Zebra

Zebras (US: /ˈziːbrəz/, UK: /ˈzɛbrəz, ˈziː-/)[1] (subgenus

Zebra
Hippotigris) are African equines with distinctive black-and-white
striped coats. There are three living species: Grévy's zebra
Temporal range: Pleistocene to
(Equus grevyi), the plains zebra (E. quagga), and the mountain
zebra (E. zebra). Zebras share the genus Equus with horses and recent
asses, the three groups being the only living members of the
family Equidae. Zebra stripes come in different patterns, unique
to each individual. Several theories have been proposed for the
function of these stripes, with most evidence supporting them as
a deterrent for biting flies. Zebras inhabit eastern and southern
Africa and can be found in a variety of habitats such as
savannahs, grasslands, woodlands, shrublands, and mountainous
areas.

Zebras are primarily grazers and can subsist on lower-quality

vegetation. They are preyed on mainly by lions, and typically
flee when threatened but also bite and kick. Zebra species differ
in social behaviour, with plains and mountain zebra living in
stable harems consisting of an adult male or stallion, several adult
females or mares, and their young or foals; while Grévy's zebra
live alone or in loosely associated herds. In harem-holding
species, adult females mate only with their harem stallion, while A herd of plains zebras (Equus
male Grévy's zebras establish territories which attract females quagga) in the Ngorongoro Crater in
and the species is promiscuous. Zebras communicate with
Tanzania
various vocalisations, body postures and facial expressions.
Social grooming strengthens social bonds in plains and mountain Scientific classification
zebras. Domain: Eukaryota

Zebras' dazzling stripes make them among the most recognisable Kingdom: Animalia
mammals. They have been featured in art and stories in Africa Phylum: Chordata
and beyond. Historically, they have been highly sought after by
Class: Mammalia
exotic animal collectors, but unlike horses and donkeys, zebras
have never been truly domesticated. The International Union for Order: Perissodactyla
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists Grévy's zebra as Family: Equidae
endangered, the mountain zebra as vulnerable and the plains
Genus: Equus
zebra as near-threatened. The quagga (E. quagga quagga), a
type of plains zebra, was driven to extinction in the 19th century. Subgenus: Hippotigris
Nevertheless, zebras can be found in numerous protected areas. C. H. Smith, 1841

Species
Etymology
The English name "zebra" derives from Italian, Spanish or †E. capensis
Portuguese.[2][3] Its origins may lie in the Latin equiferus, E. grevyi
meaning "wild horse". Equiferus appears to have entered into †E. koobiforensis
Portuguese as ezebro or zebro, which was originally used for a †E. mauritanicus
legendary equine in the wilds of the Iberian Peninsula during the †E. oldowayensis
Middle Ages. In 1591, Italian explorer Filippo Pigafetta recorded E. quagga
"zebra" being used to refer to the African animals by Portuguese E. zebra
visitors to the continent.[4] In ancient times, the zebra was called
hippotigris ("horse tiger") by the Greeks and Romans.[4][5]

The word zebra was traditionally pronounced with a long initial

vowel, but over the course of the 20th century the pronunciation
with the short initial vowel became the norm in British
English.[6] The pronunciation with a long initial vowel remains
standard in American English.[7]

Taxonomy
Zebras are classified in the genus Equus (known as equines)
along with horses and asses. These three groups are the only
living members of the family Equidae.[8] The plains zebra and Modern range of the three living
mountain zebra were traditionally placed in the subgenus
zebra species
Hippotigris (C. H. Smith, 1841) in contrast to the Grévy's zebra
which was considered the sole species of subgenus
Dolichohippus (Heller, 1912).[9][10][11] Groves and Bell (2004) placed all three species in the subgenus
Hippotigris.[12] A 2013 phylogenetic study found that the plains zebra is more closely related to Grévy's
zebras than mountain zebras.[13] The extinct quagga was originally classified as a distinct species.[14] Later
genetic studies have placed it as the same species as the plains zebra, either a subspecies or just the
southernmost population.[15][16] Molecular evidence supports zebras as a monophyletic lineage.[13][17][18]

Equus originated in North America and direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle
Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a date of 4.07 million years ago (mya) for the most
recent common ancestor of the equines within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 mya.[19] Horses split from asses and
zebras around this time and equines colonised Eurasia and Africa around 2.1–3.4 mya. Zebras and asses
diverged from each other close to 2 mya. The mountain zebra diverged from the other species around 1.6
mya and the plains and Grévy's zebra split 1.4 mya.[20]

