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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
BRIEF CONTENTS
PART 1 THE EVENTS BUSINESS 1
1 An introduction to events 2
2 The market demand for events 24
3 The events business: supply and suppliers 44
4 Events in Context 62
PART 2 MANAGING EVENTS 85
5 Making a start and planning the event 86
6 Financial management and the budget 124
7 Event logistics and supplies 150
8 Marketing and public relations for events 178
9 Risk Management and Legalities 203
10 Event project management and set-up issues 224
11 The organisation manager and the team: during the event 254
12 Close-down, evaluation and legacies 284
GLOSSARY 307
INDEX 310
iii
CONTENTS
List of Figures vi Summary 60
List of Case Studies x Evaluation questions 61
Forms for the New Event Manager xiii References 61
Preface to the Fifth Edition xiv
4 Events in context 62
PART 1 THE EVENTS BUSINESS 1 Introduction 63

Social and community implications 64
1 An introduction to events 2
Economic implications 70
Introduction 3 Political implications 73
Definitions and frameworks 4 Developmental implications 77
Categories and typologies 5 Summary 83
Historical contexts and precedents 6 Evaluation questions 84
Characteristics of events 16 References 84
Summary 22
Evaluation questions 23 PART 2 MANAGING EVENTS 85
References 23
5 Making a start and planning the
2 The market demand for events 24 event 86
Introduction 25 Introduction 87
Size and scope of the events market 26 Getting organised 88
Determinants and motivations 33 Organisational issues in events of varying sizes 90
The structure of demand for events 38 Event feasibility: finding and testing an idea 94
Summary 42 The screening process 95
Evaluation questions 43 Progressing the idea 103
References 43 The planning process 106
Objectives, environmental search
3 The events business: supply and and information-gathering 107
suppliers 44 Operational planning and demand 113
Financial planning 114
Introduction 45 Marketing planning 119
Governmental support infrastructure, industry Getting it together 121
associations and professional bodies 45 Summary 122
Commercial event and event support organisations 47 Evaluation questions 123
Voluntary bodies and charities 56 References 123
iv
ContentS v
6 Financial management and the 10 Event project management and

budget 124 set-up issues 224
Introduction 125 Introduction 225
Objectives and financial planning 125 The event as a project 225
Creating a budget 128 Ticketing and pre-booking issues 229
The detailed budget 133 Operational activities 232
Who spends what 139 Security: Issues, personnel and a control point 238
Other sources of income 140 Media handling 240
Sponsorship and public funding 143 Rehearsal and briefings 241
Summary 148 Layout of entrances and visitor reception 242
Evaluation questions 149 Mobility, accessibility and inclusivity 246
References 149 The event experience 246
Summary 252
7 Event logistics and supplies 150 Evaluation questions 253
References 253
Introduction 151
Finding the venue 151
11 The organisation manager and the
Logistics 154
team: during the event 254
Supplies, transport and distribution 156
Technical facilities and resources 159 Introduction 255
Backdrops and staging 160 Organisation 255
Amenities and cleaning 164 Organisational effectiveness 257
Catering and event hospitality 164 Staffing: Professional or volunteer
Summary 176 management? 263
Evaluation questions 177 Factors influencing the number and type
References 177 of staff 265
Finding staff 270
8 Marketing and public relations for Running the event on the day 274
events 178 Organisation and briefing of staff, stewards and
volunteers 278
Introduction 179
Summary 282
The target market 180
Evaluation questions 283
How to influence the target market 182
References 283
The marketing plan 188
Marketing for a new event 189
12 Close-down, evaluation
Marketing for repeat events and new editions 192
and legacies 284
Summary 201
Evaluation questions 202 Introduction 285
References 202 Close-down 285
Evaluation 291
9 Risk management and legalities 203 Divestment and legacies 298
The life expiry of events 299
Introduction 204
Summary 305
Risk management 204
Plans and maps 211
References 306
Legalities and insurance 215
Summary 222
Glossary of events terms 307
Index 310
References 223
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1
1.1 A suggested categorisation of special events 4
1.2 A typology of events 6
1.3 Characteristics of special events as a service 17
1.4 Elements in the ambience and service of an event 20
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Assessing market scope and the economic impacts of events 32
2.2 A combination of motives for participating in an event, such as an opera gala 33
2.3 Possible motives for attending events (these may be primary or secondary) 34
2.4 Event component mix 35
2.5 Demand potentials 39
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Infrastructure of the events business 46
3.2 Events organisations (commercial and others) 47
3.3 Matrix of sample distribution channels and activities 48
CHAPTER 4
4.1 The implications of special events 63
4.2 Development of tourist destinations: some examples 69
4.3 Elements of tourism 69
4.4 Political stakeholders for events 76
4.5 PESTELI analysis factors 82
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Example of an events management committee 89
5.2 Development of organisational structures in events 90
5.3 Generating ideas 95
5.4 Concept screening 96
5.5 Example pilot questionnaire for proposed events 97
vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
5.6 Events screening form 101

5.7 Examples of possible events objectives 103
5.8 Simple pre-event planner 105
5.9 Planning as a management activity for an event 107
5.10 The planning process for events management 108
5.11 Information-gathering and environmental searching 112
5.12 Simple example of marketing lead times: Middleburg Sports Day 115
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Examples of various event objectives 127
6.2 Cashflow at events 127
6.3 Some common budgeting mistakes 128
6.4 Preliminary (outline) budget form 131
6.5 Example of comparative outline budgets for a proposed company party 132
6.6 Break-even chart 133
6.7 General budget form 134
6.8 Detailed event budget summary 138
6.9 Purchase order form 140
6.10 Petty cash voucher 141
6.11 Sources of additional revenue in addition to ticket or admission prices 141
6.12 Types of event funding 142
6.13 Sources of patronage, grant funding and other income for events 147
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Venue-finding checklist 153
7.2 The events management process – organisational and logistical activities 155
7.3 Logistic sequence for events 156
7.4 Example of a logistics production schedule 162
7.5 Example of a communications contact list 165
7.6 Further considerations in food and drinks services 166
7.7 Alternative cafeteria flow services 166
7.8 Examples of seated room layouts 168
7.9 Issues in determining menus and refreshments 171
7.10 Example of an equipment receival form 174
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Key questions to ask about the target market 180
8.2 Catchment and origin 181
8.3 Example of a catchment area – the Middleburg Music Festival 181
viii LIST OF FIGURES
8.4 Influencing the market 182

8.5 Determinants for participation in an event (‘buying process’) 185
8.6 Individual’s expectations of an event 186
8.7 Event decision-making process for a university ball 187
8.8 Creating the marketing plan from the event objectives 188
8.9 Elements of the events marketing plan 189
8.10 Event components and target market matrix 190
8.11 Examples of marketing expenditure items 191
8.12 Event marketing budget form (adapt as required) 193
8.13 Example of a marketing schedule 194
CHAPTER 9
9.1 The management of risk 205
9.2 Various risk categories 206
9.3 Risk analysis quadrant 206
9.4 Example of a risk assessment form 207
9.5 Example of a risk-control plan 209
9.6 Warnings from history 210
9.7 Event site map coverage 215
9.8 Permits, licences and legalities 216
CHAPTER 10
10.1 Event and project management activities 226
10.2 Work break-down structure for a wedding marquee 227
10.3 Example of a Gantt chart 229
10.4 Ticket design – information to include on a ticket 231
10.5 Pre-operations on the day 235
10.6 Pre-event briefing meeting for all staff 242
10.7 Example of the component elements at a quiz dinner 247
10.8 The event service experience 251
CHAPTER 11
11.1 Simplified events organisation structure 256
11.2 Visitor services department at the Middleburg Music Festival events 257
11.3 The culture of event organisation 258
11.4 Framework for an event organisation’s performance 262
11.5 Example of a job advert for an events coordinator 264
11.6 A committee of volunteers 265
11.7 Factors influencing the number of staff required 266
LIST OF FIGURES ix
11.8 Concentration of core services and staff 267

11.9 Job description form 269
11.10 Staffing an event 272
11.11 Activities on the day 278
CHAPTER 12
12.1 Final phase of event activities 286
12.2 Event history contact record form 290
12.3 Types of information for evaluation of events 291
12.4 Sources of information for evaluation 292
12.5 Visitor satisfaction at the Middleburg Music Festival 294
12.6 Mystery guest report (extract) 294
LIST OF CASE STUDIES
Chapter 1 City Country Date Page

1. The Olympic Games Olympia Greece 776 BC 7
Leisure/sporting events
2. A Roman Wedding Rome Italy 300 AD 9

Personal events
3. The Royal Diamond Jubilees London England 1897 12

of 1897 and 2012 and
Cultural events 2012
4. The Paris Exposition Paris France 1889 15

Organisational events
Chapter 2
5. The Economic Impact Study of Edinburgh Scotland 2018 27
Edinburgh’s Festivals
The size and scope of events 2018
6. The UK Wedding Market ______ UK 2017 29

Estimating market size and scope
of events
7. The Berlin Film Festival 2018 Berlin Germany 2018 36

Motives for attending events
8. North Sea Jazz Festival 2018 Rotterdam Netherlands 2018 40

The event ‘Umbrella’
Chapter 3
9. The Netherlands Board of Tourism Leeuwarden Netherlands 2018 49
and Conventions (NBTC)
An infrastructure organisation
10. Coeva Paris France 2016 53

Example of a commercial
organisation
11. The Lausanne Marathon 2018 Lausanne Switzerland 2018 57

Voluntary and charitable events
LIST OF CASE STUDIES xi

12. Giant Mountain’s Beer Festival Vrchlabi Czech 2018 66
Community implications of events Republic
13. Milan Universal Expo Milan Italy 2015 71

Economic and sustainability
implications of events
14. Salzburg Festival Salzburg Austria 2018 74

Political implications for events
15. The Olympic Games in Context – International 1896– 78

Developmental implications 2018
Chapter 5
16. Avignon Festival Avignon France 2018 91
The professionalisation of events
17. University College, Cork Hockey Club Cork Ireland 2016 99

Volunteer organisations and event
screening
18. The reopening of the Scottish Edinburgh Scotland 1999 109

Parliament
Environmental searching
19. The opening Night of the Millennium Greenwich England 2000 116
Dome
Demand planning
Chapter 6
20. The annual dinner of the Wirksworth England 2018 135
Ecclesbourne Valley Railway
Event break-even
21. The Tour de France Paris France 2018 144

Sponsorship
Chapter 7
22. DB Schenker Berlin Germany 2008 157
Event Logistics
23. FIS Alpine Ski World Championships Garmisch- Germany 2008 172
VIP Hospitality Partenkirchen
xii LIST OF CASE STUDIES

24. Lake Vyrnwy Half Marathon Lake Vyrnwy Wales 2018 183
Marketing catchment areas
25. Geneva Motor Show Geneva Switzerland 2018 196

Recording of visitor information
26. Epica Reuver Netherlands 2018 198

Social media
Chapter 9
27. The Promenade des Anglais, Nice Nice France 2016 212
Safety in perspective
28. Clacton Air Show 2018 Clacton England 2018 217

Emergency service arrangements
at events
29. Regia Anglorum Historical Wirksworth England 2018 219

Re-Enactment
Insurance and event contractual
issues
Chapter 10
30. Ticketing at the London Olympics London England 2012 233
31. The Wirksworth Wapentake Wirksworth England 2008 243

Site layout issues
32. Glastonbury Festival Glastonbury England 2017 248

The atmosphere of events
Chapter 11
33. Mainz Carnival Mainz Germany 2018 259
Volunteer staffing
34. Deventer Book Market Deventer Netherlands 2018 275

Organisation
Chapter 12
35. World Golf Championships Valderrama Spain 2000 287
Clearing up
36. The Fyre Festival Great Exuma Bahamas 2017 296

Evaluation and Ethics
37. The Commonwealth Games Manchester England 2002 300

Event legacies
38. The Royal Agricultural Show Stoneleigh England 2009 302

The decline and termination
of an event
FORMS FOR THE NEW
EVENT MANAGER
STARTING FORMS
Pilot questionnaire for proposed events (Figure 5.5) 97
Events screening form (Figure 5.6) 101
Simple pre-event planner (Figure 5.8) 105
FINANCIAL FORMS
Preliminary (outline) budget form (Figure 6.4) 131
General budget form (Figure 6.7) 134
Detailed event budget summary (Figure 6.8) 138
Purchase order form (Figure 6.9) 140
Petty cash voucher (Figure 6.10) 141
DOING THE JOB FORMS

Venue-finding checklist (Figure 7.1) 153
Example of a communications contact list (Figure 7.5) 165
Example of an equipment receival form (Figure 7.10) 174
MARKETING FORMS
Event marketing budget form (Figure 8.12) 193
Example of a marketing schedule (Figure 8.13) 194
PROJECT MANAGEMENT FORMS

Example of a risk assessment form (Figure 9.4) 207
Example of a risk-control plan (Figure 9.5) 209
HUMAN RESOURCES FORM

