Question : Discuss sensory phototransduction in rods (15)

This question is asking how light energy is tranduced (changed) into chemical
energy. Transduction of energy is the function of a receptor, so you would need to
discuss this.

The rods contain a photosensitive compound called rhodposin (visual purple) that
changes its configuration (structure) in response to light energy. Rhodopsin is made
up of an opsin (protein) called scotopsin and 11-cis retinene 1. The action of light is to
convert the 11-cis retinine1 to the all-trans configuration. (A diagram would be useful
here). This results in the separation of the retinene1 and the scotopsin (bleaching).
The shape of the rhodopsin molecule has now changed (Your books go in to more
detail; that is great if you include it, and it certainly does impress me). The change in
the shape of the rhodopsin activates a G-protein called transducin (G t). The
transducin in turn activates the enzyme cGMP phosphodiesterase. This enzyme
normally breaks down cyclic GMP into an inactivation product called 5-GMP. The
function of cyclic GMP is to keep sodium channels open, so that sodium ions can
flow into the cell, causing the inside to be more positive than the outside
(depolarisation). The action of the phosphodiesterase is to lower cGMP, thus
causing a reduction in the number of open sodium ion channels. This causes less
sodium to enter the cell, and result sin hyperpolarisation. Less transmitter substance
is produced which ultimately leads to ganglion cell depolarisation and neural
impulses reaching the brain.

Question : Write an essay on smell (20)

This requires no interpretation to answer. The trick with these questions is to start in
a logical sequence. The best sequence would be receptor – sensory pathways –
cortical areas – interpretation. Smell is different in that the olfactory glomeruli also
play an important role in detection of smell.

A typical answer would be:

The olfactory receptor cells are located in a specialised portion of the nasal mucosa
called the olfactory mucous membrane. This membrane is comprised of 3 cell types,
the supporting cells, the receptor cells, and progenitor cells. The supporting cells
ensure optimal functioning of the receptor cells, and the progenitor cells can develop
into new receptor cells. Each receptor cell has a dendrite that projects into a layer of
mucus that is produced by Bowman’s glands. The receptor cells are neurones that
regenerate in a carefully regulated process. One of the regulatory proteins is bone
morphogenic protein. This protein inhibits this process. The axons of the receptor
cells pierce the cribiform (the spelling of this was varied!) plate of the ethmoid bone
and enter the olfactory bulbs. In the olfactory bulbs, the axons of the receptor cells
synapse with the dendrites of the mitral and tufted cells in complexes called olfactory
glomeruli. The olfactory bulbs also contain periglomerular cells and granule cells.
These cells are important in the process of lateral inhibition. If one olfactory
glomerulus is stimulated, it excites a periglomerular cell which in turn inhibits other
olfactory glomeruli. If a tufted or mitral cell is stimulated, these cells stimulate
granule cells which in turn inhibit lateral branches of the mitral and tufted cells. This
process is called lateral inhibition and serves to sharpen the sensory input to the
olfactory cortex. Axons of mitral and tufted cells pass through the intermediate and
lateral olfactory stria to the olfactory cortex. This is located in the lateral and anterior
orbitofrontal gyri of the frontal lobes. The representation is asymmetrical with greater
representation on the right. There are also fibres that project to the amydala which
deals with the emotional connotations of smell. Fibres also project to the entorhinal
cortex which is concerned with memories associated with smell.

The olfactory receptors can only respond to odours that are dissolved in the mucus
and close enough for detection. There are 10 000 different odours that can be
distinguished by humans, yet there are only 1000 different types of odourant
receptors. There is thus a mechanism in addition to odourant receptors involved in
smell detection. Determination of odour intensity is weak in humans with a 30%
change in concentration of an odour required in order to sense a change in smell
intensity. Smell direction can be localised, due to a time difference in the odour
reaching the nostril. Smell adaptation is well developed, normally specific for a
specific smell. All of the odourant receptors activate a G protein. Some increase
cyclic AMP inside cells, others increase DAG and IP3. The net result is either
opening of sodium or calcium channels that cause depolarisation and initiation of an
action potential. The olfactory glomeruli play an important role in feature detection.
Each OG receives input from only one type of receptor cell, but many odours can
stimulate a certain type of receptor cell and a single odour can be detected by many
different receptor cells. Any one odour can thus activate a different set of OG’s
which ultimately leads to smell detection.

