (Valiente, Swanson, & Eisenberg, 2012).
Happy learners are more productive, perform better on projects and
tasks, and solve problems more creatively than learners in a negative
mood (Nadler, Rabi & Minda, 2010).
Negative emotions—like anger, sadness, and anxiety—can impair
learning. When students feel intense or chronic negative emotions,
they have difficulty attending to classroom tasks, as Hailey did.
Perhaps this is because emotion regulation and executive functions
use the same brain systems (Brock, Rimm-Kaufman, Nathanson, &
Grimm, 2009; Compton et al., 2008).
Emotional intelligence the ability to use emotions to guide thinking
and to think intelligently about emotions. Sometimes defined more
broadly to mean emotional competence.
Emotion regulation is the ability to control one’s emotions. Children
with good emotion regulation can alter the intensity and duration of
their emotions so that goals are met.
Coping strategies deliberate attempts to change thoughts or behavior
to try to manage strong emotions. They are usually divided into
problem-focused or emotionfocused strategies.
Problem-focused coping strategies action-oriented strategies that
involve trying to change the situation.
Emotion-focused coping strategies that involve trying to change
emotions, such as changing one’s thoughts about the situation or
seeking comfort from others.
Emotional dissemblance altering the expression of felt emotion by
expressing no emotion or expressing a different emotion.
Externalizing disorders emotional disorders based on anger,
characterized by aggression and other antisocial behaviors.
Internalizing disorders emotional disorders based on sadness or
anxiety, characterized by withdrawal.
Depression a common internalizing disorder in which feelings of
sadness are severe for at least 2 weeks or are milder but chronic.
Anxiety disorders a common internalizing disorder in which the
child feels worried about future threats, or threats to the sense of self.
Test anxiety a dispositional proneness toward anxiety in test
situations that interferes with performance.
Math anxiety a dispositional proneness toward anxiety at the
prospect of doing math or taking a math test.
Acculturation the long-term process of adapting to a new culture.
Affective perspective-taking perceiving the emotions of another
person.

Empathy an emotional state similar to what another person is feeling

that results from perceiving the other’s emotions.

Sympathy an emotional response that consists of feeling concern for

a distressed other.

Personal distress a self-focused, aversive emotional reaction to

someone else’s negative emotion.

Empathic distress a self- and other-focused experience of taking on

a friend’s distress and experiencing it as one’s own.

Emotion contagion the emotions of one person, through facial,

vocal, or gestural cues, generate a similar emotion in another person.

Social referencing children read another’s emotional expression to

determine how they should respond in an ambiguous situation.