Period of oscillation T= =

The oscillations are as shown in the figure.

WAVE PACKET, PHASE VELOCITY AND GROUP VELOCITY

The velocities of the individual waves which superimpose to produce the
wave packet representing the particle are different - the wave packet as a whole has a
Effect of damping different velocity from the waves that comprise it

1. Amplitude of oscillations decreases exponentially with time. Phase velocity, v : The velocity of individual waves that forming a wave packet.

2. The time period of oscillation of a damped oscillator is greater than the time period of Group velocity,u: The velocity with which wave packet moves .
un damped(free) oscillation Here a tussle occurs between the external periodic force and the damping force. After some
time the system reaches c 2a steady state. The resulting oscillations are forced oscillations. Its
3. The frequency of oscillation of a damped oscillator is less than the frequency of U=
v
frequency is that of the external periodic force and not that of the natural frequency of the
undamped oscillation.
body.When steady state is reached, the solution of the above equation is given by
WAVE FUNCTION
FREE OSCILLATIONS Solutions to the Equation FORCED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR x  A sin ( f t   )      (3)
FREE OSCILLATIONS
dx (r , t)
Consider a particle executing oscillations. If no forces are acting on it, the Assume the solution is of the form If an external force acts on a damped oscillatory system it is called a Forced  A f cos( f t   )
Consider a particle executing oscillations. If no forces are acting on it, the dt
oscillations will continue for an indefinite period without change in amplitude. In this Harmonic Oscillator. The oscillations produced, under the action of external periodic force I. 2 Gives character about matter waves.
oscillations will continue for an indefinite period without change in amplitude. In this
oscillation total energy of the system remains the same always. This type of oscillations is x  Aet on the body is called forced oscillations. d xGives the probability
2
oscillation total energy of the system remains the same always. This type of oscillations is II.   A f sin ( f t offinding
) the particle at particular point and time
called free oscillations dt 2
called free oscillations dx The energy of a damped oscillator decreases with the passage of time. It is
 Aet PuttingCONCEPT
PHYSICAL these values in (2)
(significance) OF WAVE FUNCTION
dt possible to compensate for the energy loss by applying a suitable external periodic
2
force.Foreg: a swing.  A f sin ( f t   )  2A f cos( f t   )   A sin ( f t   )
The quantity whose variation makes 2up the matter waves is called the
d 2x
dt 2
  2 Aet   2 x
The frequency of the forced oscillation will be different from the natural
 
wave function Ψ.The quantity that undergoes periodic changes of a body is Ψ.
 f 0 sin ( f t   )          (4)
Putting these values in ( 2), we get frequency of the body.Let ω be the frequency of natural and ωf the frequency of the ExpandingRHS Ψ=Aei(kx-ωt)
forced vibrations when the body is subjected to an oscillatory external force F 0sin ωf t. sin ( f tvalued
 af 0complex   ) cos   f 0and  f t has
cos(itself  ) sin 
 x  2x   x  0
2 2
The Equation of motion is given by
Ψ is function no physical meaning. The

square
A  f cos    Asin ( t   ) 
of the absolute magnitude/ Ψ/ or Ψ Ψ*dxdydz gives the probability of finding
2
ie  2  2   2  0
2 2
Fig: Free Oscillations d2x dx the particle in the volume element dxdydz. We can obtain the physical properties of
f 0 f
Fig: Free Oscillations
DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATION  2  4 2
 4 2 
m
dt 2
 b  kx  F0 sin  f t
dt 2wave
the system if we know the A f function. 
 f 0 sin  cos( f t   )  0    (5) 
DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATION The solution   A :  * dxdydz is proportional to the probability of finding the particle
To find Since
2 d 2 x b dx k F
A harmonic oscillator in which the motion is damped by the action of an additional   x  0 sin  f t        (1)
dt 2
m dt m m For
withthis
in the . to hold
eqvolume goodthefor
element, all values
integral of t , must
  dxdydz
*
the be finite if the particle is
force is Acalled
harmonic oscillator
a damped in which
harmonic the motion
oscillator. is damped
Damped by theare
oscillations action of an additional
oscillations under the 
    2
 2 
t 
force is called a damped somewhereof there. If sin ( f t  is)zero,
andthecos(
particle
 f tdoes’nt
  ) exist and if it is
forces.harmonic oscillator. Damped oscillations are oscillations under the b k coeffts the term  dxdydz
*
action of resistive x  Ae  

action of resistive forces. Let  2 where  is the damping coefft and  2  infinity, the particle is everywhere simultaneously.
The solutions can be written as m m must vanish separately.
Damping force is α to its velocity.
Damping force is α to its velocity.
ie Damping force = b dx x1  A1e 
  