A 2017 mitochondrial DNA study placed the Eurasian Equus ovodovi and the subgenus Sussemionus
lineage as closer to zebras than to asses.[21] However, other studies disputed this placement, finding the
Sussemionus lineage basal to the zebra+asses group, but suggested that the Sussemionus lineage may have
received gene flow from zebras.[22]

The cladogram of Equus below is based on Vilstrup and colleagues (2013) and Jónsson and colleagues
(2014):[13][20]
⁠Equus ⁠ ⁠ ⁠Z ebras
⁠Mountain zebra (E. zebra)
⁠
 ⁠ ⁠Plains zebra (E. quagga)
⁠
⁠
⁠
⁠Grévy's zebra (E. grevyi)
⁠
⁠ ⁠ ⁠Kiang (E. kiang)
⁠
⁠
⁠
⁠Onager (E. hemionus)
⁠ ⁠
⁠Wild asses
⁠ Quagga mare at London Zoo, 1870,
African wild ass (E. africanus) the only specimen photographed
⁠ alive. This animal was historically
⁠ considered a separate species but is
now considered a subspecies or
⁠Horse (E. ferus caballus) population of plains zebra.
⁠
⁠Horses
⁠
⁠Przewalski's horse (E. ferus przewalski)
⁠

Extant species

Name Description Distribution Subspecies Chromosomes Image

Body length of 250–

300 cm (98–118 in)
with 38–75 cm (15–
30 in) tail, 125–
160 cm (4.10–
5.25 ft) shoulder
height and weighs
Eastern Africa
352–450 kg (776–
Grévy's including the
992 lb);[23] Thin,
zebra Horn;[24] arid and
(Equus
elongated skull,
semiarid Monotypic[24] 46[26]
robust neck and
grevyi) grasslands and
conical ears; narrow
striping pattern with shrublands[26]
concentric rump
stripes, white belly
and tail base and
white line around the
ashy
muzzle[8][24][25]
Plains Body length of 217– Eastern and 6[12] or 44[32]
zebra 246 cm (85–97 in) southern Africa; monotypic[16]
(Equus with 47–56 cm (19– savannahs,
quagga) 22 in) tail, 110– grasslands and
145 cm (43–57 in) open woodlands[31]
shoulder height and
weighs 175–385 kg
(386–849 lb);[23]
Thick bodied with
relatively short legs
and an obtusely-
shaped skull profile
with a protruding
forehead and a more
 recessed nose
area;[8][27] broad
stripes, horizontal
on the rump, with
northern populations
having more
extensive striping
while populations
further south have
whiter legs and
bellies and more
brown "shadow"
stripes. The snout is
black.[8][28][29][30]

Body length of 210–

260 cm (83–102 in)
with 40–55 cm (16–
22 in) tail, 116–
146 cm (46–57 in)
shoulder height and
weighs 204–430 kg
(450–948 lb);[23] eye
sockets more
circular and
positioned farther Southwestern
Mountain back, a squarer Africa; mountains,
zebra nuchal crest, dewlap
(Equus present under neck
rocky uplands and 2[33] 32[26]
Karoo
zebra) and compact
hooves; stripes shrubland[31][33][30]
intermediate in width
between the other
species, with
gridiron and
horizontal stripes on
the rump, while the
belly is white and
the black muzzle is
lined with chestnut
or orange[33][8][34][26]

Fossil record
In addition to the three living species, some fossil zebras and
relatives have also been identified. Equus koobiforensis is an early
equine basal to zebras found in the Shungura Formation, Ethiopia
and the Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, and dated to around 2.3 mya.[35]
E. oldowayensis is identified from remains in Olduvai Gorge dating Fossil skull of Equus mauritanicus
to 1.8 mya.[36] Fossil skulls of E. mauritanicus from Algeria which
date to around 1 mya appears to show affinities with the plains
zebra.[37][38] E. capensis, known as the Cape zebra, appeared around 2 mya and lived throughout southern
and eastern Africa.[39][36] Non-African equines that may have been basal to zebras include E. sansaniensis
of Eurasia (circa 2.5 mya) and E. namadicus (circa 2.5 mya) and E. sivalensis (circa 2.0 mya) of the Indian
subcontinent.[35]