Job description form (Figure 11.9) 269
RECORDING FORM
Event history contact record form (Figure 12.2) 290
xiii
PREFACE TO THE
FIFTH EDITION
This book is in two parts: the first part, chapters one to four, presents a picture of the
events business; the second part, from chapter five onwards, is about how to organise
events. My advice to the reader is to take this book as a complete approach: not just
the text, but also the diagrams, case studies and the discussion questions set in the
case studies. This will help you learn more. For the beginner, or someone wanting ‘a
thirty-minute guide’ to organising events, your first step is to look at the forms listed
in the front of the book to give you some idea of what you are going to need, and
then start with chapter five.
I have taken a deliberately European approach. This is for two reasons. Firstly,
many of the range of books in this subject area of events management are either
American or Australian and tend to contain examples (especially the American texts)
which may not have huge relevance to the European experience. Secondly, and per-
haps more importantly, because we, as Europeans, do not explore the extent and
quality of our knowledge and mutual experience sufficiently. Partly this was due to
language barriers and to perceived cultural differences. However, in the age of the
internet and in the twenty-first century, language is an increasing irrelevance, when
the common language of the net is English, and culturally, well, we are Europeans.
More unites us than divides us, as most young people, having backpacked their
way around the continent and drunk cappuccinos in open-air cafés from Galway to
Genoa, know very well. This being the case, the book contains material from all over
Europe and all money is stated in Euros. As a convention, all case study material is
real as named. However, some more generalised examples are given to illustrate the
text and to help the reader; in these cases the fictitious town of ‘Middleburg’ is used.
We are aware of the limitation of generic examples, but this one remains for the pres-
ent. For those who live in the Dutch provincial capital of Middelburg, or any Euro-
pean town from Mittelburg to Middlesborough, I hope you will excuse this small
liberty and not search too hard for the Arboretum, the Venetian Bridge or the pub.
I am extremely grateful for the contributions made to this book by many people
and organisations and I thank most kindly all those who have contributed in some
way, great or small, and in particular for this edition, our reviewers. We cannot, of
course, accommodate everything which has been fed back, but in this fifth edition
I have taken the opportunity to revise those sections of the book that most needed
bringing up to date. I have paid attention to the case study material and have added
a number of new cases, and revised and brought up to date virtually all others. Most
especially I have overhauled the reference material, I have also included suggested
weblinks and YouTube clips, but the reader must be aware that link rot affects any-
thing on the web, and what is current and available as I write this edition may not
remain on the web even by the time the book is published. This is a risk we take
and it is still within the ability of all who read this book to search for supporting
xiv
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION xv
material themselves. In certain examples where I have removed old cases, these have
been made available via the book’s companion website: as ‘Classic Cases’ in order
that they can still be used if they are of interest.
In updating, further work has been done on the sections about online ticketing,
and in terms of social media whose technology and use changes extremely rapidly.
New material has also been added in terms of the work which charities and volun-
teers do; in terms of catering and hospitality activities, such as mobile and street
catering; in risk management and in the development of methods of analysis of the
external environment in the form of the PESTELI approach, which now also looks
at sustainability. New information has been written in to cover issues such as terror-
ism, safety and disasters, and in terms of equality, mobility and inclusivity, which are
introduced in Chapters 9 and 10.
For this edition the figures and diagrams have been revised and I hope the careful
consideration of these assists the understanding of the reader. I hope these changes
will ensure the book remains effective as a practical guide. This said, the book is
by no means definitive and I urge the reader to bear that in mind and to use it as a
starting place for further study. Any comments which readers may wish to make will
be gladly received.
Anton Shone, written in Derby and in Florsheim.
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PART 1
THE EVENTS
BUSINESS
1 An introduction to events
2 The market demand for events
3 The events business: supply and suppliers
4 Social, economic, political and developmental

implications
Chapter 1
An
introduction
to events
Aims
• To consider a definition of, and framework for,
special events
• To provide a categorisation and typology for

special events, together with an overview of the
historical context
• To identify the key characteristics of events,

in order to understand the business of events
management as a service activity
Introduction 3
Introduction
Events have long played an important role in human society. The tedium of daily
life, with its constant toil and effort, was broken up by events of all kinds. In most
societies, the slightest excuse could be found for a good celebration, although
traditional celebrations often had strict ceremonies and rituals. In Europe, partic-
ularly before the industrial revolution, routine daily activities were regularly inter-
spersed with festivals and carnivals. Personal events or local events to celebrate
certain times of year, perhaps related to religious holy days, were also common.
This role in society was, and is, of considerable importance. In the modern world
some of the historic driving forces for events have changed. For example, religious
reasons for staging major festivals have, perhaps, become less important, but we
still see carnivals, fairs and festivals in all sorts of places and at various times
of year, locally, nationally and internationally (Ferdinand et al., 2017). Many of
these events, although traditional in origin, play a contemporary role by attract-
ing tourists (and thus tourist income) to a particular place. Some major events,
however, still revolve around periods such as Christmas or Easter in the Christian
calendar, and towns and cities throughout Europe often hold major festivals based
on these times. Even in those countries where religion is no longer as important
as it once was, the celebration of originally religious, and other folk festivals, still
takes place; so do older festivals related to the seasons, including the celebration
of spring, with activities such as dancing round a maypole, decorating water wells
or crowning the Lord and Lady of May. Harvest time continues to provide a rea-
son for a seasonal celebration in rural locations. At the same time, many historic,
traditional or ‘folk’ ceremonies and rituals are, in practice, recent inventions or
recreations.
We can grasp therefore that special events were often historically crucial to the
social fabric of day-to-day life. In modern times we are often so used to special events
that we do not necessarily see them in this context (e.g. Mother’s Day). It is also
sometimes difficult for the student of events to understand the full extent of these
activities, their variety, their role and how they are run. Unlike many industries we
cannot say, ‘Well, this industry is worth maybe €30 billion a year,’ or whatever. In
fact, it is quite difficult to quantify in monetary terms how much events are worth
‘as an industry’ due to opaque definitions and overlapping market sector boundaries.
Such a calculation is problematic, because the range of events is vast, from big inter-
nationally organised sports spectaculars such as the Olympics, to the family naming
ceremony of the new baby next door. All we can reasonably say, perhaps, is that we
can look at any one event in isolation and see what value or pleasure it generates.
Indeed, certain events have the purpose of creating wealth or economic value in some
way, as well as entertaining and cementing society, but these are not the only reasons
for holding events, nor should they be.
Special events
Special events are that phenomenon arising from those non-routine
occasions which have leisure, cultural, personal or organisational
objectives set apart from the normal activity of daily life, and whose
purpose is to enlighten, celebrate, entertain or challenge the experi-
ence of a group of people.
4 Chapter 1 An introduction to events
Definitions and frameworks

For the student of events, we have to provide some context or framework to begin to
understand the nature of the activity and the issues about management and organi-
sation surrounding it. This being the case, and for convenience, we need to attempt
both a definition and a means of classification:
Authors such as Goldblatt (2014) have chosen to highlight the celebratory aspect
of events:
‘Special events: a unique moment in time celebrated with ceremony and
ritual to achieve specific objectives.’
Although this definition clearly works for events like weddings, parades, inaugura-
product tions, and so on, it works less well for activities like engineering exhibitions, sports
launches competitions, product launches, etc. Getz (2005), in referring to the experience that
A ‘show’ to participants have, states:
introduce an
audience, such ‘To the customer or guest, a special event is an opportunity for a leisure,
as the media, to social or cultural experience outside the normal range of choices or
a new product or beyond everyday experience.’
service. It may
also be aimed at This definition, too, has its advantages, but also seems to exclude organisational
an organisation’s events of various kinds. Nevertheless, it is a place to start and from it we can begin
internal manage-
to look at the vast range of events that take place.
ment and staff,
sales force or To do so, it helps to have some means of classification (Bassett and Dowson,
external dealers 2018). Figure 1.1, for convenience, splits events into four broad categories based
and customers. on the concept (in our definition) of events having leisure, cultural, personal or
organisational objectives. It is crucial to bear in mind, when considering this cate-
gorisation, that there are frequent overlaps. For example, the graduation of a stu-
dent from university is both a personal event for the student and their family, and
participants an organisational event for the university. A village carnival is both a cultural event,
A person attend- perhaps celebrating some aspect of local heritage or folklore, and a leisure event,
ing an event possibly both for local people and for tourists. Therefore, overlaps should be seen as
who is actively
inevitable rather than exceptional, and any attempt to categorise an event, even by
taking part in it,
or in some activity analysing its objectives, its organisers or its origins, will have to take account of this,
related to it. even if we can agree that a particular event does fall into such and such a category.
Figure 1.1 A suggested categorisation of special events
Leisure Events
(Leisure, sport, recreation)
Personal Events Cultural Events

Special
(Weddings, birthdays, Events (Ceremonial, sacred,
anniversaries) heritage, art, folklore)
Organisational Events
(Commercial, political,
charitable, sales)
Categories and typologies 5
Categories and typologies

In the following section we will begin to consider how this proposed categorisation
might be developed to take in the great variety of events. It is a useful starting point,
and one we can adopt to help us look at the context and precedents for modern
events, and as a means of understanding their breadth and variety.
In looking at the various kinds of special events, whether these are leisure-based,
personal, cultural or organisational, it is possible to identify a number of character-
istics that they have in common, thus helping us understand what special events are
and how they work, as well as differentiating them from other activities.
Our definition of events could be given a shorthand version: ‘Those non-routine
occasions set apart from the normal activity of daily life of a group of people’ but
this may not necessarily give a feel for the specialised nature of the activity. We can
say specialised because of the uniqueness of events, but also because such events
may often be celebratory or ceremonial in some way. This is an aspect that other
authors, including Goldblatt, have highlighted. Clearly this approach can be applied
to activities such as weddings, product launches, prizegivings, etc. On the other hand,
it may be less suited to events such as exhibitions, sport days or annual conferences, conference
although it can be argued that even an exhibition of paintings or a sales conference A meeting whose
may have an element of ceremony about it, since someone has to open it; but insofar purpose is the
interchange of
as exhibitions, conferences, and so on are non-routine, the definition is usable. For ideas.
the purpose of illustrating the four categories, and to demonstrate historical progres-
sion, this chapter explores four case studies: for leisure events, the ancient Olympic
Games; for personal events, a Roman wedding; for cultural events, the Royal Dia-
mond Jubilees of 1897 and 2012 (which, for those interested in the overlaps, could
also be said to be political and therefore organisational); and for organisational
events themselves, the Paris Exposition of 1889.
Special events vary tremendously in size and complexity, from the simple and small,
such as the village fête, to the huge, complex and international, such as the Olympic
Games (Gammon et al., 2015). To understand the relative levels of complexity involved
we can attempt to provide a typology. It is necessary to consider events as having both
organisational complexity and uncertainty. Complexity is fairly easy to understand,
whereas uncertainty, as a concept, is a little more problematic. By uncertainty we mean
initial doubt about such issues as the cost, the time schedule and the technical require-
ments. Thus, it can be understood that, at the beginning, the uncertainty about the
cost, the timing and the technical needs of organising the Olympic Games far exceeds
the uncertainty of, say, a training conference or a small wedding reception. In order to
quantify the complexity, in the typology in Figure 1.2, varying levels of organisational
complexity have been used, ranging from individual to multinational. Using this typol-
ogy, it is possible to propose a classification of various events, in order to understand the
comparative demands that such events might place on organisers or events managers.
Even where an event is relatively simple, the number of people attending may make
it very complex indeed. There is a world of difference between a birthday party for attendees
A group of people
six people and a birthday party for 60 people, even though the format, structure and
attending an
basic idea may be the same. The typology must be seen with this limitation in mind. event, for a range
Indeed, it is this concept of size which often means the difference between an amateur of purposes, from
organiser or a family member running an event on the one hand, or having to employ watching the
an event manager, go to a hotel or find specialist advice on the other. Size or number event take place,
to actively partici-
of attendees is something that easily catches people out. We can all organise a dinner
pating in some or
party for eight or ten people, even a buffet for maybe 20 or 30, but after that the all of the event’s
sheer effort involved would overwhelm us: not enough space, not enough equipment, activities.
and not enough people to help, and so on. The events management business in the
Figure 1.2 A typology of events
Olympic
Games
High
Avignon Lions Clubs World Fairs
Festival Convention and Expos
Wedding
Reception
Uncertainty
Political Party French

Conference Grand Prix
Birthday Car Company London Motor Geneva

Party Sales Exhibition Fair (Dealers) Motor Show
Local
Deventer Berlin
Agricultural Show
Bookmarket Film Festival
Village Fete
Low
Small Private Training

Dinner Party Conference
Individual Group Organisational Multi- National International

Organisational
Complexity
Based on Slack et al., 2001, Operations Management, London, Pitman, 3rd edition, pp. 585–595
contemporary world, whether it concerns the annual dinner of the local town council
or the organisation of the European Figure Skating Championships, is often about the
need for trained staff, specialist companies and professional expertise.
Historical contexts and precedents

