GEOMETRIC DESIGN

There are two types of highway design:

1. Geometric design
2. Structural design

The geometric design deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway such
as: (1) Alignment, (2) Cross-section elements, (3) Sight distances and (4) Intersections, whereas
structural design deals with the design of the pavement components

ALIGNMENT
 Horizontal curves
 Super-elevation on curves
 Transition curves
 Widening of curves
 Vertical curves

CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS
 Number of travel lanes
 Lane width
 Divided highways
 Median type and width
 Length of freeway acceleration & deceleration lanes
 Radii required for vehicle turning
 Pavement crown
 curb configurations
 Shoulders
 Guardrails
 Drainage ditches
 Side slopes
 Right-of-way

SIGHT DISTANCE
 Stopping sight distance
 Passing sight distance
 Perception-Reaction time

INTERSECTIONS
 Trumpet
 Diamond
 Partial cloverleaf
 Full cloverleaf
 Three legs directional
 Four legs directional

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The geometric design depends on several factors such as:
 Design speed
 Classification of the roadway
 Traffic volume and composition
 Topography of the surrounding land
 Capital costs for construction
 Vehicle size and performance characteristics
 Environmental considerations
 Right-of-way impacts and costs

DESIGN SPEED
According to AASHTO: “It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified
section of a highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway
govern”. Or
AASHTO 2001: “It is a selected speed used to determine the various geometric design features of a
roadway”. Or
“It is defined as a speed which is permissible for safe and comfortable drive on a given surface of a
roadway”.

Design speed is the main factor on which geometric design of a highway depends. For a given class
of highway, the choice of design speed is governed by the following factors:

1. Regional importance within the larger highway network

2. Surface characteristics of road
3. Nature & intensity of traffic
4. Topography of the area
5. Weather conditions (wind speed, rainfall etc.)
6. Sight distance
7. Capital cost for construction

Generally, the design speeds of highways are chosen by administrative decision. In practice, the
speed limits on highways are less than the design speed.

DESIGN VEHICLE
The dimensions of the motor vehicles that will utilize the proposed facility also influence the design
of a road project. The width of the vehicle naturally affects the width of the traffic lane; the vehicle
length has a bearing on roadway capacity and affects the turning radius; and the vehicle height
affects the clearance of the various structures. Vehicle weight affects the structural design of the
roadway.

AASHTO recommends four design vehicle classes for geometric design of a highway. They include;
(1) cars, (2) buses, (3) trucks, and (4) recreational vehicles. These vehicles range from the passenger
car to a large trailer. Normally the design engineer will select for design purposes the largest vehicle
that is expected to use the roadway facility in significant numbers on a daily basis during the design
year. The physical dimensions of vehicles affect a number of design elements such as: (1) Turning
radii, (2) Height of highway overpass, and (3) Lane width

2
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
An ideal and most desirable roadway is one that generally follows the existing natural alignment of
the countryside. This is the most economical type of highway to construct, but certain aspects of the
design that must be maintained may prevent the designer from following this natural topography
without making considerable adjustments in both the vertical and horizontal directions.

The center line of a road consists of series of straight lines interconnected by curves that are
used to change the alignment, direction, or slope of the road. Those curves that change the
alignment or direction are known as horizontal curves, and those that change the slope are vertical
curves.

Generally, however, your main concern is to compute for the missing curve elements and parts as
problems occur in the field in the actual curve layout. You will find that a thorough knowledge of
the properties and behavior of horizontal and vertical curves as used in highway work will
eliminate delays and unnecessary labor.

Horizontal Curves
When a highway changes horizontal direction, making the point where it changes direction a point of
intersection between two straight lines is not feasible. The change in direction would be too abrupt
for the safety of modern, high-speed vehicles. It is therefore necessary to interpose a curve between
the straight lines. The straight lines of a road are called tangents because the lines are tangent to the
curves used to change direction.

Practically in all modern highways, the curves are circular curves. The smaller the radius of a
circular curve, the sharper is the curve. For modern, high-speed highways, the curves must be flat,
rather than sharp. That means they must be large-radius curves.

Usually the horizontal curves are computed after the route has been selected, the field surveys have
been done, and the survey base line and necessary topographic features have been plotted. In
highway work, the road itself is the end result and the purpose of the design. But in urban work, the
streets and their curves are of secondary importance; the best use of the building sites is of
primary importance.