Hybridisation
Fertile hybrids have been reported in the wild between plains and Grévy's zebra.[40] Hybridisation has also
been recorded between the plains and mountain zebra, though it is possible that these are infertile due to the
difference in chromosome numbers between the two species.[41] Captive zebras have been bred with horses
and donkeys; these are known as zebroids. A zorse is a cross between a zebra and a horse; a zonkey,
between a zebra and a donkey; and a zoni, between a zebra and a pony. Zebroids are often born sterile with
dwarfism.[42]

Characteristics
As with all wild equines, zebra have barrel-chested bodies with
tufted tails, elongated faces and long necks with long, erect manes.
Their thin legs are each supported by a spade-shaped toe covered in
a hard hoof. Their dentition is adapted for grazing; they have large
incisors that clip grass blades and rough molars and premolars well
Skeleton of a Grévy's zebra at the
suited for grinding. Males have spade-shaped canines, which can be
State Museum of Natural History
used as weapons in fighting. The eyes of zebras are at the sides and Karlsruhe
far up the head, which allows them to look over the tall grass while
feeding. Their moderately long, erect ears are movable and can
locate the source of a sound.[8][28][34]

Unlike horses, zebras and asses have chestnut callosities present only on their front legs. In contrast to other
living equines, zebra have longer front legs than back legs.[34] Diagnostic traits of the zebra skull include:
its relatively small size with a straight dorsal outline, protruding eye sockets, narrower rostrum, less
conspicuous postorbital bar, separation of the metaconid and metastylid of the tooth by a V-shaped canal
and rounded enamel wall.[43]

Stripes
Zebras are easily recognised by their bold black-and-white striping
patterns. The coat appears to be white with black stripes, as
indicated by the belly and legs when unstriped, but the skin is
black.[44][45][46] Young or foals are born with brown and white
coats, and the brown darkens with age.[27][24] A dorsal line acts as
the backbone for vertical stripes along the sides, from the head to
the rump. On the snout they curve toward the nostrils, while the
stripes above the front legs split into two branches. On the rump,
they develop into species-specific patterns. The stripes on the legs,
ears and tail are separate and horizontal.[44]
Comparative illustration of living
zebra species
Striping patterns are unique to an individual and heritable.[47]
During embryonic development, the stripes appear at eight months,
but the patterns may be determined at three to five weeks. For each species there is a point in embryonic
development where the stripes are perpendicular to the dorsal line and spaced 0.4 mm (0.016 in) apart.
However, this happens at three weeks of development for the plains zebra, four weeks for the mountain
zebra, and five for Grévy's zebra. The difference in timing is thought to be responsible for the differences in
the striping patterns of the different species.[44]
Various abnormalities of the patterns have been documented in plains zebras. In "melanistic" zebras, dark
stripes are highly concentrated on the torso but the legs are whiter. "Spotted" individuals have broken up
black stripes around the dorsal area.[48] There have even been morphs with white spots on dark
backgrounds.[49] Striping abnormalities have been linked to inbreeding.[48] Albino zebras have been
recorded in the forests of Mount Kenya, with the dark stripes being blonde.[50] The quagga had brown and
white stripes on the head and neck, brown upper parts and a white belly, tail and legs.[51]

Function
The function of stripes in zebras has been discussed among biologists since at least the 19th century.[52]
Popular hypotheses include the following:

