Horse

Horse
The horse (Equus ferus caballus)[2][3] is a domesticated, one-

Horse
toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family
Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. The
horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a
small multi-toed creature, close to Eohippus, into the large,
single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses
around 4000 BCE, and their domestication is believed to have
been widespread by 3000 BCE. Horses in the subspecies
caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated
populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral Conservation status
populations are not true wild horses, which are horses that never
Domesticated
have been domesticated and historically linked to the megafauna
category of species. There is an extensive, specialized Scientific classification
vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering Domain: Eukaryota
everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings,
breeds, locomotion, and behavior. Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Horses are adapted to run, allowing them to quickly escape
predators, and possess an excellent sense of balance and a strong Class: Mammalia
fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from Order: Perissodactyla
predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep
Family: Equidae
both standing up and lying down, with younger horses tending to
sleep significantly more than adults.[4] Female horses, called Genus: Equus
mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months and a Species: E. ferus
young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following
Subspecies: E. f. caballus
birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under a saddle or
in a harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full Trinomial name
adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of Equus ferus caballus
between 25 and 30 years. Linnaeus, 1758 [1]
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on Synonyms[2]
general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and
at least 48 published
endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies,
suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed
from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding
purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for
many different uses.
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational
pursuits as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy. Horses
were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed,
using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses,
including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares.
Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water, and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such
as veterinarians and farriers.
Biology
Specific terms and specialized language are used
to describe equine anatomy, different life stages,
colors, and breeds.
Lifespan and life stages

Depending on breed, management and
environment, the modern domestic horse has a life
expectancy of 25 to 30 years.[7] Uncommonly, a
few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally,
beyond.[8] The oldest verifiable record was "Old
Billy", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age Points of a horse[5][6]
of 62.[7] In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had
been listed in Guinness World Records as the
world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age 56.[9]
Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age
each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere[7][10] and each August 1 in the Southern
Hemisphere.[11] The exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the
animal's actual calendar age.[12]
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:
Foal
A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling,
and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling.[13] Most domesticated foals are
weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with
no adverse physical effects.[14]
Yearling
A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.[15]
Colt
A male horse under the age of four.[16] A common terminology error is to call any young
horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.[17]
Filly
A female horse under the age of four.[13]
Mare
A female horse four years old and older.[18]
Stallion
A non-castrated male horse four years old and older.[19] The term "horse" is sometimes
used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.[20]
Gelding
A castrated male horse of any age.[13]
In horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing
defines colts and fillies as less than five years old.[21] However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines
colts and fillies as less than four years old.[22]
Size and measurement

The height of horses is measured at the highest point of the withers, where the neck meets the back.[23] This
point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down
in relation to the body of the horse.
In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is

often stated in units of hands and inches: one hand is
equal to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height is
expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a
point, then the number of additional inches, and
ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "hands
high"). Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15
hands plus 2 inches, for a total of 62 inches
(157.5 cm) in height.[24]
The size of horses varies by breed, but also is

Size varies greatly among horse breeds, as with this
influenced by nutrition. Light-riding horses usually
full-sized horse and small pony.
range in height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches,
142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550
kilograms (840 to 1,210 lb). [25] Larger-riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm)
and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to
1,320 lb).[26] Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as tall
as 18 hands (72 inches, 183 cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to
2,200 lb).[27]
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848.
He stood 21.21 ⁄4 hands (86.25 inches, 219 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524 kilograms
(3,360 lb).[28] The record holder for the smallest horse ever is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse
affected by dwarfism. She was 43 centimetres; 4.1 hands (17 in) tall and weighed 26 kg (57 lb).[29][30]
Ponies
Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses. The distinction between a horse and pony is
commonly drawn on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not
dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype, including
conformation and temperament.
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An
animal 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than
14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) a pony,[31] but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard. In
Australia, ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm).[32] For competition in the
Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation, the cutoff is 14.1 hands (57 inches,
145 cm).[33] The International Federation for Equestrian Sports, the world governing body for horse sport,
uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres
(58.27 in) at the withers without shoes, which is just over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), and 149
centimetres (58.66 in; 14.21 ⁄2 hands), with shoes.[34]
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies. Breed registries for horses that
typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) consider all animals of
that breed to be horses regardless of their height.[35] Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in
common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2 hands (58 inches,
147 cm), but are still considered to be ponies.[36]
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider
barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have
calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to
cooperate with human handlers.[31] Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the
Shetland pony which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony.[31] Conversely, breeds
such as the Falabella and other miniature horses, which can be no taller than 76 centimetres; 7.2 hands
(30 in), are classified by their registries as very small horses, not ponies.[37]
Genetics
Horses have 64 chromosomes.[38] The horse genome was sequenced in 2007. It contains 2.7 billion DNA
base pairs,[39] which is larger than the dog genome, but smaller than the human genome or the bovine
genome.[40] The map is available to researchers.[41]
Colors and markings

Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and
distinctive markings, described by a specialized
vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat
color, before breed or sex.[42] Horses of the same
color may be distinguished from one another by
white markings,[43] which, along with various
spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat
color.[44]
Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns

have been identified. Current genetic tests can Bay (left) and chestnut (sometimes called "sorrel")
identify at least 13 different alleles influencing coat are two of the most common coat colors, seen in
color, [45] and research continues to discover new almost all breeds.
genes linked to specific traits. The basic coat colors
of chestnut and black are determined by the gene
controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor,[46] also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor",[45] as its
recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant form is black.[47] Additional genes control suppression
of black color to point coloration that results in a bay, spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard, dilution
genes such as palomino or dun, as well as greying, and all the other factors that create the many possible
coat colors found in horses.[45]
Horses that have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged
or older gray. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath
their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white markings). The only horses properly
called white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.[47]
Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different
alleles of dominant white and the sabino-1 gene.[48] However, there are no "albino" horses, defined as
having both pink skin and red eyes.[49]
Reproduction and development

Gestation lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range
320–370 days,[50][51] and usually results in one foal; twins are
rare.[52] Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of
standing and running within a short time following birth.[53] Foals
are usually born in the spring. The estrous cycle of a mare occurs
roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into
autumn. Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and
thus do not cycle in this period.[54] Foals are generally weaned
from their mothers between four and six months of age.[55] Mare with a foal
Horses, particularly colts, are sometimes physically capable of

reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of
three, especially females.[56] Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally
continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality
of care. Larger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue,
but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert
after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.[57]
Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be
ridden between the ages of two and four.[58] Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as
young as the age of two in some countries,[59] horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are
generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not
solidly developed.[60] For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete
until they are a full 60 calendar months (five years) old.[12]
Anatomy
Skeletal system
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones.[61] A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a
human is the lack of a collarbone—the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set
of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's four legs and
hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For
example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the carpal bones that
correspond to the human wrist. Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle
and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock
(incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single
equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal
bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where
one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also
has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks,
only skin, hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage,
and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the
hoof.[62]
Hooves
The critical importance of the feet and legs is
summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no
horse".[63] The horse hoof begins with the distal The skeletal system of a modern horse
phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or
tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other
specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made
of keratin, the same material as a human fingernail.[64] The result is that a horse, weighing on average 500
kilograms (1,100 lb),[65] travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe.[66] For the protection of the
hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier.
The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if
used) every five to eight weeks,[67] though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate
suitable for their terrain.
Teeth
Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth, adapted to
biting off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at
the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of
canine teeth called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small
vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can
interfere with the bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit
rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled.[68]
An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout
life and are worn down by grazing. Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a
distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet.
This allows a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate
of tooth wear.[7]
Digestion
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material,
consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small
stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will
eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 to 45 litres (8.4 to
9.9 imp gal; 10 to 12 US gal) of water. Horses are not ruminants, having only one stomach, like humans.
But unlike humans, they can digest cellulose, a major component of grass, through the process of hindgut
fermentation. Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria and other microbes occurs in the cecum and the
large intestine. Horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of
death.[69] Although horses do not have a gallbladder, they tolerate high amounts of fat in their diet.[70][71]
Senses
The horses' senses are based on their status as prey animals, where
they must be aware of their surroundings at all times.[72] They have
the largest eyes of any land mammal,[73] and are lateral-eyed,
meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their
heads.[74] This means that horses have a range of vision of more
than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being binocular vision
and the remaining 285° monocular vision.[73] Horses have excellent
day and night vision, but they have two-color, or dichromatic A horse's eye
vision; their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness
in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors,
appear as a shade of green.[75]
Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog. It is
believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the
environment. Horses have two olfactory centers. The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which
analyze a wide range of odors. The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the vomeronasal organs, also
called Jacobson's organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze
pheromones.[76]
A horse's hearing is good,[72] and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360°
hearing without having to move the head.[77] Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of
noise may contribute to stress: a 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet
setting, or if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to
jazz or rock music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels.[78] An
Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than
horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of
ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing.[79]
Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly
developed proprioception—the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times.[80] A
horse's sense of touch is well-developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose.[81]
Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.[82]
Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they
would most like to eat,[83] and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains. Horses generally will
not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of
poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.[84]
Movement
Walk 5–8 km/h (3.1– Trot 8–13 km/h (5.0– Pace 8–13 km/h (5.0– Canter 16–27 km/h
5.0 mph) 8.1 mph) 8.1 mph) (9.9–16.8 mph)
Gallop 40–48 km/h