Events management can be thought of as an art, rather than a science. Historically, the
organisation of small local events was relatively uncomplicated and needed no extensive
managerial expertise. The organisation of a wedding, for example, could be done most
often by the bride’s mother with help from the two families involved and a vicar, priest,
religious or other official representative. (In past times, especially up until the Victorian
period, ‘expert’ advice often came in the form of a Dancing Master, employed to give the
wedding festivities some formality of style. There were also quite specific local rituals to
be observed, which acted as ‘checklists’ for the activities.) Some weddings are still done
this way, and are within the ability of non-specialist people to organise and run: the
bride and groom deal with the ceremony, the bride’s mother or father orders the cake
and a buffet from a local baker, family and friends do some or all of it; the reception
is held in one of the family homes or a village hall, flowers come from gardens or are
obtained from a nearby flower shop, and so on. All these tasks were, and can still be,
coped with in an intimate and sociable way with no great cost or fuss.
While special events, by their nature are not routine, pressure for formal organ-
isational or technological skill was not so great in the past for local, family or
small-scale events. This is not to say that large-scale events management is a partic-
ularly recent development, only that the modern world with its many complexities
Historical contexts and precedents 7
CASE STUDY 1
Leisure/sporting events: the Olympic Games
UniversalImagesGroup/Getty Images
Olympia, Greece Fragment of a Greek relief frieze c. 500 BC depicting wrestlers in practice
FACTBOX
• Ancient Olympic Games first held in 776 BC, last held in 393
• Restarted in modern times in 1896
• Held every four years
• Ancient games were part of the religious festival of Zeus, the chief Greek god
• Modern games are a major economic activity
Learning Objectives
The aim of this case study is to examine the historical background to the Olympic Games with the
following objectives:
• To consider the historical development of the Games.
• To highlight comparisons between the ancient Olympics and the modern ones.
• To understand the differences between the ancient and the modern Games.
T he modern Olympic Games are loosely based

on the games of the ancient Greeks. Those
games, first held in 776 BC at Olympia, in Greece,
though Greece was normally at war (quite usual in
those times). One of the most important aspects of
the games was the truce that existed to allow them
had the purpose of celebrating the festival of Zeus, to take place and to enable the participants, mostly
the most important Greek god. They were organised the nobility and professional athletes, together with
by the temple priests and their helpers, and car- pilgrims (who were travelling to the temple of Zeus
ried on for many years at four-yearly intervals, even at Olympia), to get to the games safely. The ancient
games at first had only one component, the ‘stade’, games began again at Athens in 1896, followed
a footrace. Later they included not only the stade by Paris in 1900, and then more or less every four
(about 150 metres, hence the word ‘stadium’), but years to the present day (Swadding, 2011; Walle-
also the pentathlon (the discus, the jump, the javelin, chinskey and Loucky, 2012).
another race and wrestling), together with a chariot
race, a horse race and the pankration – a very vio- Discussion Questions
lent form of wrestling. All of these were performed
Investigate the modern Olympic Games and
naked, in the Greek style, although, as the games
compare them to the ancient ones.
also celebrated military prowess, the final footrace
was performed in full armour. The games lasted for 1 Where were the most recent games held?
five days and included various religious ceremonies,
2 How many people attended them?
the main religious aspect being the worship of Zeus,
although the women had their own games in honour 3 How many people participated?
of the goddess Hera (married women were not per-
4 How were the games organised and what
mitted at the men’s games, even to watch).
support services were involved?
The games were organised by the religious
authorities of Olympia and involved professional 5 How many people did the games employ during
trainers and referees for the events as well as the peak period?
judges. There were also social events and, rather
6 To what use were the games’ buildings put after
like the modern games, a parade of champions on
the games had finished?
the final day. The ancient games continued, in all,
for about 1200 years and were closed down by the 7 How much do the modern games differ from
Roman Emperor Theodosius II in 393. The modern the ancient ones?
Further Reading
Related website for those interested in the Olympics: www.olympic.org and for interesting comment and
critique of the Olympics, search: www.guardian.co.uk/.
often requires specialists to do what, in gentler times, could be done by thoughtful

amateurs or ordinary people. We should not mistake history, however. The scale
and complexity of, say, the Greek or Roman gladiatorial games (which comprised
vast numbers of activities, set-piece contests and even theatrically-mounted sea
battles – the Romans were sufficiently advanced that they could flood their arenas)
certainly had what today would be considered as a professional events management
organisation to run them. This can also be seen in our first case study of the ancient
Olympic Games, which helps to illustrate our first category of leisure events.
Looking back in history we can see, however, that events have always had a significant
role to play in society, either to break up the dull, grinding routine of daily life (toiling in
the fields, perhaps) or to emphasise some important activity or person (such as the arrival
of a new abbot at the local monastery). We can trace all sorts of special events far back
in time, even if they are the result of some recent ‘re-invention’. For as long as humanity
has lived in family groups there will have been celebrations of weddings, births, religious
rites, and so on. In following up the categorisation suggested earlier of events being
leisure-based, personal, cultural or organisational in origin, we can consequently seek
various historical examples or precedents. That said, we must be careful not to believe
that earlier times or other societies had the same cultural attitudes as we have today.
The second category of special events in our approach is that of personal events.
This includes all sorts of occasions that a family or friends might be involved in.
Many modern aspects of family life can be seen to revolve around important occa-
sions: birthdays, namings, weddings and anniversaries all fall into this category, as do
many other personal events and celebrations (a dinner party is a special event in our
definition). Of all these, weddings can be one of the most complicated to organise,
involving friends and family and a whole range of related service activities, from cater-
ing to entertainment, as well as the formal aspect of the marriage ceremony itself. This
is not to say that all weddings are a ‘big performance’, some are small, friendly and
relaxed, and just as good for it – size is no measure of the success of an event. Almost
all cultures known to history have some form of partnership ceremony, and in looking
for a historical precedent for personal events, the Romans can provide an example.
Special events cover all kinds of human and cultural activity, not only sport-
ing and family activities, but also cultural and commercial or organisational activ-
ities. Culture, with its associated ceremony and traditions, has a role in both in all
kinds of social activities: and for all kinds of people, organisations and institutions.
(Robinson et al., 2010). But it has been especially important for governments and
leaders, such as royalty. In cultural events ceremony becomes very evident, often as a
way of emphasising the significance of the event itself or of the person at the centre of
the ceremony, the intended effect being to secure support, or to allow as many people
as possible to recognise the key individual. For example, the media often show heads
of state (kings, queens, presidents) inspecting a ‘guard of honour’ when arriving at
the airport of a country they are visiting; they listen to the national anthem and then
walk past the guard of honour. The original purpose of this ceremony was not for
the head of state to see the guards, but for the guards to see the head of state, so that
the guards would recognise the person they were to protect.
CASE STUDY 2
Personal events: a Roman wedding

A. DAGLI ORTI/De Agostini/Getty Images
Rome, Italy
Roman marble sarcophagus, 3rd century AD with a relief
depicting a wedding ceremony
FACTBOX
• The Roman empire covered a huge area of Western Europe, from Britain to north Africa
• Rome was pagan until the AD300s, when it started to become Christian in religion
• Roman weddings had many similarities to modern ceremonies, but also a number
of differences
Learning Objectives
The aim of this case study is to consider comparisons between a historical ceremony and a mod-
ern one, in this case a wedding, with the following objectives:
• To consider how an ancient wedding was conducted and the differences with a modern wed-
ding ceremony (of your choice).
• To highlight comparisons between the ancient ceremony and the modern one.
• To understand that although the ceremony and style may differ, the essential purpose remains
the same.
A s with modern weddings, Roman weddings

were organised by the families of the bride and
groom. A ring was often given as an engagement
accompanied by flute players and the families, with
friends, relatives and other locals joining in. There
would be a great deal of loud and happy singing
present, although no ring was involved in the cere- during the procession and the cheerful shouting of
mony itself until changes in the ritual after the second obscene poetry and jokes, known as ‘Fescennine
century AD (Kamm, 2008). The bride wore a special Verses’. This was the Roman equivalent of writing
bridal gown, generally with a flame-coloured veil and obscene messages on the couple’s car with foam,
garlands of flowers. The wedding would be arranged and often referred to how ‘well equipped’ the donkey
with the respective families each dealing with vari- was. On arrival at the bridegroom’s house the bride
ous aspects. A legal contract was signed by the two would anoint the doorposts with oil as a sign of ded-
fathers on the day of the wedding. The joining of hands ication to the gods, and the bridegroom would carry
at the ceremony was ensured, not by a priest, but the bride over the threshold.
by a married woman, known as a ‘pronuba’. At the
ceremony, prayers would be said to the family gods Discussion Questions
and especially to the goddess Juno, with a sacrifice
Perhaps from your own experience of going to a
offered to the god Jupiter. This might involve the sac-
wedding, or from an example of a modern wedding
rifice of a donkey, as donkeys were thought to have
that you have been given:
considerable sexual prowess, and so the offering was
thought to ensure a suitably exciting wedding night. 1 How did it differ from the Roman one?
Following the ceremony, the party would make 2 Who organised what?
their way to the bride’s parents’ house, where there
would be a major feast in the Roman style, of some 3 Suppose you have a wedding to organise with
excess, with large quantities of food and wine being 100 guests, how long does it realistically take
consumed. Once the feast was over, there would to get things done?
be a torchlight procession from the bride’s parents’ 4 Also, begin to look for possible similarities
house to the bridegroom’s house. It would gener- between the special events in these case
ally be led by torch carriers, often children, and studies – what are their common characteristics?
Further Reading
Related website for those interested in Roman history: www.roman-empire.net.
In the Middle Ages, events and ceremonies played a major role, ensuring that
a dull daily existence was enlivened and that people were entertained, or at
least impressed. There were no TVs, smartphones, video, movies or the internet
for entertainment, as all these are less than 100 years old. It was, for example,
accepted wisdom in England in the Tudor period (about 1500–1600) that cere-
mony was an essential part of showing ‘good government’. ‘In pompous ceremo-
nies a secret of government doth much consist’ (Plowden, 1982). Government,
in this case, being interpreted as the action of the King or Queen, was expected
to make a good show, or put on a good display for the people, and the people
expected to see royalty in all its glory; it was intended to ensure, to a certain
extent, respect and allegiance.
One of the things which these historic examples show is that there have long
been specialists of various kinds to organise events (the temple priests for the
Greek Games, the Lord Chamberlain’s department for Queen Elizabeth). Some
events, such as the coronation of a King or Queen, have been, and still are, highly
complex. Very often, where great ceremony was needed for state events, the mil-
itary could also be called on to help organise them, and army officers were often
seconded to do just that, as is still the case with much modern state ceremony:
parades, state visits, pageants and festivals.
Although the organisation of historic ceremonial events might be thought of
as a matter of the injection of military or government organisational skills, very
often this supposed skill was no such thing. In fact, great historical ceremonial
disasters were quite common. The modern events manager has no monopoly
on things going ‘pear-shaped’. Many coronations and other great events were ‘pear-shaped’
famously shambolic. Even where these involved a non-military event, such as the Description of
something which
great fireworks display held in 1749 to celebrate the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, for
goes wrong
King George II, there was no guarantee of success, in spite of the fact that these or turns into a
were organised by George Frederick Handel, the famous composer, and set to his shambles.
music. The fireworks were to be held in a specially-built pavilion in Green Park,
London. Handel was designated ‘Comptroller of the Fireworks’. This was such a
major event that a full dress rehearsal was held, which went perfectly. However,
on the night itself Handel had an argument with Servandoni, the pavilion designer,
at which swords were drawn, and during the middle of the performance, with 100
musicians playing and a crowd of over 12,000 people watching, half the pavilion
burned down.
The modern world is no different. Faster maybe; more complex perhaps; but no
less susceptible to things going wrong, falling down, being rained on or flooded out;
the guest speaker getting stuck in the traffic; acts of God, both tragic or comic; the
groom still drunk after the stag night, the buffet being dropped on the kitchen floor or
the bride falling over the cake at the reception. In some ways, events management is a
rather thankless task, one of those roles where everyone notices when something goes
wrong, but few people notice the tremendous effort involved in getting even a simple
event right. Indeed, some of the things that go wrong at an event may be beyond
the organiser’s ability to prevent: the weather, the traffic, power failures, and so on. show
Nevertheless, events can be considerable triumphs of organisation and leave A full sequence
lasting legacies. The fourth in our categories is the organisational event; this may of sets, or more
simply, the event
be anything from a political party conference to a motor show. There are any itself, in terms of
number of suitable examples. Some of the world trade fairs have left interesting musical, artistic or
legacies. As trade and commerce developed following the industrial revolution, similar activities.
many countries sought to celebrate and display their industrial achievements.
CASE STUDY 3
Cultural events: the Royal Diamond Jubilees of 1897 and 2012
stocknshares/Getty Images
London, England Diamond Jubilee Barge

