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COMMUNICATING IN
PROFESSIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS

Professional
Communication
Consultancy, Advocacy, Activism

Edited by Louise Mullany

Communicating in Professions and Organizations

Series Editor
Jonathan Crichton
University of South Australia
Adelaide, SA, Australia
This ground-breaking series is edited by Jonathan Crichton, Senior Lecturer
in Applied Linguistics at the University of South Australia. It provides a
venue for research on issues of language and communication that matter to
professionals, their clients and stakeholders. Books in the series explore the
relevance and real world impact of communication research in professional
practice and forge reciprocal links between researchers in applied linguistics/
discourse analysis and practitioners from numerous professions, including
healthcare, education, business and trade, law, media, science and technology.
Central to this agenda, the series responds to contemporary challenges to
professional practice that are bringing issues of language and communi-
cation to the fore. These include:

• The growing importance of communication as a form of professional

expertise that needs to be made visible and developed as a resource for
the professionals
• Political, economic, technological and social changes that are trans-
forming communicative practices in professions and organisations
• Increasing mobility and diversity (geographical, technological, cul-
tural, linguistic) of organisations, professionals and clients

Books in the series combine up to date overviews of issues of language

and communication relevant to the particular professional domain with
original research that addresses these issues at relevant sites. The authors
also explore the practical implications of this research for the professions/
organisations in question.
We are actively commissioning projects for this series and welcome pro-
posals from authors whose experience combines linguistic and professional
expertise, from those who have long-standing knowledge of the profes-
sional and organisational settings in which their books are located and joint
editing/authorship by language researchers and professional practitioners.
The series is designed for both academic and professional readers, for
scholars and students in Applied Linguistics, Communication Studies
and related fields, and for members of the professions and organisations
whose practice is the focus of the series.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14904
 Louise Mullany
Editor

Professional
Communication
Consultancy, Advocacy, Activism
Editor
Louise Mullany
School of English
University of Nottingham
Nottingham, UK

Communicating in Professions and Organizations

ISBN 978-3-030-41667-6    ISBN 978-3-030-41668-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41668-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and trans-
mission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: KTSDESIGN/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Getty Images

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Abigail and Tommy, in the hope that you will enter professions that will
treat you well and bring fulfilment to your lives in the years to come.
 Preface

This volume responds to a series of political, social and technological

changes that are transforming the global landscape of professional com-
munication research. It focuses on original empirical studies carried out
in a number of international locations, including Africa, Asia and
Australasia, as well as Europe and North America. All contributors take
innovative approaches to professional communication drawing on con-
sultancy, advocacy and activism, or a combination of these approaches. A
defining feature is that all chapters have clearly identified contemporary
socio-­cultural problems that are explored and investigated by professional
communication analysis. The volume includes authorial contributions
from some of the most internationally respected and well-known aca-
demic researchers in professional communication, whose seminal work
has helped shape the discipline over many years, including Janet Holmes,
Maria Stubbe and Elena Semino. These contributions sit alongside estab-
lished researchers who are transforming the field with their recent work
in a variety of global spaces, along with contributions from experienced
practitioners. Contributors have been carefully selected as collectively
they represent emergent work across a range of different traditions in
linguistics, communication studies and beyond, including: sociolinguis-
tics, discourse analysis, intercultural communication, corpus linguistics,
conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, stylistics, ethnography,
pragmatics, narrative studies, law, crime and criminology, medical
vii
viii Preface

humanities and organisational studies. The volume also incorporates

important collaborations with researchers from different fields coming
together around a particular socio-cultural problem to produce genuine
interdisciplinary work.
The fields of businesses, healthcare and institutions, with the latter
category incorporating politics, education and law, have been selected as
the key domains where consultancy, advocacy and activist research is
being carried out most prominently and most effectively. A series of per-
tinent questions are asked about the evolving relationships between
researcher and researched, the changing nature of researcher identities,
the negotiation of power and research reciprocity, and the impact on and
subsequent development of new theories and methodologies. At the cen-
tre of these questions is the overarching importance of the production of
research consultancies, advocacy and activist work, dedicated to address-
ing and resolving socio-cultural issues with global significance, based on
the findings of robust, empirical research.
The initial inspiration for this volume stems from my experiences of
setting up a research consultancy and business unit at the University of
Nottingham from 2015, Linguistic Profiling for Professionals. The
consultancy-­style approach to professional communication research, part
of a broader business and external engagement agenda for the University,
has changed the relationship between the researcher and the researched in
expected and unexpected ways. A variety of projects have been commis-
sioned in different settings including businesses, the public sector, the
third sector and healthcare. All have been unified by the desire to investi-
gate and attempt to resolve particular socio-cultural problems, often
around miscommunication and conflict, communication breakdown
and issues of professional identity in relation to workplace equality and
intercultural communicative competence. Experiences of feeding back
findings and recommendations, including observing how these may or
may not be taken on-board, and how the relationship between the
researcher and researched develops during advocacy and activist work,
have provided the impetus to explore these issues further. This includes
critically considering different demands, expectations and roles that are
placed on researchers and practitioners and how these emergent issues
influence theoretical and methodological developments in the field. The
 Preface ix

resultant volume investigates all of these issues in a detailed and sustained

way, drawing on the experiences and expertise of a large group of aca-
demics and practitioners. It is the intention that this work will be of long-­
term practical use, value and interest to professionals, practitioners,
academics, students and scholars across the widest range of areas of pro-
fessional expertise.

Nottingham, UK Louise Mullany

October 2019
 Acknowledgements

The last time that I saw Ronald Carter in person, we discussed the gap in
the market for a volume of this nature and as always he approached the
topic with his infectious enthusiasm, passion and encouragement.
Although he is no longer with us, his influence runs deeply throughout
this book. I will remain forever grateful to him for his mentorship, friend-
ship and for being the best senior colleague that anyone could ever wish
to work with. The book is dedicated to his memory.
I also wish to express my sincere gratitude to all of the contributors
who have made this volume possible. It has been a genuine pleasure to
work with you all. As professional communication research reaches an
important juncture in its development, it is a real positive that we have
such a vibrant community of innovative researchers, consultants and
practitioners who are not afraid to push the boundaries of the discipline
forward. I feel very privileged to be part of this global interdisciplinary
network. A particular mention to all of the practitioners who have con-
tributed here—this volume is much richer for your insight and engage-
ment. Working more closely on publications is certainly a productive way
to ensure that professional communication research makes its way into
everyday applied practice.
Many thanks also to Cathy Scott, Beth Farrow and Alice Green, who
have been an excellent team to work with at Springer Palgrave and to the
Series Editor Jonathan Crichton, for including this volume as part of the
xi
xii Acknowledgements

Communicating in Professions and Organizations Series. As a team, you

have provided the perfect balance of flexibility, support, encouragement
and patience with this project and I am really glad that the initial idea for
this volume appealed to you.
I have had the pleasure of working with a wide range of professional
communication academics and support staff over the last few years at the
University of Nottingham as part of Linguistic Profiling for Professionals
(LiPP) and I am very grateful to everyone who has been employed as part
of LiPP since 2015 for their hard work, dedication and vision: Sarah
Atkins, Vanessa Augustus, Gavin Brookes, Malgorzata Chalupnik, Wasim
Chaudry, Luke Collins, Spencer Hazel, Claire Mann, Kay Snowley,
Dimitra Vladimirou, and PhD students Tristan Emerson, Leigh
Harrington and Victoria Howard. I have learnt a great deal from working
alongside all of you and I am proud of what we have achieved together.
Special thanks to Victoria Howard for being such a dedicated and dili-
gent research assistant on various LiPP projects over the last three years
and in particular for assisting me with formatting and proofing the final
version of this manuscript.
In addition to all of this volume’s contributors, thanks also to fellow
academics, practitioners, industry partners, charity and NGO collabora-
tors and administrative staff for being such supportive and inspirational
colleagues: Harriet Adong, Mazz Awan, Rita Atukwasa, Jo Angouri, Sally
Bowden, Cheryl Brand, Francesca Bargiela-Chiappini, Jacqueline
Cordell, Zoltan Dornyei, Lucy Jones, Karen Grainger, Kevin Harvey,
Jayne Henson, Paul Holmes, Sue Hopcroft, Daniel Hunt, Daniel King,
Sam Kingman, Liz Lesquereux, Jai MacKenzie, Ian Mawer, Sara Mills,
Gemma Morgan-Jones, Jo Murphy, Laura Murphy, Liz Morrish, Hope
Nankunda, Alison Pilnick, Lucy Rowley, Karen Salt, Sally Squires, Peter
Stockwell, Claire Stripp, Steve Upcraft, Kelly Vere, Marion Walker,
Edward Wilding, Lucy Williams and Angela Zottola. Particular thanks to
Sally Squires for the loan of her peaceful garden office in the summer
of 2019.
To finish, special thanks to my fellow Aikidoka at The Eagle
Dojo Nottingham for helping me find the much-needed headspace to
create and work on this volume, especially to Sensei Phil Musson, who
has taught me so much about the critical importance of timing, balance
 Acknowledgements xiii