The crypsis hypothesis suggests that the stripes allow the animal to blend in with its
environment or break up its outline. This was the earliest hypothesis and proponents argued
that the stripes were particularly suited for camouflage in tall grassland and woodland
habitat. Alfred Wallace also wrote in 1896 that stripes make zebras less noticeable at night.
Critics note that zebras graze in open habitat and do not behave cryptically, being noisy, fast,
and social and do not freeze when a predator is near. In addition, the camouflaging stripes of
woodland living ungulates like bongos and bushbucks are much less vivid with less contrast
with the background colour.[53] A 1987 Fourier analysis study concluded that the spatial
frequencies of zebra stripes do not line up with their environment,[54] while a 2014 study of
wild equine species and subspecies could not find any correlations between striping
patterns and woodland habitats.[55] Melin and colleagues (2016) found that lions and hyenas
do not appear to perceive the stripes when they are a certain distance away at daytime or
nighttime, thus making the stripes useless in blending in except when the predators are
close enough by which they could smell or hear their target. They also found that the stripes
do not make the zebra less noticeable than solidly coloured herbivores on the open plains.
They suggested that stripes may give zebras an advantage in woodlands, as the dark stripes
could line up with the outlines of tree branches and other vegetation.[56]
The confusion hypothesis states that the stripes
confuse predators, be it by: making it harder to
distinguish individuals in a group as well as determining
the number of zebras in a group; making it difficult to
determine an individual's outline when the group runs
away; reducing a predator's ability to keep track of a
target during a chase; dazzling an assailant so they have
difficulty making contact; or making it difficult for a
predator to deduce the zebra's size, speed and direction
Closeup of mountain zebra stripes
via motion dazzle. This theory has been proposed by
several biologists since at least the 1970s.[57] A 2014
computer study of zebra stripes found that they may create a wagon-wheel effect and/or
barber pole illusion when in motion. The researchers concluded that this could be used
against mammalian predators or biting flies.[58] The use of the stripes for confusing
mammalian predators has been questioned. The stripes of zebras could make groups seem
smaller, and thus more likely to be attacked. Zebras also tend to scatter when fleeing from
attackers and thus the stripes could not break up an individual's outline. Lions, in particular,
appear to have no difficulty targeting and catching zebras when they get close and take them
by ambush.[59] In addition, no correlations have been found between the amount of stripes
and populations of mammal predators.[55] Hughes and colleagues (2021) concluded that
solidly grey and less contrasted patterns are more likely to escape being caught when in
motion.[60]
The aposematic hypothesis suggests that the stripes serve as warning colouration. This
hypothesis was first suggested by Wallace in 1867 and discussed in more detail by Edward
Bagnall Poulton in 1890. As with known aposematic mammals, zebras are recognisable up
close, live in more open environments, have a high risk of predation and do not hide or act
inconspicuous. However, critics note that stripes do not work on lions because they
frequently prey on zebras, though they may work on smaller predators, and zebras are not
slow-moving enough to need to ward off threats. In addition, zebras do not possess
adequate defenses to back up the warning pattern.[61]
The social function hypothesis states that stripes serve a role in intraspecific or individual
recognition, social bonding, mutual grooming or a signal of fitness. Charles Darwin wrote in
1871 that "a female zebra would not admit the addresses of a male ass until he was painted
so as to resemble a zebra" while Wallace stated in 1871 that: "The stripes therefore may be
of use by enabling stragglers to distinguish their fellows at a distance". Regarding species
and individual identification, critics note that zebra species have limited range overlap with
each other and horses can recognise each other using visual communication.[62] In addition,
no correlation has been found between striping and social behaviour or group numbers
among equines,[55] and no link has been found between fitness and striping.[63]
The thermoregulatory hypothesis suggests that stripes help to control a zebra's body
temperature. In 1971, biologist H. A. Baldwin noted that heat would be absorbed by the black
stripes and reflected by the white ones. In 1990, zoologist Desmond Morris suggested that
the stripes create cooling convection currents.[64] A 2019 study supported this, finding that
where the faster air currents of the warmer black stripes meet those of the white, air swirls
form. The researchers also concluded that during the hottest times of the day, zebras erect
the black hair to release heat from the skin and flatten it to retain heat when it gets cooler.[65]
Larison and colleagues (2015) determined that environmental temperature is a strong
predictor for zebra striping patterns.[66] Others have found no evidence that zebras have
lower body temperatures than other ungulates whose habitat they share, or that striping
correlates with temperature.[67][55] A 2018 experimental study which dressed water-filled
metal barrels in horse, zebra and cattle hides concluded that the zebra stripes had no effect
on thermoregulation.[68]