(25–30 mph), record:
70.76 km/h
(43.97 mph)
All horses move naturally with four basic gaits:[85]
the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph);
the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour (8.1 to 11.8 mph) (faster for harness
racing horses);
the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph);
the gallop, which averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph),[86] but the world
record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is 70.76 kilometres per hour
(43.97 mph).[87]
Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot.[88] There also are
several four-beat 'ambling' gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride.
These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot.[89] Ambling gaits are
often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses.[90] These horses replace the trot with one
of the ambling gaits.[91]
Behavior
Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response. Their
first reaction to a threat is to startle and usually flee, although they 0:00 / 0:00
will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is Horse neigh
impossible or if their young are threatened. [92] They also tend to be
curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain
the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening.
Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities
that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite
docile, particularly certain draft horses.[93]
Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a

dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures
that are able to form companionship attachments to their own
species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate
in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or
whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses
will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with
training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and
Horses fighting as part of herd
thus be comfortable away from other horses.[94] However, when dominance behaviour
confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation,
individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits,
mostly stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking
back and forth), and other problems.[95]
Intelligence and learning

Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental
challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system. They also
have good spatial discrimination abilities.[96] They are naturally curious and apt to investigate things they
have not seen before.[97] Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving, speed
of learning, and memory. Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive
abilities that involve categorization and concept learning. They can learn using habituation, desensitization,
classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement.[96] One study has
indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than four.[98]
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial
environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural.[96] Horses are
animals of habit that respond well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and
techniques are used consistently. One trainer believes that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent
trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style
that best fits with an individual animal's natural inclinations.[99]
Temperament
Horses are mammals. As such, they are warm-blooded, or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-
blooded, or poikilothermic animals. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the
context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-
bloods", such as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy,[100] while the "cold-bloods", such
as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer.[101] Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or
"riding horses",[102] with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".[103]
"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses"

such as the Akhal-Teke, Arabian horse, Barb, and
now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the
Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England
from the older oriental breeds.[100] Hot bloods
tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They
are bred for agility and speed.[104] They tend to
be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and
long-legged.[105] The original oriental breeds
were brought to Europe from the Middle East and
North Africa when European breeders wished to
infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry
horses.[106][107]
Illustration of assorted breeds; slim, light hotbloods,
medium-sized warmbloods and draft and pony-type
Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold
coldblood breeds
bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but
also to have the calm, patient temperament needed
to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people.[101] They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants".[108]
Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale.[108] Some, like the Percheron, are lighter
and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates.[109] Others, such as the
Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.[110] The cold-
blooded group also includes some pony breeds.[111]
"Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war
horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a
draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.[112] Certain pony breeds with
warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders.[113] Warmbloods are considered a "light
horse" or "riding horse".[102]
Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition
in dressage and show jumping.[114] Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between
cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds.[115] Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the
Cleveland Bay. The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or
Arabians, such as the Morgan horse.[104]
Sleep patterns
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are
able to enter light sleep by using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without
collapsing.[116] Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand
guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a
constant eye out for danger.[117]
Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of
time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to
fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to
several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may
range from several minutes to a couple of hours,[117] mostly in
short intervals of about 15 minutes each.[118] The average sleep
time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.[119]
When horses lie down to sleep, Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie
others in the herd remain standing, down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum
awake, or in a light doze, keeping
REM sleep requirements.[117] However, if a horse is never allowed
watch.
to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in
rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM
sleep while still standing. [120] This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer from
that disorder. [121]
Taxonomy and evolution