and resilience in life, work and Aikido. Lastly and most importantly, I
could not do any of this without the love, support and belief of Matthew,
Abigail and Tommy—you are my world.

Author and Publisher’s Acknowledgements

In Chap. 4, Lumala and Mullany’s work has been funded by the Arts and
Humanities Research Council (AHRC) through the UKRI’s Global
Challenges Research Fund (GCRF), AHRC Grant number: AH/
R004439/1. In Chap. 5, Koller and Ereaut would like to thank Prostate
Cancer UK for their permission to use this case study and for their per-
mission to reproduce its original ‘Working Principles’ in this volume. In
Chap. 6, Mooneeram would like to thank Accenture for their permission
to use their consultancy as an illustrative example in this chapter. In
Chap. 7, the research projects of Stubbe et al. were funded by the New
Zealand Health Research Council, the New Zealand Lotteries Health
Research Fund, the University of Otago Research Fund and the New
Zealand Ministry of Health. Stubbe et al. are also grateful to the research
participants and participating general practices, and to the research assis-
tants who helped collect and transcribe the data. In Boyd et al.’s work in
Chap. 8, the research of Pope et al. in Sect. 1 is based upon findings sup-
ported by the Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration,
Office of Research and Development. The views expressed in Chap. 8 are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position or policy
of the Department of Veterans Affairs or the United States Government.
Demjén and Semino’s work in Chap. 10 on end of life care and metaphor
was funded by the UK’s Economic and Social Research Council,
2012–2014, ESRC grant number: ES/J007927/1. In Chap. 12,
Hardaker’s work was also supported by the UK’s Economic and Social
Research Council (ESRC) grant number ES/L008874/1 and grant num-
ber ES/K002155/1. Mullany and Trickett’s hate crime research reported
in Chap. 13 was funded by the Office of the Nottinghamshire Police and
Crime Commissioner and Nottingham Women’s Centre.
 Praise for Professional Communication

“In this superbly edited volume, we see the problem-solving potential of a

mature and committed applied linguistics, and its relevance for addressing the
complexities of communication in an age of globalization.”
— Jan Blommaert, Professor of Language, Culture and Globalization,
Tilburg University, the Netherlands

“An imperative underpinning the modes and modalities of professional com-

munication research is to embrace a societally relevant impact agenda through
intervention and influence. The editor and the contributors – committed to
‘responsive’ and ‘responsible’ research with a ‘reflexive’ mentality – rise to the
practical and ethical challenges of ‘translational research’ admirably and refresh-
ingly in linking empirically grounded research across diverse settings, domains
and methodologies with their lived experiences of consultancy, advocacy and
activism.”
— Srikant Sarangi, Professor in Humanities and Medicine, Aalborg University,
Denmark, Emeritus Professor, Cardiff University, UK
 Contents

1 Rethinking Professional Communication: New

Departures for Global Workplace Research  1
Louise Mullany

Part I Businesses and Organisations  27

2 Training ‘International Engineers’ in Japan: discourse,

Discourse and Stereotypes 29
Michael Handford

3 The Relevance of Applied Linguistic and Discourse

Research: On the Margins of Communication
Consultancy 47
Erika Darics

4 Language, Gender and Leadership: Applying the

Sociolinguistics of Narrative and Identity in East Africa 65
Masibo Lumala and Louise Mullany

xvii
xviii Contents

5 Culture Change and Rebranding in the Charity Sector: A

Linguistic Consultancy Approach 89
Veronika Koller and Gill Ereaut

6 The Practitioner’s View: The Value of Linguistics in

International Business Consultancy113
Roshni Mooneeram

Part II Healthcare 127

7 Talking About Diabetes and Healthy Lifestyle in Primary

Healthcare—Translating Research Findings into Practice129
Maria Stubbe, Lindsay Macdonald, Rachel Tester, Lesley Gray,
Jo Hilder, Kevin Dew, and Tony Dowell

8 Speaking of Digital Communication: Home-Based

Telehealth for Patients and Providers151
Boyd H. Davis, Kathryn Van Ravenstein, and Charlene Pope

9 Communication Accommodation Theory as an

Intervention Tool to Improve Interprofessional Practice in
Healthcare169
Bernadette M. Watson

10 Communicating Nuanced Results in Language

Consultancy: The Case of Cancer and the Violence
Metaphor191
Zsófia Demjén and Elena Semino

11 ‘We Might Have a Conversation Once a Week but the

Quality Is High’: Research and Consultancy in Primary
Care Multidisciplinary Teams211
Claire Mann
 Contents xix

Part III Institutions: Politics, Law and Education 225

12 Social Media Interventions and the Language of Political

Campaigns: From Online Petitions to Platform Policy
Changes227
Claire Hardaker

13 The Language of ‘Misogyny Hate Crime’: Politics, Policy

and Policing249
Louise Mullany and Loretta Trickett

14 Changing Educational Policies: Language and Sexuality

in Schools273
Helen Sauntson

15 Towards an Understanding of Linguistic Consultancy:

How Do Linguists Approach the Task of Evaluating
Sociolinguistic Practice in Consultancy Sessions?291
Kieran File and Stephanie Schnurr

16 The View from Outside: Communicating Influence and

Organisational Change: Reflections from a Police Chief
Constable311
Susannah Fish

Part IV Epilogue 325

17 Epilogue: Future Directions—What Next?327

Janet Holmes

Index343
 Notes on Contributors

Erika Darics is Senior Lecturer in English at Aston University, UK. She

is an applied linguist specialising in communication in professional,
workplace and digital contexts. Drawing on her research and extensive
training experience she works with businesses and organisations to realise
their business potential by improving their communications through
business consultancy. As a researcher she is particularly interested in pro-
fessional (and) interpersonal communication in workplaces, including
non-verbal communication, politeness, relational and gendered commu-
nication. She specialises in computer-­ mediated communication and
social media. She is regional Vice President for Europe, Africa and the
Middle East for the Association for Business Communication.

Boyd H. Davis is Professor of Applied Linguistics at University of North

Carolina at Charlotte, USA. Her research focuses on sociohistorical and
pragmatic approaches to healthcare, including dementia discourse, age-
ing and digital corpora. She is Co-PI of the Carolinas Conversation
Collection, an NIH-funded web portal for researchers to several hundred
conversational interviews with impaired/unimpaired older persons.

Zsófia Demjén is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics at University

College London, UK, and specialises in language and communication
around illness and healthcare. She is author of Sylvia Plath and the
xxi
xxii Notes on Contributors

Language of Affective States (2015), co-author of Metaphor, Cancer and the

End of Life: A Corpus-based Study (2018), editor of Applying Linguistics in
Illness and Healthcare Contexts (2019), and co-editor of The Routledge
Handbook of Metaphor and Language (2017). Her work has appeared in
the Journal of Pragmatics, Applied Linguistics, Communication & Medicine,
and the BMJ’s Medical Humanities, among others.