FACTBOX
• The Diamond Jubilees of 1897 and 2012
• Involving Queen Victoria (1897) and Queen Elizabeth (2012)
• Main activities were a procession in 1897 and a river pageant in 2012
• The two events provide an interesting comparison over time
Learning Objectives
The aim of this case study is to examine a cultural event and how it has changed over time
with the following objectives:
• To consider the historical changes both in terms of the event and in terms of the nature of the
nation and its outlook in the two periods.
• To highlight particular issues such as cost and security and how these have been addressed,
particularly in the 2012 event, by careful consideration of what the event should involve.
A royal Diamond Jubilee is that rarest of occa-

sions, it generally celebrates 60 years of the
reign of a monarch and there have been very few of
Wilhelmina of the Netherlands reigned for almost 58
years and would have celebrated her Jubilee had it
not been for failing health. However, King Bhumi-
them. In England, the most was the Diamond Jubi- bol Adulyadej of Thailand celebrated his Diamond
lee of Queen Elizabeth II, the previous one being the Jubilee in 2006 at the Dusit Palace in Bangkok and
Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. There have been His Highness the Aga Khan celebrated his Diamond
no others in Europe, though the much-loved Queen Jubilee in 2017 in Gouvieux, France, at his estate.
The comparison between the two UK Diamond also extended to the Royal Navy, with a review of
Jubilees is instructive, insofar as they present a the fleet being carried out by the Prince of Wales
picture of the same country, but over a space of at Spithead which included the first ever vessel
more than a century, during which change has powered by steam turbines using a propeller, the
been the only constant feature. When Queen Turbinia. In addition, a charitable and celebratory
V ictoria celebrated her Diamond Jubilee on
lunch was provided for 40,000 poor people by
the 22nd of June 1897, she was Queen of the Princess Alexandra.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and In comparison the jubilee of 2012 was a much
Empress of India. When Queen Elizabeth cele- more restrained affair. The principal focus of the
brated her Diamond Jubilee on the 2nd to the 5th jubilee celebrations in 2012 was a river pageant
June 2012, she was Queen of the United Kingdom on the Thames in London. From the event man-
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Head of ager’s point of view, we can consider the advan-
the Commonwealth. Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in tages of such a choice of main event for the jubilee.
1897 saw Britain at the very peak of its powers, Firstly, it makes use of a range of resources which
as the most important industrial nation of its time already exist, but are perhaps under-used. For
and with an empire that included almost a quar- example, the Queen retains 24 Royal Watermen,
ter of the population of the world. By 2012 the who are responsible for royal visits on the Thames,
position of the United Kingdom was of a modest, normally using a vessel called ‘The Royal Nore’.
medium-sized European nation. River pageants have been seen on the Thames
This change in both national circumstances since 1453 when the Mayor of London, John Nor-
and national mood was, in effect, shown by the man, first held one: ‘having at his own expense
differences in the two Jubilees. Queen Victoria’s built a noble barge, had it decorated with flags
Diamond Jubilee was described as ‘a far grander and streamers, in which he was rowed by water-
celebration of her reign than her Golden Jubilee men with silver oars, attended by such of the city
of the previous decade’. A service of thanksgiving companies as possessed barges, in a manner so
took place outside St Paul’s Cathedral, so that the splendid that ‘his barge seemed to burn on the
Queen could remain in her carriage, as she was too water’. For Queen Elizabeth’s Diamond Jubilee,
frail to climb the cathedral steps. The scope of the however, a private vessel known as the ‘Spirit of
celebrations was expanded considerably in com- Chartwell’ was dressed by an award-winning film
parison to her Golden Jubilee of ten years before, production designer, for use as the Royal barge
with a celebration of the British Empire being the and formed the centrepiece of a 1,000 strong flo-
central focus. Before leaving Buckingham Palace on tilla of vessels on the Thames. Secondly, the use
22nd June, the Queen issued a telegraph through- of the Thames provides significant advantages in
out the Empire, saying ‘From my heart I thank a number of ways. For example, the street con-
my beloved people. May God bless them!’ Some gestion caused by Royal or Mayoral processions
47,000 troops from all over the Empire were present in London and events such as the Notting Hill Car-
for the celebrations, which included not only the nival or the London Marathon, is reduced by using
main procession on the 22nd of June, but also a the Thames for such a major event. It also means
review of Colonial troops at Windsor. For example, that the river pageant can be viewed easily from all
many Indian troops participated in the procession the embankments, paths, gardens and buildings
through London, including the Bengal Lancers, offi- along the Thames without the need to put up spe-
cers of the Indian Imperial Service Troops, and the cial seating or viewing areas, or block off streets
Sikhs, who marched alongside the Canadians. The to do so. These advantages also help to reduce
Daily Mail, the day afterwards, described the troops the costs (both the direct costs, for example of
(in words which were acceptable at the time) as temporary seating, and indirect or hidden costs,
‘an anthropological museum – a living gazetteer of for example of time lost through congestion or the
the British Empire’. The military flavour of the jubilee need for huge numbers of extra police) of putting
on the event. Thirdly, it has an interesting but less an interesting comparison between a nation at
obvious security advantage, insofar as it enables the height of its military and industrial prowess
everyone to see and greet the Queen, but insofar in the Victorian age, and the modest one in the
as she is in the middle of the river, it reduces the modern age.
opportunities for stupidity or feckless behaviour
and mitigates against other more serious security
risks as the river is an unfamiliar environment for
Discussion Questions
potential terrorists, or greater or lesser fools of one Think of a recent ceremonial event you have seen,
kind or another. perhaps a royal or government event, a church
In addition to the river pageant, a service of event, or some ceremony that takes place locally in
thanksgiving was held at St Paul’s Cathedral, and your town or city, perhaps involving the mayor.
a concert given at Bush House. Beacons were
lit on hills throughout the country in celebration.
1 What were these events about and what was
special about them?
The celebrations engaged business much more in
terms of sponsorship of the event than in seeing 2 Was there much ceremony or some kind of tra-
it as an opportunity to promote Britain’s goods to dition being enacted?
overseas markets (through visitors) that the 1897
jubilee had been. In terms of the military aspect,
3 What issues appeared to be important in
the choice of a river pageant as the centre-
Queen Elizabeth’s jubilee had barely any military
piece of the 2012 Diamond Jubilee and why
overtones. In 1897, we have noted there were
were these relevant to the events’ managers?
47,000 troops involved, but in 2012, there were
no more than 2,500 military personnel, barely 5 4 What were the issues of costs and security
per cent of those involved in the 1897 jubilee: involved in the 2012 event?
Further Reading
For a more detailed comparison of the preparations for these two jubilees listen to: www.bbc.co.uk/
programmes/b0194l3j. You will have to register for BBC I-player to listen and excerpts from the day can
be seen on YouTube, for example: www.youtube.com/watch?v=zHF7viVJnJg.
This led to a number of industrial and commercial exhibitions in many major

cities. Such exhibitions had often developed out of local trade fairs in towns and
cities around medieval Europe. Fairs had been held for many centuries as a way
to show off all kinds of products, goods and other wares. One of the first great
international industrial fairs was the Great Exhibition of London in 1851 (there
had been earlier ones, such as that in Paris of 1849). The Great Exhibition of
London was held in a specially built hall, the Crystal Palace, that housed some
13,000 exhibitors from all over the world.
These fairs have taken place at irregular intervals in many major cities ever since.
Recent fairs or ‘Expos’ have taken place in New York, Montreal, Seville, Hanover
and Shanghai, with the most recent ones being Milan in 2015 and Astana in 2017.
In the Victorian period many cities held fairs; not only London, but also Amsterdam
(in 1883 with the International Colonial Exposition and several later fairs), and
especially Paris, which held a series of fairs from 1855 to 1900 (and two since, in
1925 and 1937). One such event, which has left a very obvious legacy, was the Paris
Exposition of 1889.
CASE STUDY 4
Organisational events: the Paris Exposition
Print Collector/Getty Images
Paris, France The Eiffel Tower was a part of the major building
programme during the Paris Exposition in 1889
FACTBOX
• The Paris Exposition of 1889
• Intended to display France’s industrial power
• Resulted in a major building programme in the exposition area, including the con-
struction of the Eiffel Tower
• 32 million people visited the fair
Learning Objectives
The aim of this case study is to examine the nature and purpose of an organisational event
with the following objectives:
• To consider a historical example of an organisational event.
• To highlight the purposes of a large scale organisational event.
• To understand that such an event may leave a legacy.
T he 1889 Paris Exposition was the idea of the

French Prime Minister of the time, Jules Ferry.
He wished to see an exhibition that would demon-
The fair was opened on 6th May 1889, a won-
derful spring day, by the French president, Sadi
Carnot, who rode in a horse-drawn procession from
strate France’s industrial might, its commercial activ- the Elysée Palace. The procession, led by a detach-
ity and engineering skill. The result was the largest, ment of mounted cuirassiers, made its way along
most varied and successful world fair ever held until the Champs Elysées and the Avenue Montaigne
that time. amongst joyful crowds, and entered the exhibition
area passing under the arches of the Eiffel Tower, But it was Gustave Eiffel who supervised the build-
arriving at the Central Dome at 2.00pm. A short ing of the Paris tower. It was begun on 26th January
ceremony took place at which the Exposition was 1887, and opened at 11.50 am on 15th May 1889,
formally presented to President Carnot: ‘This splen- to Eiffel’s considerable relief, and has been the sym-
did result exceeds all hopes . . . .’ Indeed it did. bol of Paris ever since – though for the first 20 or 30
The exposition was huge. It covered the whole of years it was rather disliked by some.
the Champ de Mars and the Esplanade des Inva-
lides, and stretched along the Quai d’Orsay and
the Trocadero Gardens to the Eiffel Tower, some 95 Discussion Questions
hectares, including a huge Ferris wheel. There were
Think of a recent event engineering project you have
almost 62,000 exhibitors from all over the world and
seen launched in public.
by the time an exhausted President Carnot had left at
5.30 pm, almost half a million people had streamed 1 What was its purpose?
in through the 22 entrances to the exhibition, which
2 How was it organised?
then lasted 176 days. Some 32 million people visited
the fair and amongst the exhibits was the world’s 3 In the long term, was there some benefit from
first ever motor car, a Benz (Harris, 2004). having it, did it leave a legacy, such as a building
The lasting legacy of the exposition is the Eif- or structure even if that was knocked down later?
fel Tower. When the event was being planned, a
4 Does this apply to other kinds of events?
member of the French cabinet, Edouard Lockroy,
had suggested a thousand-foot tower to highlight 5 How could a town or city benefit from holding
its importance. The idea of a tower built of iron and an event?
steel was not new, as one had been suggested by
6 Could that event be used to help renovate a
the Cornish engineer, Richard Trevithick, in 1833,
run-down area?
and another by Clarke and Reeves, two American
engineers, for the Philadelphia Exposition of 1876. 7 Who would pay for the event?
Further Reading
Related website for those interested in the Eiffel Tower: www.tour-eiffel.fr.
Characteristics of events
In our definition of special events, we noted key characteristics of events as
‘non-routine’ and ‘unique’. However, events have many other characteristics in com-
mon with all types of services, and in particular with hospitality and leisure services
of many kinds.
These characteristics can be grouped together as being:
• uniqueness
• perishability
• labour-intensiveness
• fixed timescales
• intangibility
Characteristics of events 17
• personal interaction
• ambience
• ritual or ceremony (see Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3 Characteristics of special events as a sevice
Uniqueness
Personal
Perishability
Interaction
Ritual or Special Ambience and

Ceremony Events Service
Intangibility Labour Intensiveness
Fixed Timescale
Uniqueness
The key element of all special events is their uniqueness: each one will be differ-
ent. This is not to say that the same kind of event cannot be repeated many times,
but that the participants, the surroundings, the audience, or any number of other audience
variables will make the event unique. Even where we have looked at those special The group of
events that are very frequent, such as weddings, all are different because different people engaged in
watching an event
people are involved, the choice of location, the invited guests, the timing, and so on. or (usually) pas-
The same is true of events that may have followed the same format for years and sively participating
years. The ancient Olympic Games took place at four-year intervals for nearly 1,200 in some aspect
years, or put more simply, 300 repeat editions. But each was unique, because each of the event
had different athletes, different organisers and a different audience. The format also activities.
changed slowly over time. At the beginning, it was a religious festival for the Greek
god Zeus, and only a 150-metre footrace, the ‘stade’, was run. At the end, there was
no major religious aspect, but the athletics had become the main activity, with 12 or
so different sports in the games.
The uniqueness of special events is therefore the key to them. We are not doing
something that is routine, nor are we producing the same item of work repetitively.
Nevertheless, it is important to recognise that certain types of event do recur; they
may recur in the same kind of format (such as weddings – each wedding is different
but the format or structure is similar), or they may recur on the basis of time interval
(such as an annual conference – again the format or structure is the same, but the
participants and the subject will be different). Uniqueness alone, however, does not
make a special event. Events have a number of characteristics and their uniqueness
is closely related to aspects of perishability and intangibility.
Perishability of events
Almost by definition, if we regard events as ‘unique’, then the event is tremendously
perishable; it cannot be repeated in exactly the same way. Two birthday parties at the
same location, with the same number of people, will not be the same. Even where a
reasonable level of standardisation is possible, for example, with activities such as
seminars training seminars, each will be different and will be very time dependent. They exist
Describes small briefly and cannot be repeated in precisely the same way. Perishability also relates to
gatherings similar
the use of facilities for events. Let us suppose we have a banqueting room. It may be
to the break-out
sessions, where a used to its peak capacity only on Saturdays, for weddings, so the rest of the week its
group, but not the revenue-generating potential may not be fully exploited. If the room is empty for even
whole plenary, will one day of the week, the revenue-generating potential of that day is lost forever – it
discuss an issue. is perishable. The room can be used on a different day, but the day it is empty cannot
be replayed and used.
One of the key issues, therefore, in the events manager’s role, is the extent to which
facilities and services can be used effectively, given the uniqueness or irregularity
capacity
(perhaps better to say infrequency) of use. In consequence, events can be expensive
The maximum
number of peo- to provide. Many items will have to be produced on a one-off basis and cannot be
ple who can be used again. For example, a large banner saying ‘Happy Wedding Anniversary Anna
accommodated at and Frederick’ would be a unique item and thus (relatively) expensive to provide. On
a venue. the other hand, a banner saying ‘Happy Anniversary’ may have a number of potential
uses, may be cheaper to produce and could be stored to be used again.
The issue of perishability also means that events venue managers may have to
use a variety of techniques, such as differential pricing, to try to encourage activities
in quiet periods when a facility or service on offer might not sell. Perhaps a mobile
disco can be obtained at a discount for an event on, say, a Tuesday, rather than at a
peak period of the week or year, like a Friday or Saturday night or New Year’s Eve.
This too illustrates the perishability issue; if the disco is not booked one night of the
week it will have lost that night’s revenue forever.
Intangibility
When you go out to buy a chocolate bar or a pair of socks, you are buying something
tangible – you can see it and touch it. With events, however, the activity is more or
less intangible. If you go to a wedding, you will experience the activities, join in, enjoy
and remember it, but there are only a few tangible things that you might have got
from it – perhaps a piece of wedding cake and some photographs, or a video you took
of the happy couple and the rest of the guests. This intangibility is entirely normal
for service activities: when people stay in hotel bedrooms they often take home the
complimentary soaps and shampoos from the bathroom or small gifts left for them.
These are efforts to make the experience of the event more tangible; a memento
that the experience happened and to show friends and family. It is important for
event organisers to bear this in mind, and that even the smallest tangible item will event organisers
help to sustain people’s idea of how good an event has been. A programme, a guest The individual,
list, postcards, small wrapped and named chocolates, even slightly more ambitious or organisation,
who promotes
giveaways such as badged glasses or commemorative brochures help the process of and manages
making the intangible more tangible. an event.
Ritual and ceremony