The principal consideration in the design of a curve is the selection of the length of the radius or the
degree of curvature. This selection is based on such considerations as the design speed of the
highway and the sight distance as limited by headlights or obstructions as given in the figure. Some
typical radii you may encounter are 12,000 ft. or longer on an interstate highway, 1,000 ft. on a
major thoroughfare in a city, 500 ft. on an industrial access road, and 150 ft. on a minor residential
street.

Types o f Horizontal Curves

There are four types of horizontal curves as follows:

1. Simple: The simple curve is an arc of a circle (view A). The radius of the circle
determines the sharpness or flatness of the curve.

2. Compound: Frequently, the terrain will require the use of the compound
curve. This curve normally consists of two simple curves joined together and

3
 curving in the same direction (view B).

3. Reverse: A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together, but
curving in opposite direction. For safety reasons, the use of this curve should
be avoided when possible (view C).

4. Spiral: The spiral is a curve that has a varying radius. It is used on railroads and
most modern highways. Its purpose is to provide a transition from the tangent to a
simple curve or between simple curves in a compound curve (view D).

Elements of a Horizontal Curve

Point of Intersection (PI): The point of intersection is the point where the back and
forward tangents intersect. Sometimes, the point of intersection is designated as V (vertex).
Radius (R): The radius of the circle of which the curve is an arc, or segment. The
radius is always perpendicular to back and forward tangents.

Point of Curvature (PC): The point of curvature is the point on the back tangent where the
circular curve begins.
Point of Tangency (PT): The point of tangency is the point on the forward tangent
where the curve ends.

4
Central Angle (Δ): The central angle is the angle formed by two radii drawn from
the center of the circle (O) to PC and PT.
Length of Curve (L): The length of curve is the distance from the PC to the PT,
measured along the curve.
Tangent Distance (T): The tangent distance is the distance along the tangents from PI to
PC or PT. These distances are equal on a simple curve.
External Distance (E): The external distance (also called external secant) is the distance from the PI
to the mid-point of the curve.
Middle Ordinate (M): The mid ordinate is the distance from the mid-point of the curve to the mid-
point of long chord.
Degree of Curve (D): It is the central angle subtended by an arc of 100 ft.

From the above figure:

2πR/360 = 100/D,
D = 100 x 360/2πR = 18000/πR = 5730/R
2 πR ∆ πR ∆ 100 ∆
L = = =
360 180 D

∆
T = R tan
2
∆
E = R (Sec -1)
2

M = R¿)
∆
C = 2 R sin
2

Numerical Problem 1:
A horizontal curve is designed with a 2000 ft radius. The curve has a tangent length of 400 ft and the
PI is at station (103 + 00) ft. Determine the stationing of the PT.

Given Data:
T = 400ft
Stationing of PI = 103+00
R = 2000ft
Solution:
First of all we have to find the ∆ (central angle)
∆
T = R tan 2
∆
400 = 2000 tan
2
∆ = 22.620

5
 Now we have to find out Length of Curve
π
L= R∆
180
3.14
= 180 ( 2000 ) (22.62)

= 789.58 ≅ 790 ft
Station PI = 103 + 00
– 4 + 00 (T)
Station PC = 99 + 00
+ 3 + 95 (1/2 Length of Curve)
Station PT = 102 + 95
+ 3 + 95 (1/2 Length of Curve)
106+90

Numerical 2:
A horizontal curve is designed with degree of curve 2 0. The central angle of curve is 30 0 and
the PI is at station (205 + 00) ft. Determine the stationing of the PT.

Given Data:
D = 20
∆ = 300
Stationing of PI = (205+00)
Solution:
100∗30
L= 2
= 1500ft
L/2 = 750ft
5730
R= D = 2865ft

T = R*Tan∆/2

T = 2865 Tan30/2
= 2865 Tan 15
= 2865*0.26795
= 768ft
Station of PC = Station PI + T
= (205+00) – (7+68)
= 197+32
To find out the mid-point of the curve MP
Station of MP = Station PC + L/2

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 15+00
= (197+32) + ( )
2
= (197+32) + (7+50)
= 204+82
Station of PT = Station of MP + L/2
= (204+82) + (7+50)
= 212 +32

Numerical Problem 3:
A horizontal curve is designed with a 1500 ft radius. The curve has a tangent length of 500 ft. and
the PI is at station (205 + 00) ft. Determine the stationing of the PT.