Kevin Dew is Professor of Sociology at Victoria University of Wellington,

New Zealand. He is a founding member of the Applied Research on
Communication in Health (ARCH) Group. His current research activi-
ties include studies of interactions between health professionals and
patients, health inequities in cancer care decision-making, and the social
meanings of medications. His books include The Cult and Science of
Public Health: A Sociological Investigation, Borderland Practices: Regulating
Alternative Therapy in New Zealand, Sociology of Health in New Zealand
(with Allison Kirkman), and Public Health, Personal Health and Pills:
Drug Entanglements and Pharmaceuticalised Governance.

Tony Dowell is Professor of Primary Health Care and General Practice

at the University of Otago in Wellington, New Zealand. He is a founding
member of the ARCH Group and co-directs the ARCH Corpus of
Health Interactions. He is a practising GP and has worked in New
Zealand, the UK and Central Africa. He undertakes research in commu-
nity settings using quantitative and qualitative methodologies to investi-
gate primary mental healthcare, communication between patients and
health providers and the application of complexity and implementation
science in healthcare settings.

Gill Ereaut is Founding Partner and CEO of Linguistic Landscapes,

where she has pioneered the commercial application of language sciences,
linguistics and discourse analysis to a range of organisations. She has
30 years of experience working in business research and consulting. She
writes and speaks regularly on the topics of language and ­organisations,
including guest lecturing at Cass Business School and the London School
of Economics.
 Notes on Contributors xxiii

Kieran File is an Assistant Professor in the Centre for Applied Linguistics

at the University of Warwick, UK. His research explores issues related to
language use in high-performance sporting contexts. His current research
interests are in the areas of managing professional relationships in sports
teams, building empowering team environments and the strategies pro-
fessional sports managers and coaches use to manage their impressions
when speaking to the media. He also applies this research and has helped
some of the world’s biggest sporting teams and organisations consider the
role and impact of language choices in their high performance sporting
contexts.

Susannah Fish, OBE, QPM is CEO of StarFish Consulting Limited,

working with a range of clients on transformational change, leadership
and equality in the UK. Previously she was a police officer for 31 years
and retired as Chief Constable of Nottinghamshire Police. She was
awarded the OBE in 2008 for services to policing. She received the
Queen’s Policing Medal for distinguished service in 2016. She was also
awarded ‘Upstander of the Year’ in the National Hate Crime Awards
2017 for her leadership on misogyny hate crime. She continues to cam-
paign to have misogyny hate crime adopted nationally.

Lesley Gray is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Otago in Wellington,

New Zealand, and a fellow of the UK Faculty of Public Health. She is a
member of the ARCH Group and led the formation of the TabOO study
(Talking About Overweight & Obesity). Her research interests concern
health risk communication and behaviour relating to obesity, health
equity and disaster risk reduction (DRR), and research into interprofes-
sional education and community informed learning.

Michael Handford is Professor of Applied Linguistics at Cardiff

University, UK, where he is Director of Internationalisation for the
School of English, Communication and Philosophy. His published work
focuses on discourse in professional settings, cultural identities at work,
the application of corpus tools in discourse analysis, using corpora for the
analysis of intercultural communication, English as a Lingua Franca in
the construction industry, engineering education, and language learning.
xxiv Notes on Contributors

He was previously Professor of International Education at the University

of Tokyo, and has worked as a communication consultant with several
organisations.

Claire Hardaker is Senior Lecturer in Forensic Corpus Linguistics in

the Department of Linguistics and English Language at Lancaster
University, UK. She researches online aggression, deception and manipu-
lation; directs the Forensic Linguistics Research Group (FORGE); and
produces a podcast on forensic linguistics and language mysteries called
‘en clair’. She is also part of the ESRC’s Corpus Approaches to Social
Science (CASS) Centre.

Jo Hilder is a Research Fellow based in the Department of Primary

Health Care and General Practice at the University of Otago in
Wellington, New Zealand. With a background in applied linguistics, she
is a member of the ARCH Group which investigates a wide range of
communication issues in clinical practice using video recordings of
authentic interactions between health professionals and patients.

Janet Holmes is Emeritus Professor in Linguistics at Victoria University

of Wellington, New Zealand. She is a fellow of the Royal Society of New
Zealand and an officer of the New Zealand Order of Merit (2016). She is
Associate Director of the Wellington Language in the Workplace project,
an ongoing study of communication in the workplace which has described
small talk, humour, management strategies, directives and leadership in a
wide range of New Zealand workplaces. She was also Director of the
project which produced the influential Wellington Corpus of Spoken
New Zealand English.

Veronika Koller is Reader in Discourse Studies at Lancaster University,

UK. Her research interests centre on corporate and health communica-
tion and she supervises a number of PhD students in these areas. Outside
academia, she is a senior associate analyst with the consulting company
Linguistic Landscapes. She has been involved in the rebranding of the
charity Prostate Cancer UK as well as in projects for the NHS and a
number of UK-based and international charities. Her published works
 Notes on Contributors xxv

include Language in Business, Language at Work (Palgrave 2018, with

Erika Darics) and Metaphor and Gender in Business Media Discourse
(Palgrave, 2004).

Masibo Lumala is a Senior Lecturer at Moi University’s Department of

Communication Studies, Kenya, where he specialises in gender, commu-
nication, writing for public relations and strategic corporate media rela-
tions. He is actively involved in advocacy and campaigns and has
successfully supervised a number of Masters and PhD students in a range
of areas including gender, media and political communication in Kenya.

Lindsay Macdonald is an adjunct Research Fellow at the University of

Otago in Wellington, New Zealand. She is a founding member of the
ARCH Group and co-director of the ARCH Corpus of Health
Interactions. She has brought her clinical background in nursing to a
wide range of applied research projects on health communication and
health promotion in the primary healthcare domain.

Claire Mann is a Senior Research Fellow in the School of Pharmacy

working closely with the Nottingham University Business School’s Centre
for Health Improvement, Leadership and Learning (CHILL) at the
University of Nottingham, UK. She is an interdisciplinary researcher
who has worked on a number of research projects in various clinical set-
tings across the fields of medicine and health sciences. She specialises in
ethnographic approaches to education and healthcare. She also works as
a freelance consultant and research practitioner in evaluation, education,
organisational behaviour and professional communication.

Roshni Mooneeram is a freelance communication strategist and con-

sultant in corporate training. She specialises in global Englishes in the
workplace, multilingualism and workplace identities. She has also worked
at the University of Leeds, Birmingham City University and the University
of Nottingham Ningbo China, where she founded and directed the
Division of English Studies.
xxvi Notes on Contributors

Louise Mullany is Professor of Sociolinguistics at the University of

Nottingham, UK. She is founder and director of Linguistic Profiling for
Professionals, a research consultancy and business unit based at the
University. She specialises in sociolinguistic investigations of professional
identities and workplace cultures. Her works have been published widely
with a range of international publishing houses. Books include Gendered
Discourse in the Professional Workplace (2007, Palgrave) and Language,
Gender and Feminism (2011 with Sara Mills). She has delivered research
consultancies and training to numerous public, private and third sector
organisations. She is editor of Routledge’s monograph book series Applied
Professional Communication.

Charlene Pope, PhD, MPH, RN, FAAN, is Chief Nurse for Research
at the Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, USA, where she conducts
health services research on health disparities, patient-provider communi-
cation and health literacy. She is Co-PI of the Carolinas Conversation
Collection, an NIH-funded web portal for researchers to several hundred
conversational interviews with impaired/unimpaired older persons.

Helen Sauntson is Professor of English Language and Linguistics at

York St John University, UK. Her research areas are language in educa-
tion and language, gender and sexuality. She is the author of Language,
Sexuality and Education (2018), Approaches to Gender and Spoken
Classroom Discourse (Palgrave, 2012), co-author of New Perspectives on
Language and Sexual Identity (Palgrave, 2007). She has also co-edited a
number of volumes and her work has appeared in a wide range of aca-
demic journals. She is co-editor of the Palgrave Studies in Language,
Gender and Sexuality book series.