For authors such as Goldblatt, ritual and ceremony are the key issues about special
events, the major characteristics that make them special. In our historical examples it
was very evident that ritual and ceremony often played an important part. In practice
many modern ceremonial activities are ‘fossilised’ or reinvented versions of old tradi-
tions. The original tradition might have had some key role in the ceremony, now for-
gotten, but the ritual of doing it (like the inspection of guards of honour) still continues.
Often the ritual ceremony is there because it does in fact emphasise the continuity of
the tradition, even though the reason for the tradition has gone. In Ripon, England, a
horn is blown at dusk to signify the setting of the night-watch. Now it is just a small
event for tourists, but in olden days this had real purpose: the town was in open
countryside and could be invaded or attacked by barbarians, and the sounding of the
horn was to set the guard on the town walls and to ensure that the night watchmen,
known as ‘Wakemen’, came on duty. Even this was not thought enough, and because
Ripon was a cathedral city, God was appealed to: ‘If God keep not ye citie, ye wake-
men waketh in vain.’ Put in modern English, if God didn’t look after the town, the
watchmen were wasting their time. Thus, for hundreds of years, this short ceremony
has taken place in Ripon and continues on today, every nightfall. The watch is still
called to the walls by the City Hornblower, although the walls are long gone and the
last watchman long dead.
Modern events may not, in any way, rely on old tradition and established cer-
emony. An example of a contemporary specially created event is the Golden Bear
awards ceremony in Berlin, an event to recognise good film-making. This ‘specially
created’ event is true of all kinds of events; in fact, it is often the case that a town or
city wishing to attract tourists might do so by creating a new special event, containing
a wholly new ceremony, something for the visitors to watch. This can be done for
all kinds of special events, and the creation of new ceremonies and ‘new’ traditions
is very common, although it can be argued that for a special event to have a ‘tradi-
tional’ element in it, that element should have some basis – however tenuous – in
historical reality.
Ambience and service

Of all the characteristics of events, ambience is one of the most important to the
outcome. An event with the right ambience can be a huge success. An event with
the wrong ambience can be a huge failure. At a personal event, such as a birthday
party, the ambience may be simply created by the people who are there, without
the need for anything else – good company amongst friends can make an excellent
event (see Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4 Elements in the ambience and service of an event
Integrate Stimulate
and conversation
Prepare socialise
food Recruit
Organise
and drink guests for
games
games
Arrival
Invite Serve Project Involve
of
guests drinks enthusiasm guests
guests
Decorate Play
the music
room Serve Encourage
food dancing
Based on Berkely, 1996, ‘Designing servics with function analysis’, The Hospitality Research Journal, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 73–100
Some events, however, may need a little help to go well. At a birthday party, there
might be the need for decorations, music and games, as well as food and drink. But
it is very important to realise that the presence of these elements does not guarantee
that things will go well: there can be a wonderful environment, expensive themed
decor, large amounts of excellent food and drink and the event can still be a flop. One
of the roles of an events manager is to try and ensure an event succeeds by careful
attention to detail and by trying to encourage the desired outcome. Nevertheless,
people cannot be compelled to enjoy themselves. If they’ve had a bad day, or feel
grumpy, your wonderfully well-organised event might get them in a better mood,
or . . . it might not.
Personal contact and interaction

In manufacturing situations, customers have no contact with the staff or workers
producing the goods, only with perhaps the sales team. In service situations, cus-
tomers have frequent contact with staff, and this often determines the quality or
otherwise of the experience. People attending events are frequently themselves part
of the process. For example, the crowd at a sports tournament is not only watching
the event but is helping to create the atmosphere; it is interacting with itself, with
participants and staff and is part of the whole experience. Much the same is true
of the guests at a Christmas party: it is the guests themselves interacting with each
other, with the hosts and perhaps with entertainers, that creates the atmosphere and
contributes to how enjoyable the event is. A room decorated for a party may look
nice, but will not come to life until it is full of guests.
Therefore, in considering how to make an event successful, event managers must
be fully aware that this is largely dependent on the actions and reactions of people
attending. It is perfectly possible to have the same event twice in a row, such as a
pageant or procession, and one may be a complete success and the other a complete
failure, due to audience reactions, interactions or backgrounds. It is therefore vital
that event planners have a thorough understanding of their attendees.
Labour-intensiveness
The more complex and the more unique an event is, the more likely it is to be more
labour-intensive, both in terms of organisation and of operation. The organisational
issue relates to the need for relatively complicated planning to enable the service
delivery to be efficient, or put more simply, for the event to be a good one (this is
why some events may be outsourced to event management companies, caterers or
other types of event suppliers). The uniqueness of this type of service implies a high
level of communication between the organiser or client and the event manager. Such client
a high level of communication and planning will take time and effort, even where The person or
the event may be repeating a well-known formula, or operating within a common organisation pur-
chasing or speci-
framework such as a conference. The operational element may also require high fying an event.
levels of staffing in order to deliver the event properly. A banquet for 300 people
will require not only food service staff, but bar and drinks staff, kitchen staff, man-
agement and perhaps support staff, such as cloakroom attendants, cleaners and staff
to set up and b reak-down the room. Staffing needs are also likely to peak at certain
times. In the case of the banquet, peak staffing will take place at service time, but break-down
a long sequence of preparation and close-down has also to be taken into account. That part of
No two events are likely to require the same number of staff, except insofar as events the close-down
that have an element of routine, such as banquets and conferences, will require a known activities of an
event after load-
number of staff. Managers can forecast staffing needs for these types of events from
out, when the
experience, depending on the number of guests, the types of service, the experience and final jobs of site
quality of the staff, the time required to complete the service and even the layout of clearance and
the building. The labour-intensiveness of special events is rather less predictable, as it dismantling of
depends entirely on the type of event in addition to all the above conditions. An event infrastructure are
taking place.
such as an athletic competition will require a completely different staffing structure to
support it (including competitors, judges, timekeepers, etc.) than a company annual
outing to a theme park. An event manager will have to forecast staffing needs directly
from the requirements of running the event, based on what the organiser specifies as the
event’s objectives and needs, and on the experience and forecasts of departmental leaders.
Fixed timescale
Events, rather like building projects, run to a fixed timescale, unlike routine activities
which can carry on indefinitely. The timescale could be very short, such as for the open-
ing ceremony for a new road, or very long, as with the Paris Exposition noted earlier,
where the planning phase took about three years. Even these are not extremes. Many
special events are actually composed of a sequence of short bursts of activity, with
pauses or breaks in between. Constant ceremony, lasting many hours, might become
dull and tiring. The example of the jubilees shows that while these events lasted several
days, they were composed of several shorter activities of varying lengths, with breaks,
depending on what was going on and why. For those planning special events, this issue
of timing must be kept in mind; for an event to be successful and striking, it will need
to hold people’s attention and interest them, and it is better that this is broken up into
sections than it takes place all at once, without a respite. This is not to say that the
fixed timescale cannot be varied. Some events, such as a birthday party, may carry on
longer than intended because ‘it just happened’, other events may even be extended in
a planned way, for some special reason, e.g. to recover the costs or to deal with extra
demand, or, of course, they may be shortened because of lack of interest.
Summary
S pecial events have always had a major role to play in human

society. In many respects, modern events are not much different
from those of ancient times, especially in helping to enliven daily life. In
understanding this, we can also see that society has developed and
changed. Increasing public knowledge and technology often mean
higher expectations of modern events. Whatever role events play in
the social context, the management of them can be seen as a service
activity. This context helps us understand how events work, what their
major elements are and how we can classify them.
References 23
EVALUATION QUESTIONS
1 Give a definition of, and framework for, special 4 Do these categories overlap, and if so, why?
events.
5 Identify some key characteristics of events.
2 Are there other ways we can define Special
6 Are some of these characteristics more import-
Events?
ant than others?
3 Provide a categorisation for special events.
References
Bassett, D. and Dowson, R., (2018) Event Planning Harris, J. (2004) The Tallest Tower: Eiffel and the
and Management, 2nd Edition, London, Kogan Belle Epoch, 2nd Edition, Bloomington, Unlimited,
Page, pp. 1–9. pp. 1–13, 101–112.
Ferdinand, N., Shaw, S.J. and Forsberg, E. in Ferdi- Kamm, A. (2008) The Romans: An Introduction, 2nd
nand, N. and Kitchin, P.J. (eds) (2017) Events Man- Edition, Abingdon, Routledge, pp. 85–92.
agement: an International Approach, 2nd Edition, Plowden, A. (1982) Elizabethan England, London,
London, Sage, pp. 5–34. Reader’s Digest, pp. 10–15.
Gammon, S., in Page, S.J. and Connell, J., (2015), The Robinson, P., Wale, D. and Dickson, G. (2010) Events
Routledge Handbook of Events, New York, Rout- Management, Wallingford, CABI, pp. 4–21.
ledge, pp. 104–118. Swadding, J. (2011) The Ancient Olympic Games,
Getz, D. (2005) Event Management and Event Tour- London, British Museum Press, pp. 5–16.
ism, 2nd Edition, New York, Cognizant, p. 6. Wallechinskey, D. and Loucky, J. (2012) The Com-
Goldblatt, J.J. (2014) Special Events: creating and sus- plete Book of the Olympics, London, Aurum Press,
taining a new world for celebration, 7th Edition, pp. 10–27.
Hoboken, Wiley, p. 390.
Chapter 2
The market
demand for
events
Aims
• To examine the scope and scale of the events
business
• To consider the determinants of demand for

events
• To illustrate the structure of demand for events
24
Introduction 25
Introduction
It is very common for individuals and organisations to wish to quantify things – we
like to be able to say that a particular industry or its market is a particular size.
There are several reasons why statistical measurement of events activity might be
considered useful. First, data are required from which we can evaluate the signifi-
cance of events to a particular location, whether that is a town, city or some other
geographical region. In this respect data helps quantify the role that events play in
the economy and in society. Second, data are essential to the planning of facilities
and services. This has been shown in the construction of special sporting facilities,
for example, but also for the development of tourism and other community facilities.
Third, data collection is particularly needed by organisations and stakeholders in the
events business, by government departments and by individual event organisers for
the marketing and promotion of events, for the prediction of feasibility, demand and
for statistical comparisons (Yeoman et al., 2012).
There is a feeling that an expansion of events activity is taking place, and this is
reflected in the increasingly rapid development of specialist events management com-
panies and related service providers. There may be a number of reasons for this. In
Europe, increased wealth (and the associated benefits of disposable and discretionary
income) and many years of peace in the industrialised countries have strengthened
the inclination to travel, to experience new ideas and to enjoy recreational activities.
This, coupled with an active awareness of traditions, has seen an increase and in some
cases a reinvention of many kinds of events, especially in the cultural field (Beech
et al., 2014) (such as opera at Glyndebourne and film at Deauville). While this is true
culturally, it is also true of the commercial, sporting and personal fields, for much the
same reasons. As demand has grown, so too have the mechanisms to supply services
to satisfy it, hence the reason for major international organisations and companies
taking an interest in event activities. (Cause and effect can be argued here: is the
increase in the number of organisations providing events services entirely due to
demand, or has the potential demand been suppressed because of lack of available
services?) Nevertheless, many of these general demand factors are not apparent to the
organisers of individual events, who are probably more interested in the individual
motives of participants and visitors, to ensure their event is a success.
Whereas demand for a routinely manufactured product is known and largely pre-
dictable, demand for any given event is less easy to predict. This is partly an issue
of participants’ motives to attend an event, but also because demand might be sup-
pressed by factors not immediately obvious to organisers (such as lack of disposable
income for the target market group at a particular time of year). This leads to some
unpredictability. Latent demand may also be significant. For example, the demand
expansion for Eurostar services through the Channel Tunnel significantly exceeded the
expected demand, because it tapped latent (hidden) demand: there were always going
to be people who wanted to travel between Britain and mainland Europe with ease, in
speed and in moderate comfort, without having to bother with a ferry crossing. This
latent demand turned out to be very large indeed. Similar demand aspects may be at
work in the events business – who knows how successful an event might be if demand
is hidden or latent? This leads to the need for adequate market research, analysis and
assessment as a tool in our understanding of how to promote and market events in
the light of our knowledge about the market itself and its demand for events, or for a
particular type of event or even a specific event (Masterman and Wood, 2015).
26 Chapter 2 The market demand for events
Size and scope of the events market