The fly protection hypothesis holds that the stripes

deter blood-sucking flies. Horse flies, in particular,
spread diseases that are lethal to equines such as
African horse sickness, equine influenza, equine
infectious anemia and trypanosomiasis. In addition,
zebra hair is about as long as the mouthparts of these
flies.[55] This hypothesis is the most strongly supported
by the evidence.[69][70] It was found that flies preferred
landing on solidly coloured surfaces over those with
black-and-white striped patterns in 1930 by biologist R.
Harris,[71] and this was proposed to have been a function
of zebra stripes in a 1981 study.[72] A 2014 study found a
correlation between striping and overlap with horse and
tsetse fly populations and activity.[55] Other studies have Comparison of flight patterns and
found that zebras are rarely targeted by these insect contact/landings of horse flies
species. [73] Caro and colleagues (2019) studied captive around domestic horses (a-c) and
zebras and horses and observed that neither could deter plains zebras (d-f).[69]
flies from a distance, but zebra stripes kept flies from
landing, both on zebras and horses dressed in zebra
print coats.[69] There does not appear to be any difference in the effectiveness of repelling
flies between the different zebra species; thus the difference in striping patterns may have
evolved for other reasons.[70] White or light stripes painted on dark bodies have also been
 found to reduce fly irritations in both cattle and humans.[74][75] How the stripes repel flies is
less clear.[70] A 2012 study concluded that they disrupt the polarised light patterns these
insects use to locate water and habitat,[76] though subsequent studies have refuted
this.[77][78][79] Stripes do not appear to work like a barber pole against flies since checkered
patterns also repel them.[77][80] There is also little evidence that zebra stripes confuse the
insects via visual distortion or aliasing.[77] Takács and colleagues (2022) suggest that, when
the animal is in sunlight, temperature gradients between the warmer dark stripes and cooler
white stripes prevent horseflies from detecting the warm blood vessels underneath.[78] Caro
and colleagues (2023) conclude that the insects are disoriented by the high colour contrast
and relative thinness of the patterns.[77]

Behaviour and ecology

Zebras may travel or migrate to wetter areas during the dry
season.[27][28] Plains zebras have been recorded travelling 500 km
(310 mi) between Namibia and Botswana, the longest land
migration of mammals in Africa.[81] When migrating, they appear
to rely on some memory of the locations where foraging conditions
were best and may predict conditions months after their arrival.[82]
Plains zebras are more water-dependent and live in moister
environments than other species. They usually can be found 10–
Mountain zebra dustbathing in
12 km (6.2–7.5 mi) from a water source.[27][28][30] Grévy's zebras Namibia
can survive almost a week without water but will drink it every day
when given the chance, and their bodies maintain water better than
cattle.[83][24] Mountain zebras can be found at elevations of up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft).[84] Zebras sleep for
seven hours a day, standing up during the day and lying down during the night. They regularly use various
objects as rubbing posts and will roll on the ground.[28]

A zebra's diet is mostly grasses and sedges, but they will

Plains zebras at Okavango Delta,
Botswana
opportunistically consume bark, leaves, buds, fruits, and roots.
Compared to ruminants, zebras have a simpler and less efficient
digestive system. Nevertheless, they can subsist on lower-quality
vegetation. Zebras may spend 60–80% of their time feeding,
depending on the availability of vegetation.[8][28] The plains zebra
is a pioneer grazer, mowing down the upper, less nutritious grass
canopy and preparing the way for more specialised grazers, which
depend on shorter and more nutritious grasses below.[85]

Zebras are preyed on mainly by lions. Leopards, cheetahs, spotted

hyenas, brown hyenas and wild dogs pose less of a threat to adults.[86] Nile crocodiles also prey on zebras
when they near water.[87] Biting and kicking are a zebra's defense tactics. When threatened by lions, zebras
flee, and when caught they are rarely effective in fighting off the big cats.[88] In one study, the maximum
speed of a zebra was found to be 50 km/h (31 mph) while a lion was measured at 74 km/h (46 mph).
Zebras do not escape lions by speed alone but by sideways turning, especially when the cat is close
behind.[89] With smaller predators like hyenas and dogs, zebras may act more aggressively, especially in
defense of their young.[90]

Social behaviour
Zebra species have two basic social structures. Plains and mountain zebras
live in stable, closed family groups or harems consisting of one stallion,
several mares, and their offspring. These groups have their own home
ranges, which overlap, and they tend to be nomadic. Stallions form and
expand their harems by recruiting young mares from their natal (birth)
harems. The stability of the group remains even when the family stallion is
displaced. Plains zebras groups gather into large herds and may create
temporarily stable subgroups within a herd, allowing individuals to interact
with those outside their group. Females in harems can spend more time A plains zebra group
feeding, and gain protection both for them and their young. The females
have a linear dominance hierarchy with the high-ranking females being the
ones that have lived in the group longest. While traveling, the most dominant females and their offspring
lead the group, followed by the next most dominant. The family stallion trails behind. Young of both sexes
leave their natal groups as they mature; females are usually herded by outside males to become part of their
harems.[8][28][91]