Stephanie Schnurr is an Associate Professor at the University of

Warwick, UK. Her main research interests are professional and medical
communication with a particular interest in leadership discourse, culture
and gender. She has published widely on these topics. She is also the
author of Leadership Discourse at Work (Palgrave, 2009), Exploring
Professional Communication (2013), Language and Culture at Work (2017
 Notes on Contributors xxvii

with O. Zayts) and The Language of Leadership Narratives (2020 with

J. Clifton and D. van de Mieroop).

Elena Semino is Professor of Linguistics and Verbal Art in the

Department of Linguistics and English Language at Lancaster University,
UK, and Director of the ESRC Centre for Corpus Approaches to Social
Science. She holds a Visiting Professorship at the University of Fuzhou in
China. She specialises in corpus linguistics, medical humanities, health
communication, stylistics, narratology and metaphor theory and analy-
sis. She has co-authored over 90 academic publications, including
Metaphor in Discourse (2008), Figurative Language, Genre and Register
(2013), and Metaphor, Cancer and the End of Life: A Corpus-based
Study (2018).

Maria Stubbe is an Associate Professor at University of Otago in

Wellington, New Zealand. She leads the ARCH Group which investi-
gates communication issues in clinical practice using video recordings of
authentic interactions between health professionals and patients. She is
an interactional sociolinguist and qualitative health researcher. and has
published widely in the fields of pragmatics, language in the workplace
and health communication.

Rachel Tester is a Research Fellow at the University of Otago in

Wellington, New Zealand. She is a part of the ARCH Group, and man-
ages a service user education and research group ‘World of Difference’.
Her research includes studies of health communication, and projects
with a mental health and addictions focus that draw on the power of
personal narratives to help raise awareness about the social, cultural and
political drivers of mental distress.

Loretta Trickett is Associate Professor of Criminal and Human Rights

Law and Criminology at Nottingham Trent University, UK. Her research
interests are in gendered victimisation and hate crime. She has under-
taken research on fear of crime, bullying, gangs, hate crime and policing.
She has published extensively in these areas. She is a member of a number
xxviii Notes on Contributors

of steering groups and community organisations on hate crime and

victimisation.

Kathryn Van Ravenstein works as a teacher on Chamberlain University’s

online programmes in the USA, and she is a former Assistant Professor
at the Medical University of South Carolina, USA. She has a diverse
nurse practitioner background, having practised in the areas of family
and internal medicine, urology, orthopedics, cardiovascular surgery and
community health. Her primary research interest is in using technology
to manage chronic diseases.

Bernadette M. Watson is Professor of Health Communication and

Director of the International Research Centre for the Advancement of
Health Communication (IRCAHC) in the Department of English at
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong. She is a health psy-
chologist who studies communication. She researches the influence of
identity and intergroup processes both on patient-health professional
communication and on communication in multidisciplinary and multi-
cultural health teams. Her research focus is in the area of language and
social psychology and she has been a member of the International
Association of Language and Social Psychology executive since 2000 and
was President between 2012 and 2014.
 List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 Extract 1: A customer engaging in webchat with ESHOP live 53

Fig. 5.1 Flows of discourse (Ereaut 2012) 93
Fig. 5.2 PCUK’s working principles, first iteration 2011 100
Fig. 8.1 ‘Participants’, by Kathryn Van Ravenstein, 2018 159
Fig. 11.1 Sample feedback model of CP-centred interprofessional
communication in a MDT Primary Care context 218
Fig. 12.1 Mentions and retweets of @CCriadoPerez by others 233
Fig. 12.2 Tweets to and retweets of @CCriadoPerez 239
Fig. 14.1 Local Government Act 1988 283
Fig. 14.2 Clause 28 of the 1988 Local Government Act 284
Fig. 14.3 Comparison of Clause 28 and current RSE documents 284

xxix
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Trainee autostereotypes and heterostereotypes 37

Table 2.2 Kirkpatrick’s four levels 41
Table 3.1 Positions adopted by tweet writers 57
Table 5.1 Working principles for PCUK (training content 2011/12) 103
Table 8.1 Exemplars of semantic themes across the interview dataset 158
Table 8.2 Gesture and text in Story-Call analysis 163
Table 12.1 Number of tweets in each section of the Criado-Perez
Complete Corpus (CPCC) 232
Table 14.1 Keywords in 2019 RSE corpus 281
Table 14.2 Concordance of promot∗285

xxxi
 1
Rethinking Professional
Communication: New Departures
for Global Workplace Research
Louise Mullany

1 Professional Communication:
Changing Landscapes
The socio-political importance of conducting professional communica-
tion research in contemporary societies cannot be under-estimated. Over
20 years ago, Gunnarsson et al. (1997: 1) pointed out that efficient com-
munication in the professions ‘is absolutely vital for society to function
properly’. Since the time of this publication, in the highly digitised, glo-
balised world, effective professional communication is arguably even
more critical to the robustness of social, political and economic functions
of societies worldwide. But how do professional communication research-
ers feed their research findings into professional contexts? At what stage
in the research process should this happen? What is the relationship
between the researcher and researched? What happens to the identity of
the ‘researcher’ in such a process? What topics and professions should be

L. Mullany (*)
University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
e-mail: louise.mullany@nottingham.ac.uk

© The Author(s) 2020 1

L. Mullany (ed.), Professional Communication, Communicating in Professions
and Organizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41668-3_1
2 L. Mullany

researched? How can professional communication researchers genuinely

work with, for and on behalf of others, including marginalised and/or
vulnerable groups? What roles do/should researchers’ own political beliefs
play in influencing research questions, the direction of projects and how
findings are interpreted and disseminated? What about the role of the
‘impact agenda’ and other, similar agendas that have affected multiple
universities in different parts of the world (Lawson and Sayers 2016;
McIntyre and Price 2018)?
This collection aims to investigate these questions in a range of global
contexts through three different yet interrelated approaches: ‘consul-
tancy’, ‘advocacy’ and ‘activism’. Professional communication work draw-
ing upon one or more of these approaches is presented in each chapter to
identify, analyse and assess the changing practices of professional com-
munication research due to considerable social, cultural and political
transitions taking place in contemporary societies. The volume’s authors
demonstrate how different practices of conducting professional commu-
nication research via consultancies and/or forms of advocacy and activ-
ism have emerged through changing research priorities, partly in response
to the rapidly shifting landscape of higher education, including the
increased marketisation of universities within neoliberal economies (De
Costa 2016; Morrish and Saunston 2019).
‘Professional communication’ is defined in this volume as an umbrella
term to cover approaches within language, linguistics and communica-
tion studies where research in professional settings takes place. A broad
definition of ‘professional’ has been adopted, conceptualised as any indi-
vidual who has a workplace role responsibility, including all interactions
between lay person(s) and those who occupy professional role responsi-
bilities. This expands upon earlier definitions, including the influential
notion whereby a ‘professional’ was defined as any individual engaged in
paid work (Gunnarsson et al. 1997). The wider definition taken here
enables studies of those engaged in non-paid work, including voluntary
occupations with charities and NGOs to be included, as well as those
who engage in work but who do not know with any degree of certainty
that this will be financially rewarded, as in agriculture in developing
countries (discussed in Chap. 4). In terms of defining ‘communication’,
again, a broad definition is taken, inclusive of approaches from applied
 1 Rethinking Professional Communication: New Departures… 3

linguistics, interactional sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, corpus lin-