  2 t
 2 


and x2  A2 e 
  
  2
t
 2 

2
d x
 2
dx
  2 x  f 0 sin  f t        (2) Since the probability of finding the particle in the volume element is a surety, then
2
ie  A f  f 0 cos    2 A  0
ie Damping force = b dxdt dt 2
dt   dxdydz
*
2 1
  A f   2 A  f 0 cos         (6)
‘b’ is called the damping dt constant.Including the damping force, the differential eq. for a  The general solution is x  x1  x2 F 8
‘b’damped
is calledharmonic
the damping
Case 3 : 
constant.Including
oscillator is the damping force, the differential eq. for a
f   ( high driving frequency )

    2
 2
 
t 
    2
 2
 
t
where f 0  0
m

The wave function
2A which obeys
 f sin  thiscondition
f 0 0 
is called normalized wave function.
damped harmonic oscillator is
f
x  A1e  
 A2 e  
   (3) For More Visit : KtuQbank.com
This is the differential eqn for damped harmonic oscillator  2A f 
 f 0 sin           (7)
d 2Ax  dx 0 Where A1 and A2 are cons tan ts which depends
md 2 x 2   kx  2 b

dxf 2 2  4 2 f 2
  kx b dt
Squaring and eq. ( 6) and ( 7 ),
m dt
dt 22
d x
dt
dx f
on the initial values of position and velocity.
'  ' det er min es the behaviour of the system.
Here a tussle occurs between the external periodic force and the damping force. After some
time the system reaches a steady state. The resulting oscillations are forced oscillations. Its  A f 2 2
  AFor 
 4More
2
 2 A 2Visit
f  f0
2
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When md  x 2 
2 f  kxand
 bdx for0 low damping A  02 frequency is that of the external periodic force and not that of the natural frequency of the
m dt  kx  b dt 0 f f0
2 body.When steady state is reached, the solution of the above equation is given by A     (8)
dt dtA with ω
Graph: Variation
d 2
x of Amplitude
b dx k
d 2 x 2 b dx k x  0        (1)
Case 1: γ>ω x  A sin ( f t   )      (3)  2
 f
2 2
  4 2
f
2

dt  m dt mx  0        (1)
dt 2 bm dt m The roots of the auxiliary equation are real dx This is the amplitude of the Forced vibration.
 A f cos( f t   )
Letb  2 where  is the damping coefft. dt
Let m 2 where  is the damping coefft. 1     2
2 ;   2     2

  2    (4) d 2x
Dividing eq. ( 7 ) by ( 6)

d 2x m dx The solution of equation (3) is

2
  A f sin ( f t   ) 2 f
dt 2
d 2dtx 2  2dxdt  2 x  0        (2)
2
Tan             (9)

1
2
 2   x  0         ( 2) x  A1e1t  A2 e 2t          (5) Putting these values in (2) 2   f
2
dtThis is thedtdifferential eqn for damped Where A1 and A2 are constants. 2 2
 A f sin ( f t   )  2A f cos( f t   )   2 A sin ( f t   )

1
This gives the phase difference between the forced
9

2
This is the differential eqn for damped  
harmonic oscillator Let the mass be given a displacement x0 and then released ,So that
 f 0 sin ( f t   )          (4) oscillations and the
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harmonic oscillator ExpandingRHS
5
4
 f 0 sin ( f t   ) cos   f 0 cos( f t   ) sin 
4
NEWTON’S2 RINGS RADIUS OF THEnth DARK RING
 A 
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Sharpness of Resonance LCR circuit as an Electrtical analogue of mechanical oscillator f  f 0 cos    2 A sin ( f t   ) 
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When  f is increased or decreased from resonance frequency,the amplitude falls A pure LC circuit is an electrical analogue of simple pendulum. In the case of simple 2A f 
 f 0 sin  cos( f t   )  0    (5)
from the maximum value. pendulum, the energy alternates betweenpotential and kinetic energy.
To find A :
In the case of LC circuit when the electrical oscillation takes place, the energy is For this eq. to hold good for all values of t , the
The term sharpness of resonance refers to the rate of decrease of amplitude with the
alternately shared in the capacitor as electric field and in the inductor as magnetic field.
change in frequency of the applied periodic forceon either side of the resonant frequency. coeffts of the term sin ( f t   ) and cos( f t   )
1
The frequency oscillation in LC circuit, n 
Let Pr be the power absorbed at resonance and P , the power absorbed at any other 2 LC must vanish separately.
frequency γ. Forced oscillation in a series LCR circuit  2
ie  A f  f 0 cos    2 A  0 
The arrangement consists of a plano convex lens of large radius of curvature placed
The graph between P/ Pr and frequency is as follows 2
A plate. Let C be the centre of curvature of the curved surface of the lens and R be its
f  A thin  of
2
 glass
on an optically plane f 0 cos
A film of air  varying   (6)is formed between the
   thickness
radius of curvature. Let nth dark ring be formed through B where the thickness of the air film