In the more arid-living Grévy's zebras, adults have more fluid associations and adult males establish large
territories, marked by dung piles, and mate with the females that enter them.[28][8] Grazing and drinking
areas tend to be separated in these environments and the most dominant males establish territories near
watering holes, which attract females with dependent foals and those who simply want a drink, while less
dominant males control territories away from water with more vegetation, and only attract mares without
foals.[92] Mares may travel through several territories but remain in one when they have young. Staying in a
territory offers a female protection from harassment by outside males, as well as access to resources.[91][93]

In all species, excess males gather in bachelor groups. These are

Group of Grévy's zebras grazing
future harem roles with play fights and greeting/challenge rituals, which make up most of their activities.[28]
typically young males that are not yet ready to establish a harem or
territory.[8][28] With the plains zebra, the oldest males are the most
dominant and group membership is stable.[28] Bachelor groups tend
to be at the boundaries of herds and during group movements, the
bachelors follow behind or along the sides.[30] Mountain zebra
bachelor groups may also include young females that have left their
natal group early, as well as old, former harem males. A territorial
Grévy's zebra stallion may allow non-territorial bachelors in their
territory, however when a mare in oestrous is present the territorial
stallion keeps other stallions at bay. Bachelors prepare for their

Fights between males usually occur over mates and involve biting and kicking. In plains zebra, stallions
fight each other over recently matured mares to bring into their group and her family stallion will fight off
other males trying to abduct her. As long as a harem stallion is healthy, he is not usually challenged. Only
unhealthy stallions have their harems taken over, and even then, the new stallion slowly takes over,
peacefully displacing the old one. Agonistic behaviour between male Grévy's zebras occurs at the border of
their territories.[28]

Communication
Zebras produce a number of vocalisations and noises. The plains
zebra has a distinctive, barking contact call heard as "a-ha, a-ha, a-
ha" or "kwa-ha, kaw-ha, ha, ha".[27][28] The mountain zebra may
produce a similar sound while the call of Grévy's zebra has been
described as "something like a hippo's grunt combined with a
donkey's wheeze". Loud snorting and rough "gasping" in zebras
signals alarm. Squealing is usually made when in pain, but can also
be heard in friendly interactions. Zebras also communicate with Plains zebras mutually grooming
visual displays, and the flexibility of their lips allows them to make
complex facial expressions. Visual displays also consist of head,
ear, and tail postures. A zebra may signal an intention to kick by dropping back its ears and whipping its tail.
Flattened ears, bared teeth and a waving head may be used as threatening gestures by stallions.[28]

Individuals may greet each other by rubbing and sniffing and then mutually rub their cheeks, and move
along their bodies towards each other's genitals to sniff. They then may caress their shoulders against each
other and lay their heads on one another. This greeting usually occurs between harem or territorial males or
among bachelor males playing.[28] Plains and mountain zebras strengthen their social bonds with grooming.
Members of a harem nibble and rake along the neck, shoulder, and back with their teeth and lips. Grooming
usually occurs between mothers and foals and between stallions and mares. Grooming establishes social
rank and eases aggressive behaviour,[28][94] although Grévy's zebras generally do not perform social
grooming.[24]

Reproduction and parenting

Among plains and mountain zebras, the adult females mate only
with their harem stallion, while in Grévy's zebras, mating is more
promiscuous and the males have larger testes for sperm
competition.[92][95] Female zebras have five to ten day long
oestrous cycles; physical signs include a swollen, everted (inside
out) labia and copious flows of urine and mucus. Among reaching
peak oestrous, mares spread-out their legs, lift their tails and open
their mouths when in the presence of a male. Males assess the
Captive Grévy's zebras mating female's reproductive state with a curled lip and bared teeth
(flehmen response) and the female will solicit mating by backing in.
Gestation is typically around a year. A few days to a month later,
mares can return to oestrus. [28] In harem-holding species, oestrus in a female becomes less noticeable to
outside males as she gets older, hence competition for older females is virtually nonexistent.[27]

Usually, a single foal is born, which is capable of running within an hour of birth.[8] A newborn zebra will
follow anything that moves, so new mothers prevent other mares from approaching their foals as they
become more familiar with the mother's striping pattern, smell and voice.[24] At a few weeks old, foals
begin to graze, but may continue to nurse for eight to thirteen
months.[8] Living in an arid environment, Grévy's zebras have
longer nursing intervals and young only begin to drink water three
months after birth.[96]