guistics, critical discourse analysis (CDA), conversation analysis, ethnog-
raphy, stylistics and pragmatics, enabling a range of perspectives and
approaches to be covered.
The defining principle for professional communication research in this
volume is that, whatever geographical location it is taking place in, the
authors place investigation of a particular socio-cultural problem at its
core, which is then empirically investigated. The exact focus of the socio-­
cultural problem may be decided at the beginning, or it may be emergent
during empirical work; it may be jointly negotiated and collaboratively
developed between the researcher(s) and researched and/or with remits
and stipulations of funding bodies, or in discussion with those commis-
sioning research consultancies, and/or with those granting access to
research sites as gatekeepers. All of these processes can be fraught with
complexities, which will be discussed at relevant points in the volume
(see also Mullany 2008; Cook 2012). However, the foundational princi-
ple of socio-cultural problem-solving through empirical investigation sits
at the core of all chapters; in my view, this foundational principle should
be at the centre of all work that is carried out in the global field of profes-
sional communication research. There are some echoes of sociolinguistic
and CDA traditions here, with Labov’s (1982) view that social problems
have been core to his sociolinguistic work and studies influenced by his
tradition. Fairclough and Wodak (1997: 271) list addressing ‘social prob-
lems’ as a core principle of CDA research. However, as Roberts and
Sarangi (2003) point out, although the topics of CDA research are social
problems, traditionally, CDA researchers do not prioritise coming up
with practically relevant feedback, interventions or recommendations to
change future practices.
Professional communication research which includes a practical
engagement element of feeding back to those being researched is in itself
not new. Within applied linguistics, in language learning and second lan-
guage acquisition in particular, a core focus has been on enhancing teach-
ing and learning practices through empirical research, including advocacy
and activism (see de Costa 2016 for an excellent overview of contempo-
rary work in this area). In sociolinguistic research, there has been a long-
standing set of principles for advocacy work. This includes the principle
4 L. Mullany

of ‘linguistic gratuity’ (Wolfram 1993), that researchers should ‘repay’

those they research and the advocacy principles of Labov (1982), based
on his role as an expert witness in a case successfully challenging part of
the US educational system for linguistic discrimination. Furthermore,
Cameron et al.’s (1992) proclamation to empower those being researched
by working ‘with’ and ‘for’ research participants instead of ‘on’ is still
influential. Sarangi and Roberts (1999) and Roberts and Sarangi (2003)
trailblazed with their reflexive research consultancies in commissioned
healthcare projects in the UK on linguistic discrimination, described as
‘action-orientated’ research; The work of Candlin (2003) demonstrated
perspectives from those officially working ‘within’ professions as ‘insid-
ers’, where they applied practical linguistic tools to workplace issues that
they identified ethnographically, when carrying out their everyday
job roles.
Whilst the historical development of professional communication
research from a variety of linguistic traditions and approaches shows the
trajectory of early research and its importance at the foundation of the
discipline, the academic landscape has changed significantly in the last
two decades and is quite unrecognisable to the one that existed in the
1980s and 1990s, when initial work was being undertaken. Academics
have been increasingly held to account in terms of exactly how they are
spending their research time, who they are researching and why; research
with clear, demonstrable, measurable ‘impact’ on populations is becom-
ing more essential if research funding bids are to be successful. This tran-
sition can be seen in a growing number of university systems in different
global locations (cf. McIntyre and Price 2018; McEnery 2018).
In order to ensure that cutting-edge communications data is analysed,
which most accurately reflects the complex communicative processes in
twenty-first century professional life, the focus will be across spoken, writ-
ten and digital forms. The landscape of professional communication has
changed dramatically in the last ten years, with the advent of social media
and a range of other interactive digital communicative forms, including
instant messaging and professional communication interactions through
global media platforms. Public self-images of businesses, individuals and
organisations are under constant scrutiny by the general public and the
mass media. The digital professional landscape continues to change rapidly,
 1 Rethinking Professional Communication: New Departures… 5

with communicative norms almost constantly transitioning. Professionals

and organisations need to adapt swiftly to new communicative skills with
differing socio-cultural norms and conventions. Digital data will be consid-
ered at various points in the collection across a variety of domains.
Additionally, as part of ensuring that this collection broadens the field
and is of long-term use and value to its readership, this volume incorpo-
rates chapter contributions from practitioners working on professional
communication in a range of fields, including businesses, healthcare and
law. This takes place alongside academic contributors working as research
consultants, advocates and/or activists as part of their academic role
responsibilities. Practitioner contributions are from established experts in
their fields of practice (Ereaut, Mooneeram, Mann and Fish). They bring
a different set of perspectives to the collection and, in my view, it is very
beneficial to integrate the voices of practitioners alongside those of aca-
demics if we are truly committed to making research evidence count in
real-life professional settings. It is integral to understand the approaches
of those who apply research findings into consultancy and work-
place training packages on a day-to-day basis. These practitioners are
united by their ability to see the value of working with practical tools and
techniques from language, linguistics and communication studies, either
to enhance their consultancy training in professional workplace practices
and/or to bring academic value to particular campaigns or cases. These
authors offer innovative perspectives on how collaborations can be con-
ducted to enhance dialogue and working relationships between academ-
ics, practitioners, professionals and members of the public.
This collection thus brings together a unique set of international authors
who engage in a set of original, empirical investigations which place a
series of important contemporary socio-cultural problems at the centre of
their research. A range of linguistic approaches are taken and the chapters
pose new and different challenges to the field, particularly in light of ever-
changing, global landscapes in academia and organisational practice (cf.
Price 2018; Darics forthcoming, 2021). The current collection highlights
multiple ways in which professional communication research can be car-
ried out successfully as forms of consultancy, advocacy and activism. These
approaches draw upon differing professional relationships and role respon-
sibilities for academics and practitioners with those being researched/
6 L. Mullany

consulted. The process of genuinely collaborating with the researched/

consulted comes with its own complex theoretical and methodological
challenges. This volume presents an important opportunity for these issues
to be discussed and debated. I will now move on to define how the terms
‘consultancy’, ‘advocacy’ and ‘activism’ are applied here, before outlining
the professional domains focused on across this collective work.

2 Consultancy, Advocacy, Activism

In this volume, ‘consultancy’ is defined as professional communication
research where academics and/or practitioners conduct a particular proj-
ect with a specific area of focus set by an individual, group or organisation
who has valued their expertise enough to request their input. Most often,
this will involve practitioners, researchers or their institution being paid in
some capacity for their time and expertise; however, on occasion, consul-
tancies may be given as part of ‘in-kind’ contributions, or delivered free of
charge (see also Demjén and Semino, this volume). There are a range of
different topics upon which linguistics consultancies can be carried out
but, as already outlined above, the unifying factor of this volume is that all
contributors are committed to addressing a particular socio-­cultural prob-
lem and are attempting to make a positive social change, as well as posi-
tively influencing the future development of professional communication
research and practice. Consultancy most often takes place through a pro-
cess of often complex collaboration with a stakeholder in order to fully
understand and address the socio-cultural issue at hand. There is an expec-
tation that a set of oral or written recommendations/opinions will be part
of the process and often consultants can play a role in the implementation
of recommendations through training or other activities.
The move towards universities accepting funding for academics to carry
out consultancies as an alternative income-stream, part of the marketisation
of Higher Education, is fraught with a series of ethical considerations and
challenges. It is essential to not just produce research which can be paid for
independently by consultants, or for academic research freedom to be
imposed upon or restricted by those who are funding consultancies. On
occasion, it will be entirely appropriate and relevant to produce research for
 1 Rethinking Professional Communication: New Departures… 7