The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-
open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in
an ecosystem where other large grazing animals,
especially ruminants, could not.[122] Horses and
other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order
Perissodactyla, a group of mammals dominant
during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order
contained 14 families, but only three—Equidae
(the horse and related species), Tapiridae (the
tapir), and Rhinocerotidae (the rhinoceroses)—
have survived to the present day.[123]
The earliest known member of the family Equidae

was the Hyracotherium, which lived between 45
and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene Diagram of evolution in horses showing size
period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes development, biometrical changes in the cranium and
on each back foot. [124] The extra toe on the front reduction of toes (left forefoot)
feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus, which
lived 32 to 37 million years ago.[125] Over time,
the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of
small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee,[126] known informally as splint bones.[127] Their legs also
lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed.[126]
By about 5 million years ago, the modern Equus had evolved.[128] Equid teeth also evolved from browsing
on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses.
Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions
worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America.
By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time
period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America.[129] Yet between
10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America.[130][131][132] The reasons for this
extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human
arrival.[133] Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the
grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable
plants.[134]
Wild species surviving into modern times

A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that
were ever successfully domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses
today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned
loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those
animals.[135] Only two wild subspecies, the tarpan and the
Przewalski's horse, survived into recorded history and only the
latter survives today.
The Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), named after the A small herd of Przewalski's Horses
Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky, is a rare Asian animal. It is
also known as the Mongolian wild horse; Mongolian people know
it as the taki, and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild
between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it
was reestablished in the wild by the conservation efforts of numerous zoos.[136] Today, a small wild
breeding population exists in Mongolia.[137][138] There are additional animals still maintained at zoos
throughout the world.
The question of whether the Przewalski's horse was ever domesticated was challenged in 2018 when DNA
studies of horses found at Botai culture sites revealed captured animals with DNA markers of an ancestor to
the Przewalski's horse. The study concluded that the Botai animals appear to have been an independent
domestication attempt and apparently unsuccessful, as these genetic markers do not appear in modern
domesticated horses. However, the question of whether all Przewalski's horses descend from this population
is also unresolved, as only one of seven modern Przewalski's horses in the study shared this
ancestry.[139][140][141]
The tarpan or European wild horse (Equus ferus ferus) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived
into the historical era, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.[142] Thus,
the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan,[142][143][144] which resulted in
horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not
true wild horses.
Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses,
but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was
proposed as such,[138] but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses.[145]
Similarly, the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan on the basis of shared
characteristics,[146][147] but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other
horse breeds, and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.[146][148]
Other modern equids

Besides the horse, there are six other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family. These are the ass or
donkey, Equus asinus; the mountain zebra, Equus zebra; plains zebra, Equus quagga; Grévy's Zebra,
Equus grevyi; the kiang, Equus kiang; and the onager, Equus hemionus.[149]
Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross
between a "jack" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a
"jenny" (female donkey).[150] Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse.[151]
With rare exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce.[152]
Domestication and history

Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia
prior to 3500 BCE. Two major sources of information are used to
determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and
how the domesticated horse spread around the world. The first
source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries; the
second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern
horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains.
Bhimbetka rock painting showing a
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the man riding on a horse, India
horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to
approximately 4000–3500 BCE.[153][154][155] By 3000 BCE, the
horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BCE there was a sharp increase in the number of horse
bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses
throughout the continent.[156] The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from
sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c.
2100 BCE.[157]
A 2021 genetic study suggested that most modern domestic horses descend from the lower Volga-Don
region. Ancient horse genomes indicate that these populations influenced almost all local populations as
they expanded rapidly throughout Eurasia, beginning about 4,200 years ago. It also shows that certain
adaptations were strongly selected due to riding, and that equestrian material culture, including Sintashta
spoke-wheeled chariots spread with the horse itself.[158][159]
Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present-day horses and comparing it with the
genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological
excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the
domestic horse,[160][161] while many mares were part of early domesticated herds.[148][162][163] This is
reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire
line (Y-chromosome) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA). There are
very low levels of Y-chromosome variability,[160][161] but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial
DNA.[148][162][163] There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild
mares in domestic herds.[148][162][163][164] Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat
color variation.[165] In horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BCE.[166]
Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse,
various hypotheses were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation,
suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to
domestication.[111] Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species
and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication.[167]
However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.
Feral populations
Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals.[135] Many
populations of feral horses exist throughout the world.[168][169] Studies of feral herds have provided useful
insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses,[170] as well as greater understanding of the instincts and
behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions.[171]
There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the
UK, where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in "wild" conditions
on undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.[172][173]
Breeds
The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry has come to be particularly
significant and important in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called
"thoroughbreds". Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other
animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry.[174] Horse breeds are groups of horses with
distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color,
performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and
artificial selection methods. Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. An early example
of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful
practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure
bloodlines.[175] These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition.[176] In the 14th century,
Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in
the Andalusian horse.[177]
Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in
order to perform a particular type of work.[178] Thus, a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian
developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage.[178] Heavy draft horses were developed out of a
need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons.[179] Other horse breeds had been
developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or
simply as pets.[180] Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others
descended from a single foundation sire, or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock. One of the
earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back
to the foundation bloodstock for the breed.[181] There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world
today.[182]
Interaction with humans

Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done
so for millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and
working purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the
world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia
and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and
Oceania. There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United
States alone.[183] The American Horse Council estimates that
horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the
United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is Finnhorse pulling a heavy wagon.
considered, the impact is over $102 billion.[184] In a 2004 "poll"
conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73
countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.[185]
Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity;[186] to aid this process
horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a
bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control.[187] Sometimes horses are ridden
without a saddle,[188] and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other
headgear.[189] Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of vehicle.[190]
Sport
Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and
races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds
and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in
battle. Many sports, such as dressage, eventing, and show
jumping, have origins in military training, which were
focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other
sports, such as rodeo, developed from practical skills such as
those needed on working ranches and stations. Sport hunting
from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting
techniques.[186] Horse racing of all types evolved from
impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. All forms A horse and rider in dressage competition at
of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills the Olympics
from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic
development of specialized breeds and equipment for each
sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that
would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.[186]
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include show
jumping, dressage, three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos, and fox
hunting.[191] Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world.
They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-hand"
classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation. The method of
judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and
rider.[192] Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human
competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate,
the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions—be it getting a ball
through a goal or some other task.[193] Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse
include jousting, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other,[194] and buzkashi, a team game
played throughout Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.[193]
Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the
world. There are three types: "flat" racing; steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where
horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky.[195] A major part of horse
racing's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it.[196]
Work
There are certain jobs that horses do
very well, and no technology has yet
developed to fully replace them. For
example, mounted police horses are still
effective for certain types of patrol
duties and crowd control.[197] Cattle
ranches still require riders on horseback
to round up cattle that are scattered
across remote, rugged terrain.[198] Horse pulling a cart A mounted police
Search and rescue organizations in some officer in Poland
countries depend upon mounted teams
to locate people, particularly hikers and
children, and to provide disaster relief assistance.[199] Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary
to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of
transport allowed in wilderness areas. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law enforcement officers
such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for
clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.[200]
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses,
donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number
includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone.[201] Some land management practices such as
cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and
increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as
horses.[202][203] Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees
due to more selective logging.[204]
Warfare
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history. The
first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to
between 4000 and 3000 BCE,[205] and the use of horses in warfare
was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age.[206][207] Although
mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war,
horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for
ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities
in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective.
Ottoman cavalry, 1917
Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias
in the War in Darfur.[208]
Entertainment and culture

Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work
purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a
meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactments
of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles.[209]
Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial
purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn
carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally
significant events.[210] Public exhibitions are another example, such as the
Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of
draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention
of the modern motorized truck.[211]
Horses are frequently used in television, films and literature. They are The horse-headed deity in
Hinduism, Hayagriva
sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals,
but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical
stories.[212] Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of
products.[213] The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry, in a variety of poses and
equipment.[214] The mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-Roman, Hindu, Islamic, and
Germanic, include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple
myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun.[215] The horse also appears in the
12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.[216]
Horses serve as the inspiration for many modern automobile names and logos, including the Ford Pinto,
Ford Bronco, Ford Mustang, Hyundai Equus, Hyundai Pony, Mitsubishi Starion, Subaru Brumby,
Mitsubishi Colt/Dodge Colt, Pinzgauer, Steyr-Puch Haflinger, Pegaso, Porsche, Rolls-Royce Camargue,
Ferrari, Carlsson, Kamaz, Corre La Licorne, Iran Khodro, Eicher, and Baojun.[217][218][219] Indian TVS
Motor Company also uses a horse on their motorcycles & scooters.
Therapeutic use
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from an association with
horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them
improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence, and a greater
feeling of freedom and independence.[220] The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has
also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of
para-equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI).[221] Hippotherapy and
therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment
strategies that use equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve
their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding
uses specific riding skills.[222]
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or
"equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals
to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders,
behavioral difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes.[223] There are also
experimental programs using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior
of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.[224]
Products
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from
the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses.
Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as
the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis.[225] Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols
and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own
horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.[225] The
drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine),
and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy.[226] The tail hair of horses can be
used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.[227]
Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. Approximately
5 million horses are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.[228] It is eaten in many parts of the world,
though consumption is taboo in some cultures,[229] and a subject of political controversy in others.[230]
Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets,[231] baseballs,[232] and baseball gloves. Horse
hooves can also be used to produce animal glue.[233] Horse bones can be used to make implements.[234]
Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto, which is used to test
the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.[235] In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of
kumis.[236]
Care
Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is
good-quality forage from hay or pasture.[237] They can consume
approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each
day. Therefore, a 450-kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to
11 kilograms (24 lb) of food.[238] Sometimes, concentrated feed
such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when
the animal is very active.[239] When grain is fed, equine nutritionists
Checking teeth and other physical recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should
examinations are an important part of still be forage.[240]
horse care.
Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 38
to 45 litres (10 to 12 US gal) per day.[241] Although horses are
adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple
shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.[242]
Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases,
and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist.[243] If horses are kept inside in
a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being.[244] When turned
outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained.[245] Regular grooming is also
helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.[246]
Climate change
As of 2019, there are around 17 million horses in the world.
Healthy body temperature for adult horses is in the range between
37.5 and 38.5 °C (99.5 and 101.3 °F), which they can maintain
while ambient temperatures are between 5 and 25 °C (41 and
77 °F). However, strenuous exercise increases core body
temperature by 1 °C (1.8 °F)/minute, as 80% of the energy used by
equine muscles is released as heat. Along with bovines and
primates, equines are the only animal group which use sweating as
Diagram of heat regulation in
their primary method of thermoregulation: in fact, it can account for
horses.[247]
up to 70% of their heat loss, and horses sweat three times more than
humans while undergoing comparably strenuous physical activity.
Unlike humans, this sweat is created not by eccrine glands but by apocrine glands.[248] In hot conditions,
horses during three hours of moderate-intersity exercise can loss 30 to 35 L of water and 100g of sodium,
198 g of choloride and 45 g of potassium.[248] In another difference from humans, their sweat is hypertonic,
and contains a protein called latherin,[249] which enables it to spread across their body easier, and to foam,
rather than to drip off. These adaptations are partly to compensate for their lower body surface-to-mass
ratio, which makes it more difficult for horses to passively radiate heat. Yet, prolonged exposure to very hot
and/or humid conditions will lead to consequences such as anhidrosis, heat stroke, or brain damage,
potentially culminating in death if not addressed with measures like cold water applications. Additionally,
around 10% of incidents associated with horse transport have been attributed to heat stress. These issues are
expected to worsen in the future.[247]
African horse sickness (AHS) is a viral illness with a mortality close to 90% in horses, and 50% in mules. A
midge, Culicoides imicola, is the primary vector of AHS, and its spread is expected to benefit from climate
change.[250] The spillover of Hendra virus from its flying fox hosts to horses is also likely to increase, as
future warming would expand the hosts' geographic range. It has been estimated that under the "moderate"
and high climate change scenarios, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, the number of threatened horses would increase
by 110,000 and 165,000, respectively, or by 175 and 260%.[251]
See also
Glossary of equestrian terms
Lists of horse-related topics
List of historical horses
Dülmener
The horse in Nordic mythology
Equus gallicus
Solutré horse
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External links
"Ancient horse bone yields oldest DNA sequence" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-envi
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Ensembl
Genome of Equus caballus (version EquCab3.0/equCab3) (https://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/
hgTracks?db=equCab3&lastVirtModeType=default&lastVirtModeExtraState=&virtModeType
=default&virtMode=0&nonVirtPosition=&position=chr11%3A53042266%2D53660035&hgsi
d=1430148309_s0mIqHUNKBbB06Tlt0mlYt0ZUJqr), via UCSC Genome Browser
Data of the genome of Equus caballus (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/145), via NCBI
Data of the genome assembly of Equus caballus (versión EquCab3.0/equCab3) (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCF_002863925.1/), via NCBI
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Horse

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Horse

The horse (Equus ferus caballus)[2][3] is a domesticated, one-

Lifespan and life stages

The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:

Size and measurement

In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is

The size of horses varies by breed, but also is

Colors and markings

Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns

Reproduction and development

Horses, particularly colts, are sometimes physically capable of

Gallop 40–48 km/h

All horses move naturally with four basic gaits:[85]

Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a

Intelligence and learning

"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses"

Taxonomy and evolution

The earliest known member of the family Equidae

Wild species surviving into modern times

Other modern equids

Domestication and history

Interaction with humans

Entertainment and culture

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