lens2and
Athe 
f
glass plate
f 0 sin  .
The 
0 thickness of thin film is zero at the point of contact and is ‘t’. Let rn be the radius of dark ring ,ie BH=rn
 2A
gradually increases towards the edge of the lens.
f 
 f 0 sin           (7)
A beam of monochromatic light is incident normally on the lens.A part of the light is
Applying Kirchoff ' s law to the circuit Squaring and eq. ( 6) and ( 7 ),
reflected from the top surface of the thin film and another part of light is reflected from the
VL  iR  VC  V0sin t  A f 2   2 A 4 2 A2 f 2  f02
top surface of the glass plate. These two reflected beams interfere destructively or
constructively and produce darkor bright band.
2
At the frequency values the power absorbed is half of the maximum and these γ1 and γ2 d q dq q f0
L R   V0sin t    (8 ) point(λ),
values are called half power points.The frequency difference between these two half power If a pointA  For
allathe
grating θ isalong
different through
for different colours arefor each value of n.If white light is used ,it
 
dt 2 dt C appears dark, points a circle this dark since
2
 2 get splita2up 2 2
points is called the bandwidth of the oscillator.
ie
d 2q

R dq

q
 V0sin t
the thickness of air film is same 
along f
into4So
circle. different
 we get
f
colours.
a dark ring. If the point appears
bright, we get a bright ring. Thus alternate dark and bright rings of increasing radii are
REQUIREMENTS OF WAVE FUNCTION
2
ie Bandwidth Δ γ= γ2 - γ1 dt L dt LC This is the amplitude
observed.As of the
the radii increase, the Forced
rings become thinner .and closer. These are called newton’s
vibration
The average energy over a cycle is given by
This is the differential equation in the case of forced oscillations in LCR circuit rings.
Dividing eq. ( 7 ) by ( 6) 1. Ψ must be finite, single valued and continuous.
For a grating θ is different2for
different
f
colours (λ), for each value of n.If white light is used ,it 2. ∂ Ψ∕∂x ∂ Ψ∕∂y, ∂ Ψ∕∂z must also be continuous and single valued everywhere
11 Mechanical Oscillator  get split up in   colours. 2           (9)
to different
Tan 2
  f 3. Ψ can be normalized
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Electrical Oscillator  This gives the phase difference between the forced
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
Comparison between Mechanical and Electrical Oscillator oscillations and the
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Mechanical Oscillator Electrical Oscillator For a grating θ is different for different colours (λ), for each value of n.If white light is used ,it According to the classical mechanics the position and momentum o
MEASURMENT
get split up in to different colours. OF WAVELENGTH particle can be determined simultaneously with accuracy. In Newtonian mech
1. Displacement x Charge q
DARK CENTRAL SPOT IN NEWTON’S RINGS is a device to measure wavelengths of light accurately using diffraction
A spectrometer every particle has a fixed position in space and has a definite momentum at an
2. Velocity dx/dt Current dq/dt
grating .
3. Mass m Inductance L At the point of contact between the lens and the glass plate, the thickness of air film t=0. But the concept of dual nature, particle and wave , inspired Heisenberg to stat
PRINCIPLE
Hence the path difference 2t=0. But at the time of reflection, the reflected wave from the glass plate

2
4. Damping coefficient γ Resistance R 
principle of uncertainty.
MEASURMENT
undergoes OF WAVELENGTH
a phase change of (path difference
At normal of ). So the waves at the centre are interfering
incidence,
5. Force amplitude f0 Voltage amplitude v0 2
destructively and hence aisdark
A spectrometer spot to
a device Sin θ=Nnλ
is obtained
measure at the centre of
wavelengths of light
newton’s ring. using diffraction
accurately Radius of the ringAccording
, r α ξ࢔ to this principle it is impossible to have an accurate