those who are not in any position to pay for research consultancy or public
engagement work. Alternative funding could be provided by government-
based research councils (Lumala and Mullany, this volume), charities (Boyd
et al., this volume), NGOs or via in-kind or pro-bono contributions.
Indeed, it is one of the aims of this volume to illustrate the wide variety of
approaches that can be taken to producing research consultancies, and
engaging in advocacy and activist work. As a part of this consideration, it is
essential that, as well as being collaborative and reciprocal with those who
are being researched/consulted, researchers also need to be given an inde-
pendent space to question the status quo, expose power imbalances and
exploitation, and report on unfavourable findings if they are discovered.
This includes being able to resist pressures that may be imposed by consul-
tancy clients who wish for a particular version of findings to be told, which
may be at odds with the findings of the empirical research itself and/or the
political and moral views of the researcher (see Mullany 2008).
In terms of differing practical routes through which research consul-
tancies can be carried out and how this affects researcher identities, there
are authors in this volume who retain their academic role within their
own universities, whilst also being contractually employed as an official
external research consultant by a particular organisation (Handford; File
and Schnurr); this can include academics taking on separate, external job
contracts by becoming official employees of an external consultancy, as in
Koller’s collaborative work and employment with Ereaut’s innovative
company, Linguistic Landscapes (see Koller and Ereaut); another model is
of academics continuing in their own university role but having a sepa-
rate consultancy business set up in its own right, where they acquire con-
sultancy contracts in collaboration with other consultancy firms or
individuals, separate, yet interrelated to their academic role (Darics). A
further approach is where academics leave academia completely and set
up independent business consultancies (Mooneeram). This model is par-
ticularly interesting as it enables an individual to draw on contemporary
knowledge and skills of academic research in consultancy delivery, given
credibility due to their previous academic researcher identity, with the
freedom to operate without the constraints of an academic employer.
Other practitioner consultancies in this volume are from authors who
have addressed specific socio-cultural problems through professional
8 L. Mullany

communication reflection and analysis, influenced by the value of inter-

disciplinary approaches (Mann; Fish). Consultancy research can also take
place through academics performing consultancy roles as part of funded
research projects, most often when feeding back findings and recommen-
dations in what is currently referred to as research impact and/or public
engagement with a wide variety of stakeholders (Stubbe et al.; Boyd et al.;
Watson; Demjén and Semino; Hardaker; Mullany and Trickett; Sauntson);
most often this work is funded by established research councils, the public
sector, healthcare organisations, charities or equivalent sponsors.
There is variation amongst approaches in terms of how much consul-
tancy takes place in different settings, along with variation in levels of
advocacy and activism (see below). Consultancies can vary in length,
from shorter-term interventions focused on investigating one particular
socio-cultural problem (Darics; Mullany and Trickett; File and Schnurr),
to medium-term projects (Mooneeram; Stubbe et al.; Boyd et al.) through
to much longer consultancy projects where relationships develop over
time; in these cases there will be reciprocal value on both sides and con-
sultancy relationships can continue over a number of years, as different
socio-cultural problems and issues get addressed (Handford; Koller and
Ereaut).
Taken together, the consultancy approaches in this volume represent
new ways of working, including the development of differing theoretical
and methodological approaches, the establishment of different relation-
ships between the researcher/practitioner and the researched/consulted
through roles as consultants, advocates and/or activists. These transitions
in research and practice will be thoroughly explored and illustrated from
various perspectives. The boundaries between researcher and researched
can become blurred during consultancies, and this can place challenging
demands on the researcher in terms of their identity, ethics and integrity
(see Darics this volume; Darics forthcoming, 2021; Mullany forthcom-
ing, 2021); consultancies can consist of a variety of methods in terms of
the implementation of findings, including engaging and delivering post-­
research training, advocacy work, and/or as a form of activism, either in
collaboration with or on behalf of professional groups or lay persons who
are engaging in professional communication interaction. I will now move
on to define advocacy and activism in more detail.
 1 Rethinking Professional Communication: New Departures… 9

Advocacy in this collection is defined as professional communication

researchers or practitioners actively giving public support to an idea,
course of action, or the expression of a belief in a particular position in
response to a socio-cultural problem. Such public support is most often
articulated through the lens of empirical research findings, which provide
independent evidence for the position being argued. Advocacy work
tends to take place once consultancies have been completed and when
research results are ready for dissemination (though there are exceptions
to this pattern). Public support can be manifested in a variety of ways,
most often via contributions in mass media outlets, public speaking and
invitations to participate in particular events, such as being an expert wit-
ness. Historically, Labov (1982) justified his courtroom advocacy work
on the principle of ‘debt incurred’, defined as debt he accrued when
researching a particular community, which should then be repaid by the
researcher working on behalf of the researched when they most need you
to do so. This is a very different power relationship between the researcher
and researched to that in most contemporary consultancies. Labov has
been critiqued for his positivistic approach to research, informed by his
principle of ‘error correction’—a duty to report errors when we discover
the ‘truth’. This approach implies that there is an objective truth to be
found, which has been long contested by a number of researchers from
more qualitative research traditions (see Cameron et al. 1992 for a
detailed discussion). Furthermore, in Labov’s work, informants were vol-
untary members of the public, often from marginalised groups, who gave
up their own time to take part in interviews where linguistic data was
elicited. In contrast, some of the work reported on in this volume has
been commissioned and funded by organisations and individuals paying
directly for research consultancy, and thus they can, in principle, negoti-
ate power, the direction of the research and how this is most appropri-
ately fed back to those being researched, as power relationships become
fluid as they are more reciprocally navigated by the ‘researcher’ and
‘researched’.
Cameron et al. (1993) have questioned whether ‘experts’ should even
be engaging in advocacy work where they talk on behalf of other groups,
or whether they should instead be investing time empowering groups to
talk on behalf of themselves. I would argue that a particularly powerful
10 L. Mullany

position is academics and practitioners working in direct collaboration

with members of communities who have been ‘researched’ to address
their views on socio-cultural problems—talking together as multiple
voices on shared platforms can be particularly effective, providing that
academics are careful not to voice the concerns of others for them (see
Mullany and Trickett, this volume). This may not always be possible, but
what is key here is that academics and practitioners are reflexive about the
amount of institutional power that their voices and opinions can hold in
society and that they do not talk on behalf of others when it would be
more effective and appropriate to let professionals and lay persons speak
for themselves. Overall, I firmly agree with De Costa’s (2016) argument
that there is a need for much greater advocacy work for the communities
that researchers serve.
Heavily interrelated with advocacy is the notion of ‘activism’, defined
as where researchers and/or practitioners actively engage in campaigning
to bring about socio-cultural change on a particular issue. Activism most
often places emphasis on academics and practitioners drawing on their
research findings to directly inform campaigns that aim to bring about
social, political and/or cultural change. Advocacy and activism very often
blend into one another and can be most effectively viewed as part of a
continuum—it can be tricky to draw exact boundaries between the two.
Examples of activist scholarship include investigating areas where one
already has a strong political leaning (Silberstein 2016). Engagement in
activist scholarship can include participating in campaigns through the
mass media, writing editorials and position pieces, engaging in public
campaigns including conferences, addressing public meetings of stake-
holders, and visibly engaging in campaigns on social media by actively
expressing views associated with one’s professional role responsibility, for
example, actively articulating one’s alignment and support with a partic-
ular campaign.
There are echoes of CDA again here and Fairclough’s (1989, 1995)
view that there is no such thing as ‘objectivity’ in linguistics research; all
researchers are influenced by particular political positions that they hold
and thus such positions should be transparently articulated. Silberstein
(2016) argues that the crucial consideration with both activism and
advocacy is the need to be certain that findings have been reached
 1 Rethinking Professional Communication: New Departures… 11

independently of any sponsors’ desires and needs and that they stand up
to the rigour and robustness of disciplinary standards. This point is par-
ticularly important with consultancy work where the boundaries between
the researcher and researched blur, and it becomes essential for reflexive
approaches to be taken throughout the research consultancy process.
Silberstein (2016) discusses the degree to which researchers have a politi-
cal responsibility to circulate their research results as widely as possible in
public spheres by engaging in a variety of dissemination activities, for
example, actively seeking out media coverage, publishing editorials and
creating joint collaborative events with communities who have been
researched. There is variation in what this work looks like in practice in
this volume, though many contributors are unified by the desire to work
towards social equity to enhance human behaviour in a variety of profes-
sional settings; some researchers and practitioners directly engage in
advocacy and activist work quite explicitly to achieve these goals.