The events market is so diverse and fragmented that it is problematic to say what the
business is worth as a whole in terms of the European Union. In fact, to attempt to
quantify it may be a particularly difficult and pointless exercise. Although such a quan-
tification might be seen as a challenge by some academics and researchers, the nature
of the business and the limitations of data availability have to be appreciated. Imagine
trying to accumulate data for attendance at carnivals in every single European town and
city, that and in the knowledge that you can often only count ticketed numbers or direct
participants: you can’t really count people just watching your parade going past and
waving happily at you, or wandering through your Christmas Market casually brows-
ing. We might, maybe, make a ‘best guess’ and often research isn’t quite clear enough
that some of their figures are estimates and what ‘estimate’ really means. Studies and
reports do exist for certain countries and some event data are collected internationally.
Examples of reports can be found on industry websites, such as the Business Visits
and Event Partnership (BVEP), whose website provides a number of fairly recent ones.
The student of events management would therefore be best advised to steer clear
of this problem; indeed, even the serious researcher should not regard an assessment
of the total value of the market to be a particularly viable exercise given the lim-
itations of suitable and comparative frameworks. (Although, as better quantitative
information becomes available this position may change.) How, then, can we seek to
address the issue of the scope and scale of the events business? This can be done to
some extent by breaking the business down into small components. We can then say
that a certain part of the business is worth a given amount of money, has a certain
number of participants or has a particular impact. We could take a geographical
region and ask, ‘Can we quantify this type of event in this area?’ In some cases, this
is possible. For example, the total wedding business in a country such as the UK is
thought to be worth some €2.3 billion. This is based on the known number of wed-
dings (which are recorded officially) and an estimate of the average cost of having a
wedding. A similar kind of exercise could probably be done on a European scale, thus
giving us a notional figure for the European wedding market. For some categories
or types of events (such as the European Grands Prix) estimates have been made on
a European scale. At a local level there are ‘toolkits’ available for event organisers
to estimate the economic or social impact of their event (Getz and Page, 2016), such
as that assessed by Jackson et al. (2005). Many event and arts organisations publish
evaluation toolkits which you can view online; an example is the Arts Victoria web-
site: creative.vic.gov.au/ under community project evaluation.
In building up a picture of event activity we are, in effect, ‘building a wall’. At pres-
ent all we have are several bricks, from widely different sources, and not much by way
of foundations. As the events industry is not typically seen as a homogenous whole,
there has been no drive to seek common statistical information, either by the industry
or by other users of statistical data, such as governments. In the range of events activity,
the nature of personal events, voluntary events and similar activities means that almost
no data are collected for many kinds of events, except by occasional sampling, or per-
haps by the event organisers for their own use or for a few household surveys. Even
where events are organisational or commercial in nature, the extent of data collection
is very limited indeed and often particular to that event alone. There is no common
format even for the collection of attendance data, nor, in the foreseeable future, is there
likely to be (although some countries, such as Germany, do require certain types of
Size and scope of the events market 27
CASE STUDY 5
The size and scope of events 2018: the economic impact study of
Edinburgh’s festivals
SergeBertasiusPhotography/Shutterstock
Edinburgh, Scotland Fireworks at the Edinburgh Festival

FACTBOX
• 17 festivals a year in Edinburgh
• Attendance ranges from 400 people to 1.5 million
• The festivals attract over three million people to Edinburgh
• Around €150 million generated by the festivals
• Major local and regional impacts
Learning Objectives
The aim of this case study is to examine the way in which we can assess the economic impacts of
an event with the following objectives:
• To consider the way in which the economic impact was studied in the Edinburgh examples.
• To highlight the way in which information was collected and used and so how this could be
achieved for other events.
• To understand what sources of information might be available for the collection of data.
A n early study of the economic impact of the