Spiral or Transition Curves

It is a curve of constantly changing radius, used to connect a circular arc to a straight line or to an arc
of different radius. It provides a gradual change from the tangent section to the circular curve and
vice versa. For most curves, drivers can follow a transition path within the limits of a normal lane
width, and a spiral transition in the alignment is not necessary. However, along high-speed roadways
with sharp curvature, transition curves may be needed to prevent drivers from encroaching into
adjoining lanes.
A curve known as the Euler spiral or clothoid spiral is commonly used in highway design. The
clothoid spiral has the property that the curvature varies linearly with the length of the curve. The
radius of the spiral is infinity at the tangent end equal to the radius of the circular arc at the end of the
spiral. The radius of curvature for the spiral at any point is inversely proportional to the distance
from its beginning point.
A basic expression used for computing the minimum length of a spiral is:
3
3.15 V
L=
RC
Where, L = minimum length of spiral (ft)
V = speed (mph)
R = curve radius (ft)
C = rate of increase of centrifugal acceleration (ft/sec3)
Values for C that range between 1 and 3 are used in highway design. A practical control for the
length of a spiral is when it equals the length required for super-elevation runoff.
Change in cross-slope may be accomplished by rotating the pavement (1) about the centerline and
(2) about the inside or outside edge.
In the design of divided highways, streets, and parkways, the inclusion of a median in the cross-
section alters somewhat the super-elevation runoff treatment.

Side-Friction Factor
With the wide variation in vehicle speeds on curves, there usually is an unbalanced force whether the
curve is super-elevated or not. This force results in tire side thrust, which is counterbalanced by
friction between the tires and the pavement surface. This frictional counterforce is developed by
distortion of the contact area of the tire. The upper limit of the side friction factor is the point at
which the tire would begin to skid; this is known as the point of impending skid. Because highway
curves are designed so that vehicles can avoid skidding with a margin of safety, the “f” values used
in design should be substantially less than the coefficient of friction at impending skid.

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Design values for the coefficient of side friction ‘f’ vary with speed from 0.17 at 20 mph to 0.08 at
80 mph.

Superelevation
Superelevation is the transverse slope provided to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and reduce the
tendency of vehicle to overturn and to skid laterally outwards by raising the pavement outer edge with
respect to inner edge.

Centrifugal force (Latin for "center fleeing") describes the tendency of an object following a curved
path to fly outwards, away from the center of the curve. It's not really a force; it results from inertia
i.e. the tendency of an object to resist any change in its state of rest or motion. For example: Mud
flying off a tire; children pushed out on a roundabout

Centripetal force is a "real" force that counteracts the centrifugal force and prevents the object from
"flying out", keeping it moving instead with a uniform speed along a circular path.
Example: Satellite orbiting a planet

When vehicle travels along a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force tends to push the vehicle out of
the track and the vehicle tends to slide outward from the center of road. Centrifugal force depends on
speed and radius of the horizontal curve and is counterbalanced to a certain extent by transverse
friction between the tire and pavement surface. To counteract this tendency, the outer edge of the
road is raised with respect to the inner edge. This transverse inclination of the pavement surface is
called super-elevation, cant or banking. It is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with
respect to the horizontal width. Its value is given be the formula:
2
0.01 e +f v
=
1−0.01 ef gR
Where, e = rate of roadway super-elevation, %
f = side friction (demand) factor
v = vehicle speed, ft/s (m/s)
g = gravitational constant, 32.2ft/s2 (9.81 m/s2)
R = radius of curve measured to a vehicle’s center of gravity, ft (m)

The value of ‘ef’ is always small, so the (1 – 0.01ef) term is approximately equal to 1.0. As such, a
simplified curve formula can be used for highway and this equation can be further developed to
accommodate common speed units as follows:
2
v
0.01e + f =
g R
2
V
(0.01e + f) = where V = velocity (mph)
15 R
2
V
(0.01e + f) = where V = velocity (km/h)
127 R

Research and experience have established limiting values for e and f. Use of the maximum ‘e’ and
safe ‘f’ value in the formula permits determination of minimum curve radii for various design
speeds.

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Maximum Super-elevation
The maximum rate of super-elevation used on highways are controlled by four factors:
 Climate conditions: (i.e., frequency and amount of snow and ice)
 Terrain conditions (i.e., flat, rolling, or mountainous)
 Type of area (i.e., rural or urban)
 Frequency of very slow-moving vehicles whose operation might be affected by high super-
elevation rate.