3 Professional Domains
This collection has been split into three different sections to represent, in
my view, the most important domains where socio-cultural problems
have been investigated in professional communication research in recent
years, and where consultancy, advocacy and activism can be most usefully
drawn upon: Businesses, healthcare and institutions. Whilst all three
terms will be clearly defined, it is worth pointing out at this stage that the
category of ‘institutions’ is being used in this volume in a narrower sense
than other researchers have previously (e.g., Sarangi and Roberts 1999)
to focus on studies of professional communication in public sector occu-
pations of politics, education and law enforcement. Digital communica-
tion is present across all three sections, representing its increased
importance in everyday communicative practices within professions (dis-
cussed above in Sect. 1). Across these three categories, a wide range of
domains are examined from the perspectives of consultancy, advocacy
and activism, representing a variety of relationships between participants,
differing power relationships and differing contexts.
12 L. Mullany

In order to take a more global perspective, the volume includes new

empirical data from authors who have been working on multinational
professional contexts where intercultural communication is key, as well as
data taken from other geographical locations, including professional
communication research sites in Australia (Watson), Japan (Handford),
Hong Kong (Watson), Kenya (Lumala and Mullany), Mauritius
(Mooneeraam), New Zealand (Stubbe et al.; Holmes), The Philippines
(Darics) and Uganda (Lumala and Mullany), as well as the UK and the
US. Furthermore, many of the chapters have clear global applicability
and relevance, and a number of authors have explicitly foregrounded the
global applicability of their work within their chapters, reaching far
beyond their original research context. I will now move on to discuss how
the three different parts of the book are defined and constructed, includ-
ing the key global themes that emerge.

3.1 Businesses

As the book’s first part on professional communication, the domain of

‘businesses’ is defined as any ‘commercial organisation’, following the
influential work of Bargiela et al. (2007). Businesses can vary dramati-
cally in size from just one person, as is the case with sole entrepreneurship
(see Lumala and Mullany), through to large multinationals, with signifi-
cant numbers of employees in multiple countries (Handford; Darics;
Mooneeram) along with various sizes of businesses in-between, including
national organisations (Koller and Ereaut). The different types of busi-
nesses that are covered here range from large corporates that have been
established for some time (e.g., Handford; Mooneeraam), through to
emergent workplaces, including social enterprises, charities and NGOs
(Darics; Lumala and Mullany).
We begin the investigation of the domain of businesses in Japan, with
Handford’s research consultancy with a large multinational engineering
firm. Handford examines the discourse of engineering professionals in
Chap. 2 and focuses on intercultural communication (ICC) difficulties
in relation to trainees and upper-level managers. This consultancy was
commissioned in response to the organisation wishing to train their engi-
neers to become ‘global’ professionals, who had not just technical
 1 Rethinking Professional Communication: New Departures… 13

capabilities, but also a set of proficient global communications skills that

they could use with multiple audiences. Handford outlines the socio-
cultural problem of the reification of essentialist, nationalist stereotypes,
which still abound in business training materials and within the engi-
neering firm in question. He details this long-term consultancy, includ-
ing a reflective account of opening up space for the empowerment of
trainees (cf. Cameron et al. 1992). Handford details the findings of the
consultancy research and the subsequent training that took place, led by
himself and his colleague, Hiro Tanaka, which aimed to question stereo-
types and get trainees and senior managers to view professional identities
as dynamic rather than fixed. Overall, Handford argues for a new model
of organisational discourse around ‘internationalisation’ in this organisa-
tion and beyond, drawing on key principles from discourse analysis. He
makes a convincing case that it is time to move away from nationalistic,
essentialist stereotypes as these bring lasting damage to ICC. His innova-
tive model has broad applicability to global business settings where ICC
plays a key role in workplace interactions (see also Holmes, Chap. 17, for
a discussion of the importance of ICC and interculturality in future pro-
fessional communication work).
In Chap. 3, Darics brings in two commissioned business research con-
sultancies, one international and one local, where she has been employed
as a professional communication expert. The first focuses on an emergent
form of digital business language, analysing socio-cultural problems that
emerged in ‘webchat’ with customers from a global online market retailer.
This consultancy was designed to troubleshoot instances of communica-
tion breakdown between call centre operators and customers. Whilst the
market retail organisation is based in the US, it is a global corporate
employer which outsources its call centre work to the Philippines. Due to
geographical and linguistic differences, the Quality Assurance part of the
business dictates that call centre operators use scripted dialogue for fulfill-
ing parts of their professional role responsibility. Darics analyses ICC
between professional call centre operators who are non-native speakers of
English and the company’s customers in the US who are native English
speakers, focusing upon communication breakdown, the role played by
scripted dialogue and how miscommunication could be avoided in
future. Darics’s second business is from a very different context, a
14 L. Mullany

UK-based hospice, where a recently formed income generation team was

struggling to meet its financial targets. Here, her expertise was sought to
identify and recommend changes to rectify communication problems
that were being experienced by the new team. The research consultancy
was also designed to enhance communication and engagement with the
general public, particularly on social media.
Darics discusses both consultancies candidly and critically, from the
perspective of the competing demands of research rigour. She focuses on
the importance of maintaining academic credibility on the one hand and
how this intersects with the competing needs of consultancy clients on
the other. Overall, she argues for more interdisciplinary collaborations
and for greater efforts to connect academic and practitioner interests
within consultancy approaches, including more self-reflection on the rel-
evance of academic work and how this can be practically acknowledged
in professional practice. She draws attention to occasions where consul-
tancy partnerships have led to research findings being ignored, misinter-
preted or misapplied (cf. Candlin and Sarangi 2004). She concludes the
chapter by revisiting the tensions between academic and consultancy
research, ideally so that empirical research can retain its academic integ-
rity and rigour, as well as attempting to maximise potential impact for the
professions under study.
In Chap. 4, Lumala and Mullany examine language, gender and lead-
ership by focusing on women entrepreneurs in the developing economies
of Kenya and Uganda. As opposed to being a form of consultancy, this
project is funded by a national research council from the UK Government’s
Global Challenges Research Fund, and is a form of research advocacy and
activism. They examine a range of occupations which are under-researched
from a professional communication perspective: farming, rural and urban
market trading, the development of women-led co-operatives, social
entrepreneurship initiatives, including the development of innovative IT
training organisations for women and the development of women’s pro-
fessional empowerment groups through NGOs. The NGO empower-
ment groups incorporate clear and effective communication strategies
around health, human rights and the roles and ambitions for women and
girls within future workplaces, as part of a number of community-based
initiatives, including within schools.
 1 Rethinking Professional Communication: New Departures… 15

Lumala and Mullany’s work illustrates how the sociolinguistics of nar-

rative can create and provide a powerful set of advocacy and activist
devices in professional domains where women are actively seeking new
opportunities in previously male-dominated workplaces. Lumala and
Mullany examine the power of narratives of personal experience, focusing
on stories of career development as tools of inspiration and mentorship
for women embarking upon professional careers who have no previous
experience of doing so in public spaces. They also reflect upon their own
roles as advocates and activists for gender equality in professional work-
places and how practical attempts at bringing about social and cultural
changes in emergent workplaces have fared, particularly where women
are placed at the centre of these professional initiatives.
Next is Koller and Ereaut’s collaborative consultancy work in a UK
third sector context, focusing on the charity Prostrate Cancer UK. As
highlighted above in Sect. 2, Ereaut’s consultancy Linguistic Landscapes
operates outside of academia and Koller, on this occasion, was working
alongside her as a freelance linguistics consultant and as one of Linguistic
Landscapes’ employees. In Chap. 5, they report on their consultancy
work as Prostrate Cancer UK underwent significant ‘rebranding’ as part
of a process of organisational change. This change was designed to
improve its income generation to increase the reach and effectiveness of
the charity’s work and address the socio-cultural problem of being unable
to reach some groups of men—in particular, those most at risk of devel-
oping the disease. As part of the consultancy, Koller and Ereaut used a
series of linguistic tools to identify the charity’s existing brand identity,
which was deemed to be gendered and classed in a way that was not in
accordance with the company’s target audiences. Their linguistic analysis
of lexis, transitivity and visuals uncovered a specific type of masculinity
conveyed that was British, white, middle-class and educated; instead, the
organisation was trying to reach working-class men, men outside the
South East of England and African/Afro-Caribbean men—the latter
group being statistically more at risk of developing this form of cancer.
Koller and Ereaut then assisted in the creation of a new brand identity via
a process of ‘linguistic adaptation’—the rebranding was designed to
enable the charity to appeal to a much wider population and thus increase
its fundraising capabilities and the reach of its diagnostic health messages.
16 L. Mullany