various festivals taking place in Edinburgh
was undertaken by SQW Economic Development
similar type, though other models exist and a com-
parison of four such models (including the Edin-
burgh study) was undertaken by Alexandros Vrettos
Consultants and TNS Travel and Tourism in 2005. of the University of Maastricht in 2006. These types
The study provided a framework for studies of a of studies continue to evolve and increasingly take
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
too exemplary career. How could an unbaptised bishop validly
baptise a prince, heir to the crown of England? If the king was an
unbaptised, or as good as unbaptised king, he was neither lawful
King of England nor temporal head of England’s Church! This was
the only form in which the Champion’s gage was picked up. It did not
amount to much. Nevertheless, an old inheritor of Nonjuring
principles occasionally may be found questioning the right of George
III. to succeed, on the score of his being unbaptised, or of being (still
worse) baptised by an ex-dissenter, who himself had never been
sanctified by the rite according to the Church of England! As to the
story of the alleged Protestantism of Charles Edward,
THE
it never had more foundation than his own ignoble PROTESTANTI
assurances to members of the Church of England SM OF
whom he happened to encounter. In this sense he CHARLES EDWARD.
often ‘declared’ himself; but, never in a church, at
Liége or in Switzerland, or in London, at St. Martin’s, St. James’s, or
St. Mary’s le Strand. There is no record of any such solemn
circumstance connected with any such exalted personage in any of
those places or edifices. Such a fact as his conversion would have
been utter ruin to him. The very report that the fact existed caused
many of his Irish friends to tighten their purse-strings. Rome, with full
knowledge that he really had no ‘religion’ at all, was perfectly
satisfied that his Catholicism was uncontaminated. When, after his
father’s death in 1766, Charles Edward returned to Rome, no
recantation, nor anything like it, was demanded of him.
The stories of the change of religion not only differ from one
another, but the same spreader of the story gives different versions.
Walpole, in his Letters (April 21, 1772) says: ‘I have heard from one
who should know, General Redmond, an Irish officer in the French
service, that the Pretender himself abjured the Roman Catholic
religion at Liége a few years ago.’ Walpole, in his ‘Last Journals,’ i.
81 (April, 1772), says, ‘General Redmond, a brave old Irish officer in
the French service, and a Roman Catholic, told Lord Holland that the
Pretender had abjured the Roman religion at Liége, and that the Irish
Catholics had withdrawn their contributions on that account.’ The
time is also set down as ‘a few years ago.’
The entire flimsy fabric of these stories of
FOUNDATION
conversion was probably raised on a simple but OF THE
interesting incident. An English baronet of an ancient STORY.
family, Sir Nathaniel Thorold, died at Naples. His heir,
a Roman Catholic, could not succeed. Inheritance was barred by his
being of the Romish Church. The law was as cruel as anything
devised by the ‘Papists,’ on whose overthrow this legislation was
made against them. To evade it, and secure his rights, the heir of Sir
Nathaniel Thorold, probably, permissu superiorum, stripped himself
of his Romanism, and became a member of the Protestant
community, at St. Martin’s. This step entitled him to his uncle’s
estates, and, doubtless, little disturbed his earlier convictions; but is
not this the seed out of which grew the legend of the Pretender’s
cutting himself loose from Popery? Charles Edward, in some things,
was not unlike the craft commanded by poor Nanty Ewart, which ran
in to Annan, with her smuggled kegs of Cognac, as the ‘Jumping
Jenny,’ but which began her voyage from Dunkirk with seminary
priests on board, as well as brandy, and was there known as ‘La
Sainte Geneviève.’
CHAPTER XV.
(1761-1775.)
ondon, at the beginning of the reign of
STATE OF
George III., was, as it had been for LONDON.
many years, in a condition resembling
the capital of Dahomey at the present time. It could not
be entered by any suburb, including the Thames,
without the nose and eyes being afflicted by the numerous rottening
bodies of criminals gibbeted in chains. The heads of two rebels still
looked ghastly from Temple Bar. The bodies on gibbets often created
a pestilence. The inhabitants of the infected districts earnestly
petitioned to be relieved from the horrible oppression. If their petition
was unheeded they took means to relieve themselves. A most
significant paragraph in the papers states that ‘All the gibbets in the
Edgware Road were sawn down in one night.’ Not only the suburban
roads, but the streets and squares were infested by highwaymen
and footpads. Robberies (with violence) were not only committed by
night, but by day. Murders were perpetrated out of mere
wantonness, and a monthly score of delinquents, of extremely wide
apart offences, were strangled at Tyburn, without improvement to
society. It was still a delight to the mob to kill some very filthy
offender in the pillory, who generally was not more unclean than his
assassins. Ladies going to or from Court in their chairs were often
robbed of their diamonds, the chairmen feigning a defence which
helped the robbers. A prince or princess returning to London from
Hampton Court would now and then pick up a half-murdered wretch
in a ditch, and drop him at the first apothecary’s in town. The brutal
school boys of St. Bride’s, imitating their fathers, took to violence as
a pastime. They could sweep into Fleet Street with clubs, knock
down all whom they could reach, and retreat all the prouder if they
left a dead victim on the field. There was anarchy in the streets and
highways, but it is a comfort to find that at the Chapel Royal, there
were none but ‘extreme polite audiences.’ Indeed, the sons of
violence themselves were not without politeness. A batch of one
hundred of those of whom the gallows had been disappointed, were
marched from Newgate to the river side, to embark for the
Plantations. A fife band preceded them, playing ‘Through the wood,
laddie!’ The convicts roared out the song. ‘You are very joyous?’ said
a spectator. ‘Joyous!’ cried one of the rascals, ‘you only come with
us and you’ll find yourself transported!’
There were no Jacobites at Oxford now, but there GOOD
was a new sect of Methodists there. Six of its FEELING.
members, students of Edmund Hall, were expelled for
praying and expounding the Scripture in their own rooms! In another
direction there was something like reconciliation. The Government at
St. James’s allowed a Popish prelate to establish himself in Canada,
on condition that France should entirely abandon the Jacobites; and
now, for the first time, the king and royal family of the House of
Hanover were prayed for in all the Roman Catholic chapels in
Ireland, and in the Ambassadors’ chapels in London.
The king showed his respect for the principle of fidelity, on the part
of the Jacobite leaders, by restoring some of the forfeited estates to
the chiefs. He showed it also in another way. Having been told of a
gentleman of family and fortune in Perthshire, who had not only
refused to take the oath of allegiance to him, but had never permitted
him to be named as king in his presence, ‘Carry my compliments to
him,’ said the king, ‘but what?—stop!—no!—he may perhaps not
receive my compliment as King of England; give him the Elector of
Hanover’s compliments, and tell him that he respects the steadiness
of his principles.’ Hogg, who tells this story in the introduction to the
‘Jacobite Relics,’ does not see that in this message there was an
excess of condescension that hardly became the king, though the
spirit of the message did. The story is told with some difference in
the introduction to ‘Redgauntlet.’
In October of the year 1761, there died a Jacobite
A JACOBITE
of some distinction, who had the honour to be FUNERAL.
permitted to lie in Westminster Abbey; but, the
spectators who had been at the lying in state, observed, with some
surprise, that his coffin-plate bore only the initials K. M. L. F. The
‘Funeral Book’ of the Abbey is not more communicative, save that
the age of the defunct was forty-three. As the coffin sank to its
resting place in the South Aisle, curious strangers were told that it
contained the body of Kenneth Mackenzie, Lord Fortrose—a dignity
not sanctioned by the law; for, Kenneth was the only son of the fifth
Earl of Seaforth, who suffered attainder and forfeiture for the part he
played in the insurrection of 1715. But Kenneth left an only son,
Kenneth (by Lady Mary Stewart, daughter of the Earl of Galloway).
This son was not restored to his grandfather’s titles in the Scotch
peerage, but he was created Viscount Fortrose and Earl of Seaforth
in the peerage of Ireland. This transplantation was not fortunate.
Lord Seaforth died, leaving no male heir, in 1781, when the old
Jacobite title became extinct. The son of the attainted earl, restored
as to his fortune, was in the army, and in Parliament in 1746, when
he accompanied the Duke of Cumberland to Scotland, but his wife
and clan, as Walpole remarks, went with the Rebels. The Irish peer
but Scotch Earl of Seaforth well deserved his distinction, when in
1779, with seven hundred Mackenzies at his back, he repelled the
invasion of Jersey by a French force.
Other Jacobites were taken into favour, for which
DR.
loyal service was rendered. One of the first gracious JOHNSON’S
acts of George III. was to confer a pension on Dr. PENSION.
Johnson, of 300l. a year, equal now to twice that sum.
Johnson had well earned it, and he was expressly told that it was
conferred on him for what he had done, not for anything he was
expected to do. He felt that he was not expected to be an apologist
of the Stuarts, and the first act of the ex-Jacobite, after becoming a
pensioner, was to write for the Rev. Dr. Kennedy’s ‘Complete System
of Astronomical Chronology, unfolding the Scriptures,’ a dedication
to the king who had pensioned him (and whom he had looked upon
as the successor of two usurpers), which dedication is truly
described as being in a strain of very courtly elegance. As to the
granting of the pension by the king, Dr. Johnson, the once adherent
to the Stuart, remarked, ‘The English language does not afford me
terms adequate to my feelings on this occasion. I must have
recourse to the French. I am pénétré with his Majesty’s goodness.’
Johnson was quite sensible that it would be right to do something
more for his reward. The something was done in another dedication
to the Queen, of Hoole’s translation of Tasso, ‘which is so happily
conceived,’ says Boswell, ‘and elegantly expressed, that I cannot but
point it out to the peculiar notice of my readers.’ Johnson soon
became a partisan of the Hanoverian family. Speaking of some one
who with more than ordinary boldness attacked public measures and
the royal family, he said, ‘I think he is safe from the law, but he is an
abusive scoundrel; and instead of applying to my Lord Chief Justice
to punish him, I would send half-a-dozen footmen and have him well
ducked.’ A semi-noyade was now thought fitting recompense for a
Stuart apologist.
At a later period, when Johnson reviewed, in ‘The
JOHNSON’S
Gentleman’s Magazine,’ Tyler’s Vindication of Mary VIEW OF IT.
Queen of Scots, the Jacobitism quite as much as the
generosity of his principles led him to say, ‘It has now been
fashionable for near half a century to defame and vilify the House of
Stuart.... The Stuarts have found few apologists, for the dead cannot
pay for praise, and who will without reward oppose the tide of
popularity?’
Johnson being accused of tergiversation, has a right to be heard
in his own case. Much censured for accepting a pension which many
a censurer would have taken with the utmost alacrity, ‘Why, Sir,’ said
he with a hearty laugh, ‘it is a mighty foolish noise that they make. I
have accepted a pension as a reward which has been thought due to
my literary merit; and now that I have the pension, I am the same
man in every respect that I have ever been. I retain the same
principles. It is true that I cannot now curse (smiling) the House of
Hanover, nor would it be decent of me to drink King James’s health
in the wine that King George gives me money to pay for. But, Sir, I
think that the pleasure of cursing the House of Hanover and drinking
King James’s health, are amply overbalanced by 300l. a year.’ To
this may be added Boswell’s assurance that Johnson had little
confidence in the rights claimed by the Stuarts, and that he felt, in
course of time, much abatement of his own Toryism. It
HIS DEFINITION
was in his early days that he talked fierce Jacobitism, OF A
at Mr. Langton’s, to that gentleman’s niece, Miss JACOBITE.
Roberts. The Bishop of Salisbury (Douglas) and other eminent men
were present. Johnson, taking the young lady by the hand, said, ‘My
dear, I hope you are a Jacobite.’ Her uncle was a Tory without being
a Jacobite, and he angrily asked why Johnson thus addressed his
niece? ‘Why, Sir,’ said Johnson, ‘I meant no offence to your niece, I
mean her a great compliment. A Jacobite, Sir, believes in the Divine
Right of kings. He who believes in the Divine Right of kings believes
in a Divinity. A Jacobite believes in the Divine Right of bishops. He
that believes in the Divine Right of bishops believes in the Divine
Authority of the Christian Religion. Therefore, Sir, a Jacobite is
neither an Atheist nor a Deist. That cannot be said of a Whig, for
Whiggism is a negation of all principle.’
Be this as it may, Jacobitism was as surely dying
DEATH OF
out as he was who had crushed the hopes of THE DUKE OF
Jacobites at Culloden. The victor on that field, and CUMBERLAND
even now in the prime of life, died in 1765, of what .
Walpole called a ‘rot among princes.’ He was a ton of man, unwieldy,
asthmatic, blind of one eye, nearly so of the other, lame through his
old Dettingen wound, half breathless from asthma, half paralysed by
an old attack, able to write a letter, yet not able to collect his senses
sufficiently to play a game of piquet. On the 30th of October, he went
to Court, and received Lord Albemarle to dine with him, at his house
in Grosvenor Street. Unable to attend a Cabinet Council in the
evening, the Duke of Newcastle and Lord Northington called on him.
As they entered the room, one of his valets was about to bleed him,
at his own request. Before the operation could be performed, the
duke murmured, ‘It is all over!’ and fell dead in Lord Albemarle’s
arms.
Lord Albemarle remembered that when the duke’s brother,
Frederick, Prince of Wales, died, his cautious widow immediately
burned all his papers and letters. Lord Albemarle could not take
upon himself to destroy the duke’s papers, but he sent the whole of
them to the duke’s favourite sister, the Princess Amelia. She replied,
from Gunnersbury, ‘You are always attentive and obliging, my good
Lord Albemarle. I thank you for the letters, and I have burnt them.’
Many a secret perished with them. George III. conferred on Lord
Albemarle the duke’s garter.
The bitterness and pertinacity of the Jacobites against the duke
cannot be better illustrated than by an incident recorded by Boswell.
Johnson, Wedderburne, Murphy, and Foote, visited ‘Bedlam’ (in
Moorfields) together. At that time idle people went to look at the ‘mad
people in dens,’ as they now go to a menagerie, or ‘the Zoo.’ Boswell
says that Foote gave a very entertaining account of Johnson having
his attention arrested by a man who was very furious, and who, while
beating his straw, supposed it was William Duke of Cumberland,
whom he was punishing for his cruelties in Scotland, in 1746. The
entertainment was in the fact that Jacobite Johnson was amused by
this sad spectacle.
The duke was soon followed on ‘the way to dusty death,’ by him
whose life he had certainly helped to embitter.
The death of the Chevalier de St. George, at
DEATH OF
Rome, on New Year’s Night, 1766, was not known in THE OLD
London for nearly a fortnight. The only stir caused by CHEVALIER.
it was at the Council Board at St. James’s, whence
couriers rode away with despatches for foreign courts, which
couriers speedily returned with satisfactory answers. The Chevalier
might, like Charles II., have apologised to those who attended his
death-bed, on his being so long adying. What had come to be
thought of him in London may be partly seen in Walpole’s ‘Memoirs
of the reign of George III.’ There the Chevalier is spoken of as one
who had outlived his own hopes and the people who had ever given
him any. ‘His party was dwindled to scarce any but Catholics.’ Of the
church of the latter, Walpole calls him the most meritorious martyr,
and yet Rome would not recognise the royalty of the heirs. ‘To such
complete humiliation was reduced that ever unfortunate House of
Stuart, now at last denied the empty sound of royalty by the Church
and Court, for which they had sacrificed three kingdoms.’
The newspapers and other periodicals of the time FUNERAL
took less interest in the event than in a prize-fight. RITES.
The feeling with trifling exception was one of
indifference, but there was nowhere any expression of disrespect.
The various accounts of the imperial ceremony with which the body
of the unlucky prince lay in state, and was ultimately entombed, were
no doubt read with avidity. The imagination of successive reporters
grew with details of their subject. A figure of Death which appears
among the ‘properties’ of the lying in state, in the earliest account,
expands into ‘thirteen skeletons holding wax tapers’ in the later
communications. To this state ceremony, the London papers assert,
none were admitted but Italian princes and English—Jacobites of
course,—several of whom left London for the purpose. At the
transfer of the body to St. Peter’s, the royal corpse was surrounded
by ‘the English college,’ and was followed by ‘four Cardinals on
mules covered with purple velvet hangings.’ The Jacobites must
have put down the London papers with a feeling that their king was
dead, and a hope that his soul was at rest.
The death seems to have had a curious effect on at least one
London Jacobite. In January, 1766, two heads remained on Temple
Bar. The individual just referred to thought they had remained there
long enough. For some nights he secretly discharged bullets at them
from a cross-bow; and at last he was caught in the act. He was
suspected of being a kinsman of one of the unhappy sufferers; but in
presence of the magistrates he maintained that he was a loyal friend
of the established government; ‘that he thought it was not sufficient
that traitors should merely suffer death, and that consequently he
had treated the heads with indignity by trying to smash them.’ This
offender, who affected a sort of silliness, was dismissed with a
caution. There were found upon him fifty musket bullets, separately
wrapped in paper, each envelope bearing the motto ‘Eripuit ille
vitam,’ the application of which would have puzzled Œdipus himself.
The next incident of the time connected with GEORGE III.
Jacobitism is the celebrated interview between the AND DR.
king and Dr. Johnson. In that celebrated audience JOHNSON.
which the old Tory had of the king, in February, 1767,
in the library of Buckingham Palace, sovereign and subject acquitted
themselves equally well. Mr. Barnard, the librarian, had settled
Johnson, and left him, by the library fireside. The Doctor was deep in
a volume when the king and Barnard entered quietly by a private
door, and the librarian, going up to Johnson, whispered in his ear,
‘Sir, here is the king.’ George III. was ‘courteously easy.’ Johnson
was self-possessed and equally at his ease, as he stood in the king’s
presence.
With little exception, the conversation was purely literary: the
characteristics of the Oxford and Cambridge libraries; the
publications of the University presses; the labours of Johnson
himself; the controversy between Warburton and Lowth; Lord
Lyttelton as a historian; the merits of the universal Dr. Hill; the quality
of home and foreign periodicals; and so on. When Lyttelton was
named, Johnson said he had blamed Henry II. over much. The king
thought historians seldom did such things by halves. ‘No, Sir,’ said
Johnson, ‘not to kings;’ but he added: ‘That for those who spoke
worse of kings than they deserved, he could find no excuse; but he
could more easily conceive how some might speak better of them
than they deserved, without any ill intention; for as kings had much in
their power to give, those who were favoured by them would
frequently, from gratitude, exaggerate their praises; and as this
proceeded from a good motive, it was certainly excusable—as far as
error was excusable.’
When Johnson submitted that he himself had done
JOHNSON, ON
his part as a writer, ‘I should have thought so, too,’ GEORGE III.
said the king, ‘if you had not written so well.’ Johnson
spoke of this to Boswell in these words: ‘No man could have paid a
handsomer compliment, and it was fit for a king to pay: it was
decisive.’ On another occasion, Johnson being asked if he made any
reply to this high compliment, he answered: ‘No, Sir. When the king
had said it, it was to be so. It was not for me to bandy civilities with
my sovereign.’ Later still he said, ‘I find it does a man good to be
talked to by his sovereign;’ and for some time subsequently he
continued to speak of the king as he had spoken of him to Mr.
Barnard, after the interview: ‘Sir, they may talk of the king as they
will, but he is the finest gentleman I have ever seen;’ and later, ‘still
harping on my daughter,’ he said at Langton’s: ‘Sir, his manners are
those of as fine a gentleman as we may suppose Louis XIV. or
Charles II.’
Assuredly, the fine-gentleman manners of either king were not
now to be found in the Charles Edward who aspired to the throne
which Charles II. had occupied. A passage in an autograph letter,
addressed in May, 1767, by Cardinal York to a friend of the family in
London (where it was offered for sale three or four years ago),
shows the condition of the prince, and shadows forth the lingering
hopes of the family. The Cardinal, after stating that the Pope had
presented Charles Edward with ‘a pair of beads,’ adds: ‘They are of
such a kind as are only given to Sovrains, and could wee but gett the
better of the nasty Bottle, which every now and then comes on by
spurts, I would hope a greet deal of ouer gaining a good deal as to
other things.’
Four years later (that is, in 1771), the pensioning of JOHNSON’S
Jacobite Johnson was brought before the notice of PENSION
the House of Commons. In parliament, his Jacobitism OPPOSED.
was made use of as a weapon against himself.
Townshend’s charge against the Ministry was based on the alleged
fact that Johnson was a pensioner, and was expected to earn his
pension. ‘I consider him,’ said Townshend, ‘a man of some talent, but
no temper. The principle he upholds I shall ever detest. This man, a
Jacobite by principle, has been encouraged, fostered, pensioned,
because he is a Jacobite.’ Wedderburn denied it, and aptly asked, ‘If
a papist, or a theoretical admirer of a republican form of government,
should be a great mathematician or a great poet, doing honour to his
country and his age, and should fall into destitution, is he to be
excluded from the royal bounty?’ The answer is patent; but it is not a
matter for gratulation that Johnson wrote, as Lord Campbell remarks,
‘out of gratitude, “The False Alarm,” and “Taxation no Tyranny,” the
proof sheets of which were revised at the Treasury.’ Johnson himself
did not prove that his withers were unwrung by the vaunting remark
to Davies: ‘I wish my pension, Sir, were twice as large, that they
might make twice as much noise.’
In 1772, Jacobitism was again under parliamentary
A 30TH OF
notice. At this time, although the Nonjurors kept true JANUARY
in their allegiance to the hereditary right of the SERMON.
Stuarts, the Tories were as opposite as could be to those of the old
turbulent era of ‘High Church and Ormond!’ On the 30th of January,
Dr. Nowell (Principal of St. Mary, Oxford) preached before the House
of Commons a sermon that Sacheverel might have preached. That is
to say, he vindicated Charles I.; he also drew a parallel between him
and George III., and indulged in very high Tory sentiments. As usual,
the preacher was thanked, and he was requested to print his
discourse, which was done accordingly. At this juncture the younger
Townshend moved in the House to have the sermon burnt by the
common hangman; but, says Walpole (in his ‘Last Journals’), ‘as the
Houses had, according to custom, thanked the parson for his
sermon, without hearing or reading it, they could not censure it now
without exposing themselves to great ridicule.’ They did censure it,
nevertheless. Captain Walsingham Boyle, R.N.,
DEBATE ON
proposed, and Major-General Irwin seconded, the THE SERMON.
motion that the vote of thanks should be expunged.
This was opposed by Sir William Dolben and Sir Roger Newdegate,
who had proposed the vote of thanks. ‘Sir Roger,’ says Walpole, as
above, ‘was stupidly hot, and spoke with all the flame of stupid
bigotry, declaring that he would maintain all the doctrines in the
sermon were constitutional.’ T. Townshend, jun., showed how
repugnant they were to the constitution, and it was carried by 152 to
41, to expunge the thanks. General Keppel, Colonel Fitzroy (Vice-
Chamberlain to the king), and Charles Fox, all descendants of
Charles I., voted against the sermon, as did even Dyson and many
courtiers. The 41 were rank Tories, all but Rigby, who had retired
behind the chair; but, being made to vote, voted as he thought the
king would like, to whom he paid the greatest court, expecting to be
Chancellor of the Exchequer if Lord Guilford should die and Lord
North go into the House of Lords. This proper severity on the
sermon,’ as Walpole now calls it, ‘was a great blow to the Court, as
clergymen would fear to be too forward with their servility, when the
censure of Parliament might make it unadvisable for the king to
prefer them.’ Boswell thought that ‘Dr. Nowell will ever have the
honour which is due to a lofty friend of our monarchical constitution.’
‘Sir,’ said Johnson, ‘the Court will be very much to blame if he is not
promoted.’ A dozen years later, Johnson, Boswell, and ‘very
agreeable company at Dr. Nowell’s, drank Church and King after
dinner with true Tory cordiality.’ The toast had a different personal
application in former days.
And there was something a-foot which might
MARRIAGE OF
culminate in restoring that old personal application. CHARLES
London suddenly heard that Charles Edward had EDWARD.
quite as suddenly disappeared from Florence. ‘I am
sorry,’ Walpole wrote to our minister at Florence, in September, ‘that
so watchful a cat should let its mouse slip at last, without knowing
into what hole it is run.’ Walpole conjectured Spain, on his way to
Ireland, with Spanish help. But the prince was bent on other things,
and not on invasion and conquest by force of arms. Charles Edward
had once declared (London gossip at least gave him the credit of the
declaration) that he would never marry, in order that England might
not be trammeled by new complications. When he did marry, the
London papers made less ado about it than if the son of an alderman
had married ‘an agreeable and pretty young lady with a considerable
fortune.’ This single paragraph told the Londoners of the princely
match: ‘April 1st, 1772. The Pretender was married the 28th of last
month at St. Germain, in France, by proxy, to a Princess of Stolberg,
who set off immediately to Italy to meet him.’
Walpole reflects, but exaggerates, the opinions of WALPOLE, ON
London fashionable society, on the marriage of THE
Charles Edward. He knows little about the bride. ‘The MARRIAGE.
new Pretendress is said to be but sixteen, and a
Lutheran. I doubt the latter. If the former is true, I suppose they mean
to carry on the breed in the way it began—by a spurious child. A
Fitz-Pretender is an excellent continuation of the patriarchal line.’ At
that time the Royal Marriage Bill, which prohibited the princes and
princesses of the Royal Family from marrying without the consent of
the Sovereign, or, in certain cases, of Parliament, was being much
discussed. ‘Thereupon,’ Mr. Chute says, ‘when the Royal Family are
prevented from marrying, it is a right time for the Stuarts to marry.
This event seems to explain the Pretender’s disappearance last
autumn; and though they sent him back from Paris, they may not
dislike the propagation of thorns in our side.’
In a subsequent letter, Walpole continues the subject. ‘I do not
believe,’ he says, ‘that she is a Protestant, though I have heard from
one who should know, General Redmond, an Irish officer in the
French service, that the Pretender himself abjured the Roman
Catholic religion at Liége, a few years ago, and that, on that account,
the Irish Catholics no longer make him remittances. This would be
some, and the only apology, but fear, for the Pope’s refusing him the
title of king. What say you to this Protestantism? At Paris they call
his income twenty-five thousand pound sterling a year. His bride has
nothing but many quarters. The Cardinal of York’s answer last year
to the question of whither his brother was gone? is now explained.
“You told me,” he replied, “whither he should have gone a year
sooner.”’
The London papers of the 1st of April contained THE LAST
other information not uninteresting to Jacobites. It HEADS ON
was in this form:—‘Yesterday, one of the rebel heads TEMPLE BAR.
on Temple Bar fell down. There is only one head now
remaining.’ The remaining head fell shortly after. They were
popularly said to be those of Towneley and Fletcher; and, as before
noticed, there is a legend that Towneley’s head is still preserved in
London. The late Mr. Timbs, in his ‘London and Westminster,’ gives
this account of ‘the rebel heads’ and their farewell to the Bar:—‘Mrs.
Black, the wife of the editor of the ‘Morning Chronicle,’ when asked if
she remembered any heads on Temple Bar, used to reply in her
brusque, hearty way: “Boys, I recollect the scene well. I have seen
on that Temple Bar, about which you ask, two human heads—real
heads—traitors’ heads—spiked on iron poles. There were two. I saw
one fall (March 31st, 1772). Women shrieked as it fell; men, as I
have heard, shrieked. One woman near me fainted. Yes, boys, I
recollect seeing human heads on Temple Bar.”’ The spikes were not
removed till early in the present century.
At this period merit in literature was allowed or DALRYMPLE’S
denied, according to the writer’s politics. In 1773 Sir ‘MEMOIRS.’
John Dalrymple published the famous second volume
of his ‘Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland, from the dissolution of
the last Parliament until the Sea-Battle of La Hogue.’ The first
volume had appeared two years previously. The third and concluding
volume was not published till 1788. The second volume was famous
for its exposure of Lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney as
recipients of money from Louis XIV.; money not personally applied,
but used, or supposed to be used, for the purpose of establishing a
republic. Walpole was furious at a book which, while it treated both
sides, generally, with little tenderness, absolved the last two Stuart
kings from blame, and spoke of William with particular severity.
Walpole says of Sir John: ‘He had been a hearty Jacobite; pretended
to be converted; then paid his court when he found his old principles
were no longer a disrecommendation at court. The great object of his
work was to depreciate and calumniate all the friends of the
Revolution.... The famous second volume was a direct charge of
bribery from France, on the venerable hero, Algernon Sidney,
pretended to be drawn from Barillon’s papers at Versailles, a source
shut up to others, and actually opened to Sir John, by the
intercession of even George III.—a charge I would not make but on
the best authority. Lord Nuneham, son of Lord Harcourt, then
ambassador in Paris, told me his father obtained licence for Sir John
to search those archives—amazing proof of all I have said on the
designs of this reign; what must they be when George III.
encourages a Jacobite wretch to hunt in France for materials for
blackening the heroes who withstood the enemies of Protestants and
Liberty?... Men saw the Court could have no meaning but to sap all
virtuous principles and to level the best men to the worst,—a plot
more base and destructive than any harboured by the Stuarts....
Who could trust to evidence either furnished from Versailles or
coined as if it came from thence? And who could trust to Sir John,
who was accused, I know not how truly, of having attempted to get
his own father hanged, and who had been turned out of a place, by
Lord Rockingham, for having accepted a bribe?’
The above, from Walpole’s ‘Last Journals,’ is a WALPOLE’S
curious burst of Anti-Jacobitism, on the part of a man ANTI-
who gave Sir John Dalrymple a letter of introduction JACOBITISM.
to the French Minister, de Choiseul! Sir John in his
preface names ‘Mr. Stanley, Lord Harcourt, and Mr. Walpole,’ as
furnishing him with such introductions. All that the king did was to
allow access to William III.’s private chest, at Kensington, and the
‘ex-Jacobite wretch’ to make what he could out of the contents.
Walpole never forgave him. In 1774, when a Bill, to relieve
booksellers who had bought property in copies, was before the
Commons, ‘the impudent Sir John Dalrymple,’ as Walpole calls him,
‘pleaded at the bar of the House against the booksellers, who had
paid him 2000l. for his book in support of the Stuarts. This was the
wretch,’ cries Walpole, ‘who had traduced Virtue and Algernon
Sidney!’
Walpole spared Lord Mansfield, the brother of ANTI-
Murray of Broughton (and almost as much of a ULTRAMONTA
Jacobite), as little as he did Dalrymple. In June, this NISM.
year, there was a hotly-sustained battle in the
Commons over the Quebec Bill. The Bill was denounced as an
attempt to involve Protestants under a Roman Catholic jurisdiction.
The Court was accused of preparing a Popish army to keep down
the American colonies. Walpole charged Lord Mansfield with being
the author of the Bill, and with disavowing the authorship. On the 9th
of June, Lord North proposed to adjourn the debate till the 11th, as
on the intervening day Lord Stanley was to give a grand
entertainment at the Oaks, near Epsom, in honour of his intended
bride, Lady Betty Hamilton. The opposition in the House did not let
slip the palpable opportunity. They severely ridiculed the minister,
and Tom Townshend told him,—the Pretender’s birthday, the 10th of
June, was a proper festival for finishing a Bill of so Stuart-like a
complexion! Camden said, in the Lords, that the king, by favouring
such a measure, would commit a breach of his coronation oath.
Walpole has recorded, in his ‘Last Journals,’ that the sovereign who
was wearing the crown of England, to the prejudice of the Stuart
family, was doing by the authority of a free parliament what James II.
was expelled for doing. The City told the king, in a petition not to
pass the Bill, that he had no right to the crown but as a protector of
the Protestant religion. Walpole remarked, ‘The King has a Scotch
Chief Justice, abler than Laud, though not so intrepid as Lord
Strafford. Laud and Strafford lost their heads,—Lord Mansfield would
not lose his, for he would die of fear, if he were in danger, of which,
unfortunately, there is no prospect.’ The Bill was carried in both
Houses. On the 22nd of June, the king went down to the Lords to
pass the Bill, and prorogue the Parliament. The crowded streets
wore quite the air of old Jacobite times. The feeling of dread and
hatred, not against English Catholics, but against that form of Popery
called Ultramontanism, which would, if it could, dash out the brains
of Protestantism, and overthrow kings and thrones ‘ad majorem Dei
gloriam,’ found bitter expression on that day. ‘His Majesty,’ according
to the journals, ‘was much insulted on his way to the House of Peers
yesterday. The cry of No Popery! was re-echoed from every
quarter, and the noisy expressions of displeasure were greater than
his Majesty ever yet heard.’ On the other hand, the king’s brother,
the Duke of Gloucester, rose suddenly into favour. He voted against
the Bill. With reference to that step, the ‘Public Advertiser’ chronicled
the following lines: ‘’Tis said that a great personage has taken an
additional disgust at another great personage dividing with the
minority on Friday last. This is the second heinous offence the latter
has been guilty of; the first, committing matrimony; and now,
professing himself a Protestant.’ Walpole thought it was judicious in
him to let it be seen that at least one Prince of the House of Hanover
had the Protestant cause at heart, and the preservation of the ‘happy
establishment.’
As the study of the times is pursued, the student is ‘THE HAPPY
no sooner disposed to believe that Jacobitism has ESTABLISHME
ultimately evaporated, than he comes upon some NT.’
remarkable proof to the contrary. The following is one
of such proofs.
In the year 1775, some friend of the drama GARRICK’S
remonstrated with Garrick on the absurdity of the MACBETH.
costume in which he and other actors of Macbeth
played the hero of Shakespeare’s tragedy. The actor of the Thane
generally dressed the character in a modern military uniform. As an
improvement, it was suggested that a tartan dress was the proper
costume to wear. Of course the real Macbeth was never seen in
such a dress; but Garrick was not troubled at that. He objected for
another reason. ‘It is only thirty years ago,’ he said, ‘that the
Pretender was in England. Party spirit runs so high that if I were to
put on tartan, I should be hissed off the stage, and perhaps the
house would be pulled down!’ It should be remembered that when
Macklin changed his Macbeth costume from that of an English
general to a plaid coat and trousers, Quin said that Macklin had
turned Macbeth into an old Scotch piper.
The party spirit to which Garrick alluded seems to have revived in
the person of Dr. Johnson, whose principles led him still to
sympathise with the Jacobite cause.