AASHTO recommends the maximum super-elevation rates between 4% and 12% with increments
of 2%. Twelve percent (12%) is the maximum super-elevation rate in use. Drivers feel
uncomfortable on sections with higher rates, and driver effort to maintain lateral position is high
when speeds are reduced on such curves. Where snow and ice condition prevail during winter
driving, the maximum super-elevation rate should not exceed 8%. In urban areas, where speeds may
be reduced frequently due to congestion, maximum rates of 4% - 6% are often used. On low-speed
urban streets or at intersections, super-elevation may be eliminated

Minimum Super-elevation
It should be noted that on open highway sections, there is generally a minimum super-elevation
maintained, even on straight sections. This is to provide for cross drainage of water to the appropriate
roadside(s) where sewers or drainage ditches are present for longitudinal drainage. This minimum
rate is usually in the range of 1.5% for high-type surfaces and 2.0% for low-type surfaces.

Example -1
A roadway is being designed for a speed of 70 mph. At one horizontal curve, it is known that the
super-elevation is 8.0% and the coefficient of side friction is 0.10. Determine the minimum
radius of curve (measured to the traveled path) that will provide for safe vehicle operation.

Example-2
Determine the proper super-elevation rate for an urban highway with a design speed of 50 mph and
degree of curvature of 8 degrees. (f = 0.14)

Example-3
A 1.0-km long racetrack is to be designed with turns 250 m in length at each end. Determine the
super-elevation rate you would recommend for a design speed of 50 km/h. (f = 0.16)

Example-4
A circular racetrack 2,200 meters long is to be designed for a speed of 100 km/h. Determine the rate
of super-elevation. (f = 0.12)

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SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance is the length of the roadway a driver can see ahead at any particular
time. A driver’s ability to see ahead is needed for safe and efficient operation of a vehicle on a
highway. The designer should provide sight distance of sufficient length that drivers can control the
operation of their vehicles to avoid striking an unexpected object in the traveled way. Two-lane
highways should also have sufficient sight distance to enable drivers to use the opposing traffic lane
for passing other vehicles without interfering with oncoming vehicles.

There are three types of sight distance:

1. The Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) is the minimum distance required to stop a vehicle
traveling near the design speed before it reaches a stationary object in the vehicle’s path. This
stationary object may be another vehicle or some other object within the roadway.
2. When the sight distance is long enough to enable a vehicle to overtake and pass another
vehicle on a two-lane highway without interference from opposing traffic, this distance is
referred to as Passing Sight Distance (PSD).
3. Often a driver may encounter an unexpected road feature. The sight distance required for a
driver to make decision and successfully execute required maneuvers at complex locations is
decision sight distance.

Stopping Sight Distance

The minimum stopping sight distance is sum of two distances:

1. The distance travelled from the time the object is sighted to the instant the brakes are applied.
It depends upon speed of the vehicle and the perception time and brake-reaction time of the
driver.
2. The distance required for stopping the vehicle after the brakes are applied. It depends upon
speed of vehicle, the deceleration rate of the vehicle, and the alignment and grade of the
highway.

Perception Reaction Time:

It is time required for the driver to perceive and react and for applying the brakes. It is about 2.5
seconds. The corresponding distance travelled during this time is 2.5 times the speed in feet per
second.

PIEV Theory:
Some traffic engineers have split the total reaction time into four parts based on PIEV theory.
According to this theory the total reaction time of the driver is split into four parts, viz. time taken by
the driver for:

1. Perception
2. Intellection
3. Emotion, and
4. Volition

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 Perception time is the time required for the sensations received by the eyes or ears to be
transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal chord. In other words, it is the
time required to perceive an object or situation.

Intellection time is the time required for understanding the situation. It is also the time
required for comparing the different thoughts, regrouping and registering new sensations.

Emotion time is the time elapsed during emotional sensations and disturbance such as fear,
anger or any other emotional feelings such as superstition etc. with reference to the situation.
Therefore the emotion time of a driver is likely to vary considerably depending upon the
problem involved.

Volition time is also time taken for the final action.

It is also possible that the driver may apply brakes or take any avoiding action by the reflex action,
even without thinking.
The PIEV time of driver depends on several factors such as physical and psychological
characteristics of the driver, environmental conditions and temporary factors (e.g., motive of the trip,
travel speed etc.). The total reaction time of average driver may vary from 0.5 seconds for simple
situations to as much as 3 to 4 seconds or even more in complex problems.