In order to check the significance of their consultancy recommendations,

they followed up with what they term a ‘language audit’ several months
later. They conclude by discussing how their experiences can be more
widely applied to collaborations between linguistics and third-sector
organisations, including those where income generation has become key
to the survival of charities in what has become a very competitive
marketplace.
Finally, the ‘Businesses’ section concludes with another practitioner’s
voice in Chap. 6, through Mooneeram’s consultancy work with
Accenture, a large multinational employer. The focus of Mooneeram’s
chapter is on her professional communication consultancy work in one
of Accenture’s global bases, its Indian Ocean location of Mauritius.
Mooneeram documents her own experiences as a practitioner, delivering
leadership consultancy in this culturally dynamic base. Her detailed
reflective piece illustrates the unique position that she occupies profes-
sionally, as she has moved from being a linguist in an international aca-
demic context to becoming a freelance researcher and communications
consultant in the country of her birth. As opposed to being based on a
particular investigation through empirical research, her consultancy
offering is linguistically informed and delivered through a series of work-
shops and training sessions where she discusses multiple, effective ways
in which the tools of linguistics can be taught to business professionals
and leaders so that they have everyday practical value within a large mul-
tinational organisation.

3.2 Healthcare

Moving on to second section of the volume, ‘Healthcare’ is defined as

contexts where interactions, whether they are spoken, written or digital,
involve a healthcare professional engaging in workplace communication
with patients, family members, patients’ representatives and members of
the public, alongside empirical investigations of interprofessional com-
munication that takes place between healthcare professionals, with col-
leagues at various status levels. It also incorporates patients communicating
about their conditions as part of research data capture in monologic,
 1 Rethinking Professional Communication: New Departures… 17

narrative-based forms, where there is no direct interaction with a health-

care professional, but where these data are analysed and then used as
training resources, where candid reflection is often given by patients on
communication that has taken place with healthcare professionals.
In Chap. 7, Stubbe et al. focus on three case studies of health commu-
nication in relation to diabetes in the New Zealand healthcare system, in
response to the socio-cultural problem of a rapid rise in diabetes diagno-
ses in New Zealand and globally. Stubbe’s research group is an excellent
example of an interdisciplinary team which has produced a multitude of
different research projects based on genuine dialogue between researchers
and practitioners. To facilitate this dialogic process, despite being a socio-
linguist, Stubbe is located within the Medical School at Otago University
alongside clinicians, which has given her a unique insight into the every-
day workings of health communication in its natural settings. Stubbe
et al. ensure that a two-way dialogue exists with practitioners, where pos-
sible, in all of their projects. They characterise their work as researching
‘for and with’ health professionals and service users. This includes consul-
tancy research funded from a variety of different sources. They align
themselves with the principles of what they term ‘participatory action’
research and ‘appreciative inquiry’, encouraging practitioners to adopt
iterative processes of observation and reflection. They integrate a series of
engagement strategies that go far beyond simplistic dissemination of
findings and instead engage in activities where they blend participatory
action research with consultancy and advocacy.
Their first case study focuses on troubleshooting interprofessional
communication amongst healthcare teams who are providing diabetes
care, based on the work of Dowell et al. (2018). This project investigates
how teams in primary care support newly diagnosed patients through the
initial stages of managing their condition. The aim of this is to identify
key points at which effective communication, miscommunication or
inefficiencies in communication are most likely to occur, to improve
compliance and treatment outcomes. The second case study focuses on
narratives of people living with diabetes, giving voice to patient experi-
ences, with the overall aim of producing a multimedia, open access edu-
cational resource based on the patients’ stories of lived experiences of the
condition, for use as a training resource for healthcare professionals; this
18 L. Mullany

resource has been designed for trainees and for those already established
in clinical posts. Finally, the third case study focuses on a research angle
that became emergent during case study 1, that some patients were
unaware that they were overweight and thus more at risk of developing
diabetes. It focuses on the development of an innovative communicative
tool for primary care providers to engage patients in conversations about
healthy weight, breaking current socio-cultural problems around conver-
sations on ‘taboo’ topics, facilitating the way for patients to be more fully
informed of their own health and lifestyle choices. Given the global epi-
demic of diabetes and the growing demands for treatment in primary
care, the findings of Stubbe et al.’s work have broad applicability in
healthcare domains across multiple countries where diabetes has emerged
as a significant health issue for primary care providers and their patients.
Additionally, Stubbe et al. point out the inability to have appropriate
conversations about obesity, being overweight and lifestyle choices in pri-
mary care is an internationally-recognised problem, which can be
addressed through the development of innovative interventions such as
their lifestyle tool.
Moving from New Zealand to the US, in Chap. 8, Boyd et al. present
a set of healthcare case studies, this time investigating emergent ‘tele-
health’ practices. ‘Telehealth’ practices are defined as technology driven,
non-face-to-face interactions, involving either live audio-visual confer-
encing, remote monitoring of patients in the home via a technological
device or an e-health interface via mobile phone, tablet or another form
of technology. They argue that all work on telehealth actively incorpo-
rates advocacy for the mode of delivery, as well as some form of activism
by researchers on behalf of patients/clients and their particular health
condition. Their focus is on improving the well-being of ageing popula-
tions, particularly ‘lower-income’ older adults located in the Southeastern
US. They investigate the potential value of using telehealth practices as
effective communication tools to increase physical activity to reduce falls
and cardio-vascular disease in their research population. They investigate
whether telehealth interventions can make positive differences to the
health and well-being of older residents, and what their roles as advocates
or activists should be, as such interventions enable residents to stay in
semi-independent accommodation complexes for longer—all
 1 Rethinking Professional Communication: New Departures… 19

participants were no longer living in their primary homes due to care

costs they could no longer afford.
In Chap. 9, Watson’s work on interprofessional health communication
draws on her extensive research experience in healthcare contexts from
Australia, Hong Kong and the US, and she positions her work as having
clear global applicability. She focuses on how the socio-cultural problem
of poor interprofessional communication can lead to miscommunication
and patient errors compromising safety, sometimes resulting in patient
death. She convincingly argues that current interprofessional medical
communication training is inadequate as it focuses solely upon generic
communicative competence, without any theoretical justification, thus
ignoring crucial factors in health settings, including intergroup dynamics
and socio-technical structures. As with Handford and Darics, Watson
focuses on the concept of ICC, this time through the lens of healthcare
professionals having different cultures and using different medical regis-
ters, which can lead to serious communication failures. Watson argues
that, instead of a model built on ICC, communication accommodation
theory (CAT) works better to reduce the significance of intergroup differ-
ences, which can instead promote effective health communication. She
reports on the results of an on-going study investigating the effectiveness
of CAT with Australian pharmacy trainees, to develop a reflective educa-
tional tool where they learn the workings of interactional dynamics and
how this affects other healthcare professionals and patients. Like Darics,
she argues for more interdisciplinary research to take place, this time in
order to address the global problem of miscommunication in interprofes-
sional health contexts and the role it plays in patient error.
The next contribution in healthcare is taken from a UK context,
though it also has a much broader, global applicability. Demjén and
Semino focus on a research consultancy that they carried out investigat-
ing the role of metaphors in the context of cancer and end of life care.
They reflect upon their experiences of communicating the results of their
metaphor study to a range of different stakeholders, including patients,
healthcare professionals and the media. They provide a thorough and
frank discussion of the various challenges they encountered, how they
overcome at least some of these and the benefits to patients and their
families of trying to ensure that research consultancy findings are not
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