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2 The market demand for events 24

3 The events ­business: supply and suppliers 44

PART 2 MANAGING EVENTS 85

5 Making a start and planning the event 86

6 Financial ­management and the budget 124

7 Event logistics and supplies 150

8 Marketing and public relations for events 178

9 Risk Management and Legalities 203

10 Event project management and set-up issues 224

12 Close-down, evaluation and legacies 284

PART 1 THE EVENTS BUSINESS 1 Introduction 63

6 Financial ­management and the 10 Event project management and

5.6 Events screening form 101

8.4 Influencing the market 182

11.8 Concentration of core services and staff 267

Chapter 1 City Country Date Page

2. A Roman Wedding Rome Italy 300 AD 9

3. The Royal Diamond Jubilees London England 1897 12

4. The Paris Exposition Paris France 1889 15

6. The UK Wedding Market ______ UK 2017 29

7. The Berlin Film Festival 2018 Berlin Germany 2018 36

8. North Sea Jazz Festival 2018 Rotterdam Netherlands 2018 40

10. Coeva Paris France 2016 53

11. The Lausanne Marathon 2018 Lausanne Switzerland 2018 57

Chapter 4 City Country Date Page

13. Milan Universal Expo Milan Italy 2015 71

14. Salzburg Festival Salzburg Austria 2018 74

15. The Olympic Games in Context – International 1896– 78

17. University College, Cork Hockey Club Cork Ireland 2016 99

18. The reopening of the Scottish Edinburgh Scotland 1999 109

21. The Tour de France Paris France 2018 144

Chapter 8 City Country Date Page

25. Geneva Motor Show Geneva Switzerland 2018 196

26. Epica Reuver Netherlands 2018 198

28. Clacton Air Show 2018 Clacton England 2018 217

29. Regia Anglorum Historical Wirksworth England 2018 219

31. The Wirksworth Wapentake Wirksworth England 2008 243

32. Glastonbury Festival Glastonbury England 2017 248

34. Deventer Book Market Deventer Netherlands 2018 275

36. The Fyre Festival Great Exuma Bahamas 2017 296

37. The Commonwealth Games Manchester England 2002 300

38. The Royal Agricultural Show Stoneleigh England 2009 302

DOING THE JOB FORMS

PROJECT MANAGEMENT FORMS

3 The events business: supply and suppliers 44

6 Financial management and the budget 124

6 Financial management and the 10 Event project management and