Braking Distance:
The braking distance of a vehicle is given by the following formula:
2
v
d=
2a

Where d = braking distance, ft, (m)

v = design speed, ft/s, (m/sec)
a = deceleration rate, ft/sec2, (m/sec2)

Studies have shown that most drivers decelerate at a rate greater than 14.8 ft/sec 2 when confronted
with an urgent need to stop – for example, when seeing an unexpected object in the roadway.
Approximately 90 percent of all drivers displayed deceleration rates of at least 11.2 ft/sec 2. Such
deceleration rates are within a driver’s capability while maintaining steering control and staying in a
lane when braking systems and tire-pavement friction levels are also capable of providing this level.
Therefore, a deceleration rate of 11.2 ft/sec 2 (4.5 m/sec2) is recommended as a threshold for
determining stopping sight distance (AASHTO, 2001).
If we add driver reaction time to equation (1), we get
2
v
S= + vtr
2a
Where tr is the driver reaction time (sec).
Braking Distance on a grade:
When a highway is on a grade, the formula for braking distance is modified as follows:
2 2
V i −V f
(a) S=
30[ ( 32.2a ) ± 100G ]
Where G = grade or longitudinal slope
Vi = initial velocity, mph
Vf = final velocity, mph

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 a = 11.2 ft/s2
2 2
V i −V f
(b) S=
254[ ( 9.81
a
)± 100G ]
Where G = grade or longitudinal slope
Vi = initial velocity, km/h
Vf = final velocity, km/h
a = 4.5 m/s2

Example-1
A car hits a tree at an estimated speed of 35 mph on a 3% downgrade. If skid marks of 100 ft. are
observed on dry pavement (f=0.45), followed by 250 ft. on a grass stabilized shoulder (f=0.20),
estimate the initial speed of the vehicle just before the start of pavement skid.

Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

One of the most fundamental design criteria for all highway facilities is that a minimum sight
distance equal to the safe stopping distance must be provided at every point along the roadway. On
horizontal curves, sight distance is limited by roadside object such as buildings, trees, and natural
barriers (on the inside of the curve) that block drivers' line of sight.

Sight distance is measured along the arc of the roadway, using the centerline of the inside travel lane.
The middle ordinate, M, is taken as the distance from the centerline of the inside lane to the nearest
roadside sight blockage.
∆
Mid Ordinate: M = R – R cos
2

The length of the curve is set

equal to the required stopping
∆
sight distance, L = S = 100
D

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 S∗D
M = R[1−cos( 200 )]
5730 S∗D
M = D [1−cos( 200 )]

( )( )
S 5730
M = R[1−cos 200 ∗ R ]

M = R[1−cos ( R )]
28.65 S

Example-1
A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway is designed with a 700-m radius, 3.6-m lanes, and a 100
km/h design speed. Determine the distance that must be cleared from the middle of the inside lane to
provide sufficient sight distance for desirable and minimum SSD.

Example-2
A 6o curve (measured at the centerline of the inside lane) is being designed for a highway with a
design speed of 70 mph. The grade is level, and driver reaction time will be taken as 2.5 seconds, the
AASHTO standard for highway braking reaction. What is the closest any roadside object may be
placed to the centerline of the inside lane of the roadway?

Example-3
On a 2500 ft. radius horizontal curve, what M is required to provide desirable SSD and PSD if the
design speed is 55 mph?

Widening of Curves
Extra width of pavement may be necessary on curves. As a vehicle turns, the rear wheels follow the
front wheels on a shorter radius, and this has the effect of increasing the width of the vehicle in
relation to the lane width of the roadway.
Studies of drivers traversing curves have shown that there is a tendency to drive a curved path longer
than the actual curve, shifting the vehicle laterally to the right on right-turning curves and to the left
on left-turning curves. Thus, on right-turning curves the vehicle shifts forward the inside edge of the
pavement, creating a need for additional pavement width. The amount of widening needed varies
with the width of the pavement of tangent, the design speed, the design vehicle, and the horizontal
curve radius.

Passing Sight Distance

The majority of U.S. highways carry two lanes of traffic moving in opposing directions. In order to
pass slower-moving vehicles, it is necessary to use the lane of the opposing traffic. If passing is to be
accomplished safely, the vehicle driver must be able to see enough of the highway ahead in the
opposing traffic lane to have sufficient time to pass and then return to the right traffic lane without
cutting off the passed vehicle and before meeting the oncoming traffic. The total distance required
for completing this maneuver is the passing sight distance.