You should also include a word or 2 on sniffing, irritant pain reflexes, and the smell
abnormalities. I also mentioned odourant binding proteins for example. There is
plenty to write an essay on!

Multiple choice answers: Some of the wording may be slightly different to the
final test version, but this does not change the context.
Question : Slowly adapting touch receptors include

Merkel’s disks T
Ruffini endings T
pacinian corpuscles F (rapidly adapting)
Meissner’s corpuscles F (rapidly adapting)
golgi tendon organs F (not touch receptors)

Question : With regard to cutaneous sensation:

the sense organs for cold are Ruffini endings F (naked nerve
endings)
the sense organs for warmth are Krause’s end-bulbs F(naked nerve
endings)
naked nerve endings are touch receptors T
naked nerve endings are pain receptors T
pressure is sustained touch T

Question : With regard to electrical and chemical events in pacinian corpuscles:

the source of generator potentials is the first node of Ranvier F (unmelinated

nerve terminal)
action potentials are produced in the unmyelinated nerve terminal F (first node of
Ranvier)
removal of the connective tissue lamellae from the pacinian corpuscle abolishes the
generator potential F (will not sffect
it)
the magnitude of the receptor potential is proportional to the intensity of the stimulus
T
the frequency of action potentials is proportional to the magnitude of the applied
stimulus T

Question : Examples of tonic receptors include

baroreceptors T
pain receptors T
the majority of touch receptors F (most are phasic)
pacinian corpuscles F (phasic)
muscle spindles T

Question : In the spinal cord transmission of sensation

crude touch is transmitted in the dorsal columns F (ventral

spinothalamic)
fine pressure is transmitted in the lateral spinothalamic tract F (dorsal
columns)
cold is transmitted in the lateral spinothalamic tract T
vibration sense is transmitted in the lemniscal system T
the cuneate fasciculi receive information from the lower limbs F (upper limbs)

Question : In the transmission of sensation

first order neurones mediating cold synapse in lamina I of the dorsal horns T
second order neurones from the nucleus gracilis relay to the thalamus T
second order neurones from the nucleus cuneatus transmit pain sensations F
(fine touch, proprioception etc.)
primary afferent neurones mediating fine touch terminate in the medulla T
secondary afferent neurones mediating warmth sensations cross the mid-line at the
level of the medulla F
(they cross the midline at the level of entry into the spinal cord)

Questions : Sectioning of the right half of the spinal cord at the level of the first
thoracic segment (T1) will result in loss of

cold sensation in the left leg T

pain sensation in the right leg F (left leg)
proprioceptive impulses from the right leg T
warmth sensation in both legs F (left leg)
no loss of sensation in the left leg F
(obvious)

Questions : Somatosensory area I (SI)

is located on the post-central gyrus T
representation for the face is greater than that for the back T
projects to somatosensory area II (SII) T
receives third order neurones from the thalamus T
projects to the posterior parietal cortex (somatosensory association area) T

Questions : With regard to temperature sensation:

cold receptors are activated at temperatures between 10 and 38  C T

capsaicin receptors may mediate warmth responses T
there are more warmth spots on the skin than cold spots F
(more cold)
adaptation of temperature receptors occurs at skin temperatures of 5-15  C F
(only between 20-40)
the afferents for warmth are Type C fibres T

Questions : With regard to pain:

pain impulses can be “gated” in the dorsal horn T

the primary afferent fibres transmitting fast pain are Type C fibres F
(A delta)
the primary afferent fibres transmitting second pain are Type C fibres T
glutamate is the neurotransmitter for slow pain F
(fast)
substance P is the neurotransmitter for fast pain F
(slow)

Questions : Pain fibres project to

SI T
the cingulate gyrus T
the insular cortex T
the reticular system T
the periaqueductal gray T

Questions : Visceral pain

is often referred to somatic structures T

is better localised than superficial somatic pain F (other
way round)
is associated with nausea and vomiting T
can be caused by abdominal distension T
from visceral structures in the head travel in sympathetic afferent nerves F
(parasympathetic)

