Question: The Gibbs-Donnan effect

1. is a result of the relative impermeability of the cell membrane to anions

T
2. explains, in part, why the resting membrane potential is negative on the
inside of the cell membrane relative to the outside T
3. occurs in all cells T
4. results in the equal distribution of potassium ions across cell membranesF
The distribution is unequal
5. can be measured by the Nernst equation F The Nernst equation
measures the equilibrium potential of a single ion

Question: With regard to the resting membrane potential (RMP).

1. the magnitude can be measured using Goldman’s constant field equation

T
2. the magnitude in smooth muscle cells is variable T
3. the membrane permeability of sodium ions contributes significantly to the
generation of the RMP F Potassium ions are the major contributors as
their permeability is highest
4. the RMP in skeletal muscle is approximately –90 mV T
5. the RMP in nerve is approximately – 70 mV T

Question: With regard to neurotoxins

1. saxitoxin is a Na+ channel blocker T

2. tetrodotoxin is a K+ channel blocker F It blocks
sodium
3. mamba venom acts by stimulating acetylcholine release F It inhibits
release
4. curare binds to acetylcholine receptors T
5. certain nerve gases inhibit cholinesterase activity T

Question: Local, non propagated potentials in nerve fibres include

1. synaptic potentials T
2. generator potentials T
3. electrotonic potentials T
4. action potentials F These are propogated potentials
5. catelectrotonic potentials T
Question: With regard to nerve fibre types

1. Type C fibres are myelinated F Unmyelinated

2. pain is transmitted in Type A  fibres F A and C
3. preganglionic autonomic fibres are made up of of Type B fibres T
4. A  fibres conduct the sensation of touch T
5. the larger the diameter of the fibres, the slower the transmission of the
impulse F Other way
round

Question: With regard to nerve fibre types

1. type A  fibres have a fibre diameter of 12-20 µm T

2. the conduction velocity of Type A  fibres is 70-120 m/s F
30-70 m/s
3. type C fibres are made up of postganglionic sympathetic fibres
T
4. the sensation of cold is transmitted via Type B fibres F A
fibres
5. the motor fibres to muscle spindles are examples of Type A  fibres F A

Question: With regard to the generation of the action potential in nerves

1. hyperpolarisation occurs as a result of the opening of Na+ channels F;

depolarization does
2. repolarisation occurs, in part, as a result of the opening of K+ channels T
3. anelectrotonic potentials result in the conduction of an action potential F
these are negative potentials
4. the stimulus that excites nerves may be chemical in nature T
5. biphasic action potentials are only found in motor neurones F
Rubbish

Questions: Neurotrophins

1. are produced by nerve cells F muscle cells and

astrocytes
2. are produced by muscle fibres T
3. bind to Trk receptors T
4. include Nerve Growth factor T
5. are transported from the cell bodies to the axons F other way round

Question: With regard to skeletal muscle function

1. an isotonic contraction results in the generation of tension without a
change in sarcomere length F that
would be an isometric contraction
2. tension is defined as the force acting on a muscle F this
is the load; tension is the force generated by muscle
3. the velocity of contraction is proportional to the load acting on a muscle F
other way round
4. active tension is influenced by the resting muscle length T
5. isometric muscle contractions are also referred to as dynamic contractions
F that would be isotonic contractions

Question: With regard to skeletal muscle fibre types

1. Type I fibres are also known as slow, oxidative fibres T

2. Type I fibres are most easily fatigued F No
the type II B fibres are
3. Type I fibres are also called red muscle fibres T
4. Red muscle fibres contain large amounts of mitochondria T
5. Sprinting will require recruitment of predominantly Type I muscle fibres F
type II b

Question: Visceral smooth muscle

1. is also called unitary smooth muscle T

2. is found in the iris of the eye F multi-unit muscle is
3. is found in blood vessels T
4. fibres contract independently of each other F multi-unit fibres do
5. functions in a syncytial fashion T

Question: Characteristics of smooth muscle include

1. a well developed sarcoplasmic reticulum F poorly developed

2. a high oxidative capacity F high glyolytic
3. the presence of troponin F absent
4. a stable resting membrane potential F unstable
5. variable tension for a given muscle length T

Questions: With regard to muscle proteins

1. Titin binds actin to the Z lines F it connects the
M line with the Z line
2. Dystrophin binds actin to the M lines F binds actin to
beta-dystroglycan
3. alpha-dystroglycan is connected to laminin T
4. The sarcoglycans are located in the cell membrane T
5. Actinin binds the M lines to the Z lines F binds actin to
the Z lines

Questions: In skeletal muscle,

1. dihydropyridine receptors are voltage-gated sodium ion channels F

calcium channels
2. ryanodine receptors are located in the sarcoplasmic reticulum T
3. ATP is required for muscle relaxation T
4. troponin T is tightly bound to actin at rest F
troponin I is bound to actin
5. the myosin head has a binding site for ATP T