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VERTICAL ALIGNMENT:

The vertical alignment, which consists of a series of straight profile lines connected by
vertical parabolic curves, is known as the profile grade line. When the profile grade line is
increasing from a level or flat alignment, this condition is referred to as a positive or “plus
grade” and when the grade is decreasing from a level or flat alignment, the grade is termed
a negative or “minus grade”.

In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in which the cut is balanced
against the fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut material to be wasted. All
earthwork hauls should be moved in a downhill direction if possible and within a
relatively short distance from the origin, due to the expense of moving large quantities of
soil. Ideal grades have long distances between points of intersection, with long curves
between grade tangents to provide smooth riding qualities and good visibility. The grade
should follow the general terrain and rise or fall in the direction of the existing drainage.

Grades and Grade Control

AASHTO recommendations make maximum grades dependent on design speed and the
surrounding topography. Present design practice limits grades to 5 percent for a design
speed of 70 mph (110 km/hr). For a design speed of 30 mph (50 km/hr), maximum grades
typically range from 7 to 12 percent, depending on the roadway classification and the
surrounding topography.

Vertical Curves
Vertical curves should result in a design that is safe, comfortable in operating, pleasing in
appearance, and adequate for drainage. The parabolic curve is used almost exclusively in
connecting profile grade tangents. The primary reasons for the use of this type of curve in
vertical highway alignment is the convenient manner in which the vertical offsets can be
computed and the smooth transitions created from tangent to curve and then back to
tangent. When vertical curve connects a positive grade with a negative grade, it is referred
to as a “crest curve.” Likewise, when a vertical curve connects a negative grade with a
positive grade, it is termed a “sag curve.”

***********

The vertical alignment consists of a series of straight profile lines connected by vertical
parabolic lines. When the profile grade line is increasing from a level or flat alignment,

14
this condition is referred to as a positive or “plus grade” and when the grade is decreasing
from a level or flat alignment, the grade is termed a negative or “minus grade”.
In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in which the cut is balanced
against the fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut material to be wasted. All
earthwork hauls should be moved in a downhill direction if possible and within a
relatively short distance from the origin, due to the expense of moving large quantities of
soil. Ideal grades have long distances between points of intersection, with long curves
between grade tangents to provide smooth riding qualities and good visibility. The grade
should follow the general terrain and rise or fall in the direction of the existing drainage.

Grades and Grade Control

AASHTO recommendations make maximum grades dependent on design speed and the
surrounding topography. Present design practice limits grades to 5 percent for a design
speed of 70 mph (110 km/h). For a design speed of 30 mph (50 km/h), maximum grades
typically range from 7 to 12 percent, depending on the roadway classification and the
surrounding topography.

Vertical Curve
The parabolic curve is used almost exclusively in connecting profile grade tangents. The
primary reasons for the use of this type of curve in vertical highway alignment is the
convenient manner in which the vertical offsets can be computed and the smooth
transitions created from tangent to curve and then back to tangent. When vertical curve
connects a positive grade with a negative grade, it is referred to as a “ crest curve.”
Likewise, when a vertical curve connects a negative grade with a positive grade, it is
termed a “sag curve.”

15
 Where
G1 = Initial roadway grade (initial tangent grade)
G2 = Final roadway grade
A = Absolute value of the difference in grades
L = Length of vertical curve measured in a horizontal plane
PVC = Initial point of the vertical curve
PVI = Point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades)
PVT = Final point of the vertical curve

Vertical curves are almost arranged such that half of the curve length is positioned before the PVI
and half after and are referred as equal tangent vertical curves. A circular curve is used to connect the
horizontal straight stretches of road; a parabolic curve is usually used to connect gradients in the
profile alignment.

For a vertical curve, the general form of the parabolic equation is;

y = ax2 + bx + c 1

Where, ‘y’ is the elevation of a point on the parabola, x is the horizontal distance from the beginning
of the vertical curve (PVC), and ‘c’ is the elevation of the PVC.

To define ‘a’ and ‘b’, first derivative of equation (1) gives the slope.