Questions : In the human eye,

forward movement of the iris can result in open-angle glaucoma F

(angle-closure glaucoma)
cones are responsible for scotopic vision F
(rods are)
rods are responsible for colour vision F
(cones are)
the diameter of the pupil plays a role in controlling light intensity at the retina T
acetylcholine is a synaptic mediator in the retina T

Questions : With regard to the image-forming mechanism in the eye:

the cornea is responsible for most of the refractive power of the eye T
a dioptre is a measure of the refractive power of a lens T
accommodation is a process that reduces the curvature of the lens F
(increases curvature)
myopia can be treated using biconvex lenses F
(biconcave)
presbyopia is common in teenagers F
(onset after 40)

Questions : The magnocellular pathway

projects from the lateral geniculate nucleus to the visual cortex T

arises from layers 3 to 6 of the lateral geniculate nucleus F (1
and 2)
carries signals for depth and flicker T
carries signals for colour vision F
(parvocellular)
carries signals for texture F
(parvocellular)

Questions : With regard to the visual neural pathways:

the left optic nerve contains fibres that originate in the right nasal hemiretina F
(left optic nerve comes form the left eye only)
the right optic tract contains fibres that originate in the left temporal hemiretina F
(left nasal)
pituitary tumours normally result in homonymous hemianopia F
(heteronymous)
each optic tract subserves half of the field of binocular vision T
heteronymous hemianopia can be caused by destruction of fibres form both nasal
hemiretinas T

Questions : Red-green colour blindness is

more common in females than in males F

(more common in males)
found in monochromats with protanopia T
found in dichromats with tritanopia F
(tritanopia is blue blindness)
the most common form of colour blindness T
caused by a abnormal gene on the X chromosome T
Questions : Receptors

in the semicircular canals detect linear acceleration F

(rotational)
in the utricle detect vertical linear acceleration F
(horizontal)
in the saccule detect rotational acceleration F
(vertical)
for hearing are hair cells T
for equilibrium are hair cells T

Questions: With regard to hearing:

the tympanic membrane functions as a resonator of sound T

the movements of the footplate of the stapes sets up waves in the perilymph of the
scala vestibuli T
high-pitched sounds generate waves that reach their maximum height at the apex of
the cochlea F
(base)
the loudness of sound is correlated with the amplitude of the sound waves in air
T
the pitch of sound is correlated with the frequency of the sound waves in air
T

Questions : With regard to vestibular function:

vertigo is the sensation of rotation in the absence of actual rotation T

when rotation starts, the eyes move slowly in the same direction as the rotation F
(opposite)
nystagmus is a jerky movement of the eye observed at the start of rotation T
receptors which code for linear acceleration relay to the CNS via the vestibular
division of cranial nerve (CN) VIII T
receptors which code for horizontal acceleration relay to the CNS via the vestibular
division of the vestibulocochlear nerve T

Questions : With regard to central auditory pathways:

afferent neurones that innervate hair cells in the organ of Corti form the auditory
division of CN VIII T
the fibres in the auditory division of CN VIII terminate on the dorsal cochlear nucleus
T
auditory impulses pass via the lateral geniculate body to the auditory cortex F
(medial geniculate – lateral is for vision)
information from both ears converge on each superior olive T
the primary auditory cortex is located in the frontal lobe F
(occipital lobe)

Questions : With regard to taste:

the taste buds are the sense organs for taste T

afferent nerves from the taste buds in the posterior third of the tongue reach the brain
stem in the vagus nerve F
(glossopharyngeal nerve)
primary afferent nerve fibres from the taste buds terminate in the nucleus of the
tractus solitarius (NTS) T
second order neurones transmitting taste cross the mid-line T
taste has a separate projection area in the parietal cortex F
(no it does not)

Question : Substances that taste bitter

are tasted mainly at the tip of the tongue F

(back of the tongue)
include morphine T
reduce cyclic adenosine monophosphate (c-AMP) in their target cells T
increase inositol triphosphate (IP3) in their target cells T
may stimulate the G protein -gusducin T

Questions : Substances that taste sour

are tasted primarily at the back of the tongue F

(edges)
may be sensed on the epiglottis T
may activate a receptor called mammalian degenerin-I T
include quinine sulphate F
(no this is a bitter tasting substance)
include organic acids T