Instrumentations and Measurements

Chapter two
Measurement Error Analysis

Prepared by: Mebratu A.

Debre Markos Institute of Technology - School of Mechanical & Industrial Eng. 02-12-2022

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 Measurement Error Analysis
Error: The most important quantity in control system.
 Measurement Error (also called Observational Error) is the difference between
a measured quantity and its true value.
 Often the actual value is not known . In that case ,the accuracy of measurement
system places bounds on the possible error.
 Measurement is a processes of comparing an unknown quantity with a standard
quantity.
 No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy which results in the
occurrence of the errors.
 It includes random error (naturally occurring errors that are to be expected with any
experiment) and systematic error (caused by a mis-calibrated instrument that
affects all measurements).

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 Systematic errors
 Systematic errors describe errors in the output readings of a measurement system
that are consistently on one side of the correct reading, i.e. either all the errors are
positive or they are all negative.
 Two major sources of systematic errors are system disturbance during measurement
and the effect of environmental changes (modifying inputs).
 Other sources of systematic error include: the use of uncalibrated instruments, drift
in instrument characteristics and poor cabling practices.
 Even when systematic errors due to the above factors have been reduced or
eliminated, some errors remain that are inherent in the manufacture of an
instrument.
 These are quantified by the accuracy figure quoted in the published specifications
contained in the instrument data sheet.

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 Systematic errors
Sources of systematic errors
 System disturbance due to measurements
 Errors due to environmental inputs
 Wear in instrument components
Reduction of systematic error
 Careful instrument design
 Method of opposing inputs
 High-gain feedback
 Calibration
 Manual correction of output reading
 Intelligent instruments

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 Random errors
Random errors
 Random errors in measurements are caused by unpredictable variations in the
measurement system.
 They are usually observed as small perturbations of the measurement either side of
the correct value, i.e. positive errors and negative errors occur in approximately
equal numbers for a series of measurements made of the same constant quantity.
 Therefore, random errors can largely be eliminated by calculating the average of a
number of repeated measurements, provided that the measured quantity remains
constant during the process of taking the repeated measurements.

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 Random errors

 Random errors often arise when measurements are taken by human observation
of an analogue meter, especially where this involves interpolation between scale
points.
 Electrical noise can also be a source of random errors.

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 Statistical Procedures to Assess Measurement Error

The following methods assess “absolute reliability”:

 Standard error of measurement (SEM): estimates how repeated measurements
taken on the same instrument are estimated around the true score.
 Coefficient of variation (CV): a measure of the variability of a distribution of
repeated scores or measurements. Smaller values indicate a smaller variation
and therefore values closer to the true score.
 Limits of agreement (LOA): gives an estimate of the interval where a
proportion of the differences lie between measurements.

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 Accuracy
 This term is used to specify the maximum overall error to be expected from a device
, such measurement of the variable .
 Accuracy usually expressed as the inaccuracy and can appear in several forms.
1. Measured Variable; the accuracy is ±2°C in some temperature measurement. Thus
there would be an uncertainty of ±2°C in any value of temperature measured.
2. Percentage of the instrument Full Scale (FS). Thus the accuracy of ±0.5% FS in a
5V full scale range meter would mean the inaccuracy or uncertainty of the
measurement is ±0.025 V.
3. Percentage of instrument span, that is, percentage of the range of instrument
measurement capability. Thus, for a device measuring ±3% of span for a 20-50 psi
range of pressure, the accuracy would be (±0.03)(50-20)= ±0.9 psi.
4. Percentage of actual reading. Thus, for a ±2% of reading voltmeter, we would have
an inaccuracy of ±0.04V for a reading of 2V .
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 Example: 2.1
A temperature sensor has a span of 20°-250°C . A measurement results in a value of 55°C for
the temperature. Specify the error if the accuracy is
(a) ± 0.5% FS
(b) ± 0.75% of span
(c) ± 0.8% of reading
What is the possible temperature in each case?
Solution
a. ± 0.5% FS ( Full Scale)
Error = ( ± 0.005)(250°C) = ± 1.25°C. Thus, the actual temperature is in the range of
53.75°C – 56.25°C.
b. ± 0.75% of span
Error = (± 0.0075)(250-20)°C = ± 1.725°C. Thus, the actual temperature is in the range
of 53.275°C – 56.725°C.
c. ± 0.8% of reading
Error = ( ± 0.008)(55°C) = ±0.44°C. Thus, The actual temperature is in the range of
54.56°C – 55.44°C.
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 Example: 2.2

A temperature sensor has a transfer function of 5mV/°C with an accuracy of ± 1%. Find the
possible range of the transfer function.
Solution:
The transfer function range will be (± 0.01)(5mV/°C) = ± 0.05 mV/°C , thus the range is
4.95 – 5.05 mV/°C.

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 Chapter Three
Transducers

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 Transducers
 A transducer is a device which converts a non-electrical physical quantity (i.e.
temperature, sound or light) into an electrical signal (i.e. voltage, current, capacity…)
 In most of the electrical systems, the input signal will not be an electrical signal. This will
have to be converted into its corresponding electrical signal for its value to be measured
using electrical methods.