(G 2−G1 )x2
y=dy +G x+epvc 2
At PVC, x = 0; 2L= b 1
dx
Or
dy
= G1 3
dx

Therefore G 1 =b

Where G1 is the initial slope

Taking second derivative of equation (1), i.e. rate of change of slope;

d2 y
=2 a 4
dx 2
The rate of change of slope can also be written as;
d 2 y G 2−G 1
= 5
dx 2 L
G −G 1
or
Equating equations (4) and (5) 2 a= 2 6
L
G −G 1
a= 2 7
2L

The offsets which are vertical distances from the initial tangent to the curve can be calculated as:
( G 2 −G1 ) x 2
e=
100∗2 L

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 A
e= x2 8
200 L
Where ‘e’ is the offset in feet and ‘A’ is the absolute value of the difference in grades (G2-G1, in %),
‘L’ is length of vertical curve in feet and ‘x’ is distance from the PVC in feet.

‘em’ is the mid curve offset & ‘ef’ is the offset at the end of the vertical curve. For an equal tangent
L
parabola, putting the value of x as 2 in equation (8), it can be written as;

A L AL
e m= ∗( )2 =
200 L 2 800
A AL
Putting x = L, ef = ∗L2 =
200 L 200
L
The horizontal distance required to make 1% change in gradient, K =
A

Numerical Problem 1:
A 2000ft long crest vertical curve has PVT at station (200+00)ft and elevation is 2000ft. The initial
grade is +4% and final grade is -6%. Determine the elevation and stationing of PVC and PVI.

Solution:
Length of curve, L = 2000ft
Initial grade, G1 = +4 % = +0.04
Final Grade, G2 = - 6 % = - 0.06
Elevation at PVC = 2000ft

PVT stationing = 200 + 00

- 10 + 00
PVI stationing = 190 + 00
- 10 + 00
PVC stationing = 180 + 00

Elevation of PVI = Elevation of PVT – (Final Grade, G2) (Half length)

−6∗1000
= 2000 – 100
= 2060ft

Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI – (Initial grade, G1) (Half length)

+ 4∗1000
= 2060 - 100
= 2020ft

Numerical Problem 2:

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A 500ft sag vertical curve with equal tangents has the PVC at station (100+00)ft with an elevation of
1000ft. The initial grade is -4% and the final grade is +2%. Determine the stationing and elevation of
the PVI, PVT, and the lowest point on the curve.

Solution:
Length of curve, L = 500m
Initial grade, G1 = -0.04
Final Grade, G2 = +0.02
c, the elevation at PVC = 1000m
( G2 −G1 ) (+0 . 02+0 . 04 )
a = 2L = 2∗500 = 0.00006

PVC stationing = 100 + 00

+ 2 + 50
PVI stationing = 102 + 50
+ 2 + 50
PVT stationing = 105 + 00

Using the general parabolic formula, the elevation of the PVT can be found:
( G 2−G 1 ) x 2
y= +G 1 x + e pvc
2L
= 0.00006 x2 + (−0.04 ) x+1000
= 0.00006 (500) – 0.04 (500) + 1000
= (0.00006) (250000) – 20 + 1000
= 150 – 20 + 1000 = 995m

Elevation of PVI = G1 x + 1000

= (-0.04) (250) + 1000
= -10 + 1000 = 990m
To find the lowest part of the curve, the first derivative of the parabolic formula can be found. The
lowest point has slope of zero, and thus the location of lowest point (x) can be found:

dy
¿ 0.00006∗2 x−G1
dx
= 0.00012 x – 0.04 =0
0.04 4∗10000
x ¿ =
0.00012 100∗12

1000
= 3 = 333.33 m

Elevation of lowest point, y = 0.00006 x2 – 0.04 x + 1000

= 0.00006 (333.33)2 – 0.04 (333.33) + 1000
= 993.33m

Numerical Problem 3:
A 600ft equal tangent sag vertical curve has a PVC at station 170+00 and elevation 1000ft. The
initial grade is -3.5% and final grade is 0.5%. Determine the elevation and stationing of PVI and
PVT and lowest point of curve.

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Solution:
Length of curve, L = 600ft
Initial grade, G1 = -3.5 %
Final Grade, G2 = +0.5 %
c, the elevation at PVC = 1000ft
( G2 −G1 ) (+0 . 005+0 . 035 )
a = 2L = 2∗600 = 0.0000333

PVC stationing = 170 + 00

+ 3 + 00
PVI stationing = 173 + 00
+ 3 + 00
PVT stationing = 176 + 00

Using the general parabolic formula, the elevation of the PVT can be found:
( G 2−G 1 ) x 2
y= +G 1 x +epvc
2L
= 0.0000333 x2 + (−0.035 ) x +1000
= 0.0000333 (600)2 – 0.035 (600) + 1000
= (0.0000333) (360000) – 21 + 1000
= 11.988 – 21 + 1000 = 990.988 ft