1
6. Driving frequency ωf Oscillator frequency ω REQUIREMENTS OF WAVE FUNCTION
Asmeasurement of between
the position and momentum
That is ,the rings of particles
closer as we simultaneously.
grating . Where , θ = the angle of diffraction n increases, the distance the rings decreases. come
13 1. Ψ move
must be finite,
away fromsingle valued and continuous.
the centre.
PRINCIPLE N = the no. of lines per metre of the grating
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n = the order of the spectrum 2. ∂ Ψ∕∂x ∂ Ψ∕∂y, ∂ Ψ∕∂z must also be continuous andor single valued everywhere.
At normal incidence, λ = the wavelength of light used 3. Ψ can be normalized
MEASURMENT OF WAVELENGTH ࢙࢏࢔ࣂ
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DIFFRACTION
PLANE
PLANE TRANSMISSION TRANSMISSION
GRATING GRATING Sin θ=Nnλ For More Visit : KtuQbank.com
ࣅൌ The Uncertainty
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE Principle states that the simultaneous determinatio
ࡺ࢔diffraction
A spectrometer is a device to measure wavelengths of light accurately using
PLANE TRASMISSION GRATING is a plane glass plate containing a large number of equidistant grating .
Where , θ = the angle of diffraction exact position
According to theand momentum
classical of a moving
mechanics the position particle
and momentum of a is impossible
Diffraction of light is the phenomenon of bending of light round the edges of an obstacle or parallel lines drawn using a fine diamond point . The space between the lines acts as narrow N = the no. of lines per metre of the grating particle can be determined simultaneously with accuracy. In Newtonian mechanics
PRINCIPLE every particle has a fixed position in space and has a definite momentum at any time.
encroachment of light in to the geometrical shadow of the obstacle.Diffraction of waves becomes
slits through which light is transmitted. The lines are opaque to light. n = the order of the spectrum The product of uncertainty (error) in the measurement of position of
noticeable only when the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of the light used. λ = the wavelength of light used But the concept of dual nature, particle and wave , inspired Heisenberg to state the
At normal incidence,
Grating is an arrangement of a large number of parallel slits of equal width separated by ࢙࢏࢔ࣂ particle (Δx)
principle and the uncertainty in the momentum(ΔPx) of the particle is of the orde
of uncertainty.
Due to larger wavelength of sound, its diffraction can be easily detected in daily life around ࣅൌ
Sin θ=Nnλ
the windows, doors, building etc. The same is not the case with light, due to its shorter wavelength.
equal opaque spaces . Usually a grating has 5000 to 12000 lines per cm. There are two
ࡺ࢔ Planks constant.
According to this principle it is impossible to have an accurate
important conditions for a good quality grating. Where , θ = the angle of diffraction measurement of the position and momentum of particles simultaneously.
DIFFRACTION PATTERNS Δx. Δ Px =ħ (ħ= h/2π )
1. The number of lines per cm must be very large. N = the no. of lines per metre of the grating or
The intensity distribution on the screen is known as diffraction pattern . 2. The spacing between the lines must be equal. n = the order of the spectrum
ARRANGEMENT OF THE GRATING FOR NORMAL INCIDENCE
λ = the wavelength of light used The Uncertainty Principle states that the simultaneous determination of the
Δy. Δ Py =ħof a moving particle is impossible
࢙࢏࢔ࣂ
The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The slit is madeexact position
narrow and it isand momentum
ࣅൌ
illuminated with monochromatic light. The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. The slit is
ࡺ࢔vertical cross wire.The telescope is then clamped. Unclamp the vernier
madeto coincide with the
The product of uncertainty (error) in the measurement of position of the
Δz. Δ Pz =ħ
particle (Δx) and the uncertainty in the momentum(ΔPx) of the particle is of the order of
table and zero of the vernier 1 is made to coincide with the zero of the main scale and clamp it. Now
the telescope is rotated through 90° and clamped. The grating is mounted on thePlanks constant.
grating table with
If Δx is small, Δ Px will be large and vice versa. If one quantity is measured
ARRANGEMENT OF THE GRATING FOR NORMAL INCIDENCE Δx. Δ P x =ħ (ħ= h/2π )
For More Visit : KtuQbank.com accurately, the other quantity become less accurate. If Δx=0 ΔPx=infinity; that is if we
WAVEFRONT The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The slit is made narrow and it is Δy. Δ Py =ħ
illuminated with monochromatic light. The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. The slit is
the exact position of a particle we shall never know its momentum with certainty. If Δ
A wavefront is an imaginary line that connects waves that are moving in phase Δz. Δ Pz =ħ
madeto coincide with the vertical cross wire.The telescope is then clamped. Unclamp the vernier Δ x=infinity; that is if we know the momentum of particle , its position is not known.
table and zero of the vernier 1 is made to coincide with the zero of the main scale and clamp it. Now If Δx is small, Δ Px will be large and vice versa. If one quantity is measured
HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE Consider a plane transmission grating placed perpendicular to the plane of the telescope is rotated through 90° and clamped. The grating is mounted on the grating table with accurately, the other quantity become less accurate. If Δx=0 ΔPx=infinity; that is if we know
paper. AB represents a slit and BC represents a line. Let ‘a‘ be the width of each slit and ‘b’ be Position & momentum
the exact position of a particle we shall never know its momentum with certainty. If ΔPx =0
Huygens principle states that each point on the wavefront will become a source of secondary
the width of each line. The distant (a+b) is called grating element or grating constant. ARRANGEMENT OF THE
its ruled surface facing theGRATING
collimatorFOR
. TheNORMAL INCIDENCE
grating table alone is rotated until the reflected image of
For More Visit : KtuQbank.com Δ x=infinity; that is if we know the momentum of particle , its position is not known.
waves spreading wavelets in all direction. the slit is obtained at the cross wire of the telescope.The vernier table is unclamped and rotated
A plane wavefront of monochromatic light of wavelength Ȣ is falling normally through The preliminary
exactly adjustments
45 degree in the properof the spectrometer
direction aresurface
so that the made. The slitgrating
of the is made narrow normal
becomes and it is
Diffraction is due to the mutual interference of the secondary wavelets originating from illuminated with monochromatic light. The telescope is brought
grating in
is line with the collimator.
incidence.The slit is
Position & momentum h
various points of the wavefront on this slit. Each point of the wave front sends outsecondary waves in all direction. The
to the collimator. The vernier table is clamped. Now the set for normal
madeto coincide with the vertical cross wire.The telescope is then clamped. Unclamp the vernier
xp x 
straight and parallel waves from each point can be focussed on the screen using lens. These WAVELENGTH
table and zero ofOF theLIGHT
vernier 1 is made to coincide with the zero of the main scale and clamp it. Now h 2 
xp x 
COMPARISON BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION straight waves path difference will be zero. They will interfere constructively producing the telescope is rotated through 90° and clamped. The grating is mounted on the grating table with 2
Similarly in the simultaneous measurement of energy and time, if ΔE and Δt are the uncertainties we
The telescope is unclamped. The direct image of the slit is obtained in the telescope. From
brightness at the centre. This central bright band is called central maximum. have ΔEΔt =¾
Interference Diffraction this position, the telescope is rotated
For Moreslowly to the left
Visit until the first order image of the slit is
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observed. The telescope is adjusted so that the vertical cross wire coincides with the line. Readings
The position of central maximum is same for all the wavelength.The central Energy & time
Interference bands are formed by Diffraction bands are formed by of both verniers are taken. The telescope is now moved to the right and the cross wire is made to
maxima will have the same colour as the incident light. coincide with the line of the first order on the right side. The vernier readings are again taken. The
superposition of waves from two coherent superposition of waves from different parts
sources of the same wavefront difference between the readings of the corresponding vernier on the left and right sides is h More Visit : KtuQbank.com
For
Consider two waves diffracted from two points A and C of slit. They travels along determined. The mean value of this difference is 2θ .The angle of diffraction θ for the first order (m= E t 
Am and CN. Draw CK perpendicular to AM. Then the path difference between the two waves 1) is thus determined. Knowing the value of N ,wavelength of sodium light is calculated from the 2 For More Visit : KtuQbank.com
Bands are of equal width Bands are of unequal width
is AK. formula
Bands of minimum intensity are almost dark Bands of minimum intensity are not dark Angular position and angular momentum
‫ܖܑܛ‬દ
ૃൌ . h
࢓‫ۼ‬
Intensity of bright bands is same Intensity of bright bands is not the same J 
2
This is repeated for the second order (m=2) and then mean value of ૃ is calculated.

RAYLEIGH’S CRITERION FOR RESOLUTION OF SPECTRAL LINES

APPLICATIONS OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
According to Rayleigh’s criterion for resolution ,two neighbouring spectral lines will be just
For More Visit : KtuQbank.com resolved when the principal maximum of one in any order falls on the first minimum of the other in 1. Uncertainity in frequency of light emitted by an atom
the same order
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An electron exists in an excited state only for a short interval of time.Thus Δ t is small ,then
Δ E must be large

Δt=10-8s
ΔE*Δt=ħ

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in The uncertainty in energy, ΔE=ħ/10-8

E=hϑ