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 Components ofTransducers
 The transducer has basically two main components :
1. Sensing Element
 The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and responded to by this part of the
transducer.
2.Transduction Element
 The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction element. This element is
responsible for converting the non-electrical signal into its proportional electrical signal.
 There are certain cases when the transduction element itself performs both the action of
transduction and sensing.The best example of such a type transducer is a thermocouple.

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 Classification of transducers
 The transducers may be classified in various ways such as on the basis of:
➢electrical principles involved,
➢methods of application,
➢methods of energy conversion used,
➢nature of output signal etc.
 Transducers, on the basis of methods of applications, may be classified into primary and
secondary transducers.
➢ When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon is converted
into the electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the primary transducer.
➢ When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output being of some
form other than input signals is given as input to a transducer for conversion into electrical form,
then such a transducer falls in the category of secondary transducers.

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 Classification of transducers
 Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy conversion used, may be classified into active and
passive transducers.
Active Transducers
 Active transducers are those transducers that don’t require any power source for their operation.
 They work on energy conversion principle i.e. produces an electrical signal proportional to the input
( physical quantity ).
 Such transducers draw energy from the system under measurement.
 Normal such transducers give very small output and, therefore, use of amplifier becomes essential.
 Some of the active transducers are:
1) Thermocouple
 Thermocouples are the devices that are extensively used for measurement of temperature in
industrial situations.
 The voltage change developed across a junction of two dissimilar metals is known by its
corresponding value of temperature, heat or flow
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 Classification of transducers
2) Piezoelectric Transducer
 Piezoelectric transducer/sensor is a active transducer and it does not need external
power supply as it is self generating.
 It is the devices which uses piezoelectric effect to measure the changes in pressure,
temperature, acceleration, strain by converting them to electrical pulse.
 When an external force is applied on to a quartz crystal, there will be a change in the
voltage generated across the surface. This change is measured by its corresponding value
of sound or vibration.

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 Classification of transducers
Passive Transducers
 Transducers which require external power supply for their operation is called passive
transducers.
 They produce an output signal in the form of some variation in resistance, capacitance or
any other electrical parameter, which than has to be converted to an equivalent current or
voltage signal.
 Passive type transducers:
A. Resistance Variation Type
B. Capacitance Variation Type
C. Inductance Variation Type
D. Voltage and Current Type

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 Classification of transducers
A. Resistance Variation Type:
 Resistance strain gauge- the change in the value of resistance of metal semi-conductor due to
elongation or compression is known by the measurement of torque, displacement or force.
 Resistance thermometer- the change the resistance of metal wire due to the change in the
temperature known by the measurement of temperature.
 Resistive hydrometer- the change in the resistance of conductive strip due to the change of
moisture content is known by the value of its corresponding humidity.
 Hot wire meter- the change in the resistance of a heating element due to convection cooling of a
flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas flow or pressure.
 Photoconductive cell- the change in resistance of cell due to a corresponding change in light
flux is known by its corresponding light intensity.
 Thermistor- the change in the resistor of semi-conductor that has a negative co-efficient of
resistance is known by the corresponding measure of temperature.
 Potentiometer type- the change in the resistance of potentiometer reading due to the movement
of the slider as a part of an external force applied is known by its corresponding pressure or
displacement
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 Classification of transducers
B. Capacitance Variation Type
 Variable capacitive pressure gauge- the change in capacitive due to the change of
distance between two parallel plates caused by an external force is known by its
corresponding displacement or pressure.
 Dielectric gauge- the change in capacitance due to a change in the dielectric is known
by its corresponding liquid level or thickness.
 capacitive microphone- the change in capacitance due to the variation in sound
pressure on a movable diagram is known by its corresponding sound.

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 Classification of transducers

C. Inductance Variation Type

 Eddy current transducer- the change in inductance of coil due to the proximity of eddy current
plate is known by its corresponding displacement or thickness.
 Variable reluctance type- the variation in reluctance of a magnetic circuit that occurs due to the
change in the position of the iron core or coil is known by its corresponding displacement or
pressure.
 Proximity inductance type- the inductance change of an alternative current excited coil due to
the change in the magnetic circuit is known by its corresponding pressure or displacement
 Differential transformer- the change in the voltage of secondary windings of transformer
because of the change in position of the magnetic core is known by its corresponding force,
pressure or displacement.
 Magnetostrictive transducer- the change in magnetic properties due to change in pressure and
stress is known by its corresponding sound value, pressure or force.
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 Classification of transducers
D. Voltage and Current Type
Photo- emissive cell- electron emission due to light incidence on photo emissive surface is
known by its corresponding light flux value.
Hall effect- the voltage generated due to magnetic flux across a semi-conductor plate with a
movement of current through it is known by corresponding value of magnetic flux or
current.
Ionization chamber- the electron flow variation due to the ionization of gas caused radio-
active radiation is known by its corresponding radiation value.

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 End of the Lecture!

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