In plains and mountain zebras, foals are cared for mostly by their
mothers, but if threatened by pack-hunting hyenas and dogs, the
entire group works together to protect all the young. The group Mountain zebra suckling a foal
forms a protective front with the foals in the centre, and the stallion
will rush at predators that come too close.[28] In Grévy's zebras,
young stay in "kindergartens" when their mothers leave for water. These groups are tended to by the
territorial male.[96] A stallion may look after a foal in his territory to ensure that the mother stays, though it
may not be his.[91] By contrast, plains zebra stallions are generally intolerant of foals that are not theirs and
may practice infanticide and feticide via violence to the pregnant mare.[97]

Human relations

Cultural significance
With their distinctive black-and-white stripes, zebras are among the
most recognisable mammals. They have been associated with
beauty and grace, with naturalist Thomas Pennant describing them
in 1781 as "the most elegant of quadrupeds". Zebras have been
popular in photography, with some wildlife photographers
describing them as the most photogenic animal. They have become
staples in children's stories and wildlife-themed art, such as
depictions of Noah's Ark. In children's alphabet books, the animals San rock art depicting a zebra
are often used to represent the letter 'Z'. Zebra stripe patterns are
popularly used for body paintings, dress, furniture and
architecture.[98]

Zebras have been featured in African art and culture for millennia. They are depicted in rock art in Southern
Africa dating from 28,000 to 20,000 years ago, though less often than antelope species like eland. How the
zebra got its stripes has been the subject of folk tales, some of which involve it being scorched by fire. The
Maasai proverb "a man without culture is like a zebra without stripes" has become popular in Africa. The
San people connected zebra stripes with water, rain and lighting, and water spirits were conceived of having
these markings.[99]

For the Shona people, the zebra is a totem animal and is glorified in a poem as an "iridescent and glittering
creature". Its stripes have symbolised the union of male and female and at the ruined city of Great
Zimbabwe, zebra stripes decorate what is believed to be a domba, a school meant to prepare girls for
adulthood. In the Shona language, the name madhuve means "woman/women of the zebra totem" and is a
name for girls in Zimbabwe. The plains zebra is the national animal of Botswana and zebras have been
depicted on stamps during colonial and post-colonial Africa. For people of the African diaspora, the zebra
represented the politics of race and identity, being both black and white.[100]
 In cultures outside of its range, the zebra has been thought of as a more
exotic alternative to the horse; the comic book character Sheena, Queen of
the Jungle, is depicted riding a zebra and explorer Osa Johnson was
photographed riding one. The film Racing Stripes features a captive zebra
ostracised from the horses and ends up being ridden by a rebellious girl.
Zebras have been featured as characters in animated films like Khumba,
The Lion King and the Madagascar films and television series such as
Zou.[101]

Zebras have been popular subjects for abstract, modernist and surrealist
"Zebra Stripes," trademark artists. Such art includes Christopher Wood's Zebra and Parachute, Lucian
for the defunct Glen Raven Freud's The Painter's Room and Quince on a Blue Table and the various
Cotton Mills Company paintings of Mary Fedden and Sidney Nolan. Victor Vasarely depicted
zebras as black and white lines and connected in a jigsaw puzzle fashion.
Carel Weight's Escape of the Zebra from the Zoo during an Air Raid was
based on a real life incident of a zebra escaping during the bombing of London Zoo and consists of four
comic book-like panels. Zebras have lent themselves to products and advertisements, notably for 'Zebra
Grate Polish' cleaning supplies by British manufacturer Reckitt and Sons and Japanese pen manufacturer
Zebra Co., Ltd.[102]

Captivity
Zebras have been kept in captivity since at least the Roman Empire. In later
times, captive zebras have been shipped around the world, often for
diplomatic reasons. In 1261, Sultan Baibars of Egypt established an
embassy with Alfonso X of Castile and sent a zebra and other exotic
animals as gifts. In 1417, a zebra was gifted to the Chinese people by
Somalia and displayed before the Yongle Emperor. The fourth Mughal
emperor Jahangir received a zebra from Ethiopia in 1620 and Ustad Mansur
Zebra (1763) by George
made a painting of it. In the 1670s, Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes I exported
Stubbs. A portrait of Queen
two zebras to the Dutch governor of Jakarta. These animals would
Charlotte's zebra
eventually be given by the Dutch to the Tokugawa Shogunate of
Japan.[103]