Elevation of PVI = G1 x + 1000

= (-0.035) (300) + 1000
= -10.5 + 1000 = 989.5 ft
To find the lowest part of the curve, the first derivative of the parabolic formula can be found. The
lowest point has slope of zero, and thus the location of lowest point (x) can be found:

dy
¿ 0.0000333∗2 x −G1
dx
= 0.0000666 x – 0.035 =0
0.035
x ¿ =525.525 ft
0.0000666

Elevation of lowest point, y = 0.0000333 x2 – 0.035 x + 1000

= 0.0000333 (525.525 ¿2 – 0.035 (525.525) + 1000
= 990.80
Numerical Problem 4:
A 500 m crest vertical curve with equal tangents has the PVC at station (100 + 50) m with an
elevation of 1000 m. The initial grade is +4% and the final grade is -2 %. Determine the stationing
and elevation of the PVI, PVT and the highest point on the curve.
Given Data: Length of curve, L = 500m
Initial grade, G1 = +4 % = +0.04
Final Grade, G2 = -2 % = +0.02
c, the elevation at PVC = 1000m

( G2 −G1 ) (−0 .02+0. 04 )

Solution: a = 2L = 2∗500 = -0.00006
PVC stationing = 100 + 50

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 + 2 + 50
PVI stationing = 103 + 00
+ 2 + 50
PVT stationing = 105 + 50

Elevation of PVI = G1 x + 1000

= (+0.04) (250) + 1000
= +10 + 1000 = 1010m

Elevation of PVT = G2 x + PVI

= (-0.02) (250) + 1010
= -5.0 + 1010 = 1005m
Also using the general parabolic formula, the elevation of the PVT can be found:
( G 2−G 1 ) x 2
y= 2 +G 1 x +epvc
2 L x + ( +0.04
= -0.00006 ) x+1000
= -0.00006 (500) + 0.04 (500) + 1000
= (-0.00006) (250000) + 20 + 1000
= -15 + 20 + 1000 = 1005m
To find the lowest part of the curve, the first derivative of the parabolic formula can be found. The
lowest point has slope of zero, and thus the location of lowest point (x) can be found:
dy
¿ (−0.00006 ) 2 x+ G1
dx
= -0.00012 x + 0.04 = 0
−0.04 4∗10000 1000
x ¿ = = = 333.33 m
−0.00012 100∗12 3

1000
= 3 = 333.33 m
2
Elevation of lowest point, y = -0.00006 x + 0.04 x + 1000
= -0.0000 6 (333.33)2 + 0.04 (333.33) + 1000
= -6.67 + 13.33 + 1000 = 1006.67

Numerical Problem 5:
A 500 m crest vertical curve with equal tangents has the PVC at station (100 + 50) m with an
elevation of 1000 m. The initial grade is +4% and the final grade is -2 %. Determine the stationing
and elevation of the PVI, PVT and the highest point on the curve.

SIGHT DISTANCE OVER A VERTICAL CURVE

The sight distance over a crest vertical curve depends on the fundamental characteristics of the
curve, namely algebraic difference in grades and the length of curve.

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 2
AS
When S<L L=
100( √ 2 h1+ √ 2 h2 )
2

100(2 h1 + √ 2h 2)
2
When S>L L = 2S -
A

Where
L = length of crest vertical curve in feet or meters
S = sight distance available over crest vertical curve in feet or meters
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent
h1 = height of eye of average driver above roadway surface in feet or meters
h2 = height of object sighted above roadway surface in feet or meters
It is assumed, h1 = 3.5 ft and h2 = 2.0 ft

The sag vertical curve stopping sight distance is not physically constrained by the road surface
during daylight conditions (as may be the case with crest curves); of projection by the vehicle
headlights. The headlight mounting height (approximate 2 ft (600 mm)) is generally lower than the
driver eye height. The headlight beam projects approximately 1 o upward along the vehicle’s
longitudinal axis. The basic relationships for stopping sight distance at sag vertical curves are
therefore represented as:

When S < L:
2
AS
L=
200[0.06+ S ( tan1 o ) ]
or
When S > L:
200 [ 0.06+ S ( tan 1 ) ]
o
L = 2S - ( )
A

Where L = Length of sag vertical curve in feet or meters

S = distance of headlight beam in feet or meters
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent

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