When Queen Charlotte received a zebra as a wedding gift in 1762, the animal became a source of
fascination for the people of Britain. Many flocked to see it at its paddock at Buckingham Palace. It soon
became the subject of humour and satire, being referred to as "The Queen's Ass", and was the subject of an
oil painting by George Stubbs in 1763. The zebra also gained a reputation for being ill-tempered and kicked
at visitors.[104] In 1882, Ethiopia sent a zebra to French president Jules Grévy, and the species it belonged
to was named in his honour.[9]

Attempts to domesticate zebras were largely unsuccessful. It is possible that having evolved under pressure
from the many large predators of Africa, including early humans, they became more aggressive, thus
making domestication more difficult.[105] However, zebras have been trained throughout history. In Rome,
zebras are recorded to have pulled chariots during amphitheatre games starting in the reign of Caracalla
(198 to 217 AD).[106] In the late 19th century, the zoologist Walter Rothschild trained some zebras to draw
a carriage in England, which he drove to Buckingham Palace to demonstrate that it can be done. However,
 he did not ride on them knowing that they were too small and
aggressive.[107] In the early 20th century, German colonial officers in East
Africa tried to use zebras for both driving and riding, with limited
success.[108]

Walter Rothschild with a

zebra carriage
Mountain zebra hide
Conservation
As of 2016–2019, the IUCN Red List of mammals lists Grévy's zebra as
endangered, the mountain zebra as vulnerable and the plains zebra as near-
threatened. Grévy's zebra populations are estimated at less than 2,000
mature individuals, but they are stable. Mountain zebras number near
35,000 individuals and their population appears to be increasing. Plains
zebra are estimated to number 150,000–250,000 with a decreasing
population trend. Human intervention has fragmented zebra ranges and
populations. Zebras are threatened by hunting for their hide and meat, and
habitat destruction. They also compete with livestock and have their
travelling routes obstruct by fences.[109][110][111] Civil wars in some
countries have also caused declines in zebra populations.[112] By the early
20th century, zebra skins were being used to make rugs and chairs. In the
21st century, zebras may be taken by trophy hunters as zebra skin rugs sell
for $1,000 to $2,000. Trophy hunting was rare among African peoples
though the San were known to hunt zebra for meat.[113]

The quagga (E. quagga quagga) population was hunted by early

Dutch settlers and later by Afrikaners to provide meat or for their
skins. The skins were traded or used locally. The quagga was
probably vulnerable to extinction due to its restricted range, and
because they were easy to find in large groups. The last known
wild quagga died in 1878.[114] The last captive quagga, a female in
Amsterdam's Natura Artis Magistra zoo, lived there from 9 May
1867 until it died on 12 August 1883.[115] The Cape mountain Endangered Grévy's zebras in
zebra, a subspecies of mountain zebra, nearly went extinct due to Samburu National Reserve

hunting and habitat destruction, with less than 50 individuals left by

the 1950s. Protections from South African National Parks allowed
the population to rise to 2,600 by the 2010s.[116]

Zebras can be found in numerous protected areas. Important areas for Grévy's zebra include Yabelo Wildlife
Sanctuary and Chelbi Sanctuary in Ethiopia and Buffalo Springs, Samburu and Shaba National Reserves in
Kenya.[109] The plains zebra inhabits the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, Tsavo and Masai Mara in
Kenya, Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe, Etosha National Park in Namibia, and Kruger National Park
in South Africa.[111] Mountain zebras are protected in Mountain Zebra National Park, Karoo National Park
and Goegap Nature Reserve in South Africa as well as Etosha and Namib-Naukluft Park in
Namibia.[110][117]

See also
Fauna of Africa
 Lord Morton's mare
Primitive markings – markings found on other equines
Zonkey (Tijuana) – a donkey painted with zebra stripes

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General bibliography
Caro, Tim (2016). Zebra Stripes (https://books.google.com/books?id=3o-EDQAAQBAJ&q=z
ebra+stripes). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-41101-9.
Plumb, C.; Shaw, S. (2018). Zebra (https://books.google.com/books?id=8GxaDwAAQBAJ&q
=zebra+reaktion). Reaktion Books. ISBN 9781780239712.

External links
The Quagga Project (https://quaggaproject.org/)—An organisation that selectively breeds
zebras to recreate the hair coat pattern of the quagga

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zebra&oldid=1216258706"