Questions: Tropomyosin in skeletal muscle

1. makes up part of the thick filament F thin

2. is a globular protein F rod-
shaped
3. binds calcium ions F
rubbish
4. covers the myosin binding sites on the actin molecules at rest T
5. has a binding site for inorganic phosphate ions F
rubbish

Questions: In skeletal muscle,

1. most of the energy during an isometric muscle contraction is lost as heat

T
2. the tension developed during contraction is proportional to the number of
cross-linkages between the actin and myosin molecules T

3. incomplete tetanus is characterized by periods of complete relaxation

between summated stimuli F
incomplete relxation
4. activation heat is the heat a muscle produces during contraction T
5. during rigor mortis, all of the myosin molecules remain attached to actin T

Questions: At skeletal myoneural junctions,

1. acetylcholine release from the terminal button of the motor nerve is
calcium mediated T
2. acetylcholine binds to nicotinic receptors T
3. cholinesterase inhibition will result in increased concentrations of
acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft T
4. binding of acetylcholine to its receptors in the motor endplate results in the
opening of sodium ion channels T
5. antibodies that destroy acetylcholine receptors results in the condition
called Lambert-Eaton syndrome F
Myasthenia Gravis

Questions: With regard to the anatomical organization of sympathetic outflow

1. the axons of the preganglionic neurons leave the spinal cord with the
ventral roots of T1 to L3-4 T
2. the postganglionic nerves to the head originate, in part, in the superior
cervical ganglion T
3. axons of some of the postganglionic nerves reenter the spinal cord via the
white rami communicantes F
grey rami
4. each preganglionic axon diverges to an average of 8 or 9 postganglionic
neurons T
5. postganglionic neurons to the eye originate from the otic ganglion F
ciliary ganglion

Questions: During the biosynthesis of the catecholamines

1. the rate limiting step is the conversion of tyrosine to Dopa T

2. phenylalanine hydroxylase converts tyrosine to Dopa F
phenylalanine to tyrosine
3. noradrenaline inhibits tyrosine hydroxylase activity T
4. PNMT is the enzyme responsible for the conversion of noradrenaline to
adrenaline T
5. dopamine -hydroxylase is the enzyme that converts dopamine into
adrenaline F dopamine
to noradrenaline

Question: Sympathetic stimulation will result in

1. contraction of the radial muscle of the eye T
2. constriction of the coronary arterioles T
3. glycogenolysis in the liver T
4. reduction of intestinal motility T
5. contraction of bronchial smooth muscle F relaxation

Question: Cholinergic stimulation will result in

1. relaxation of the ciliary muscle F contraction

2. dilatation of arterioles in skeletal muscle T
3. generalized secretion from sweat glands T
4. increased insulin secretion T
5. stimulation of gastric secretion T

Question: Substances that cause increased release of noradrenaline from

nerve endings include

1. tyramine T
2. ephedrine T
3. amphetamine T
4. clonidine F stimulates alpha 2 receptors
5. atenolol F blocks beta receptors

Question: Substances that block adrenergic receptors include

1. yohimbine T
2. propanolol T
3. nicotine F stimulates nicotinic receptors
4. neostigmine F inhibits cholinesterase
5. hexamethonium F blocks autonomic conduction

Essay question on the sodium potassium pump: (one mark per non repeated
correct fact). If more than 20 correct, relevant facts, then 20/20 scored. Serious
errors resulted in marks subtracted (this is, however, rare)

The pump is made up of 2 subunits, alpha and beta. Each subunit is essential
for pump function. Each subunit extends through the cell membrane, and has
intracellular and extracellular domains. The alpha subunit is the unit that binds
substances. The major function of the pump is to extrude three sodium ions form
the cell and take in 2 potassium ions for each mole of ATP that is hydrolysed. It
is thus electrogenic, and contributes to the generation of the resting membrane
potential. As it pumps more osmotically active substances out of the cell than
into the cell, it also regulates cell volume. The alpha subunit has biding sites for
sodium ions, ATP and inorganic phosphate ions on the intracellular surface, and
a binding site for potassium ions and ouabain on the extracellular surface.
Sodium ions bind to their binding site. At the same time, ATP binds and is
hydrolysed to ADP and inorganic phosphate. Binding of an inorganic phosphate
to its binding site changes the configuration of the alpha subunit, and this causes
the sodium ions to be pumped out. Potassium ions then bind extracellularly, and
this causes the configuration to change back to the original configuration, and
pumps in the potassium ions. Pump activity is increased by thyroid hormones,
aldosterone, and insulin. The pump is inhibited by dopamine and by ouabain
(binds to extracelluar site). Insulin thus stimulates the uptake of potassium into
the cell, and can be used for the treatment of hyperkalaemia (too high a
potassium ion concentration in blood). Dopamine causes a reduction in sodium
rebasorption in the kidney, and thus increases loss of sodium and water in the
kidney. Ouabain inhibits the pump. This causes the build up of sodium inside
the cell. This reduces sodium influx in the cell via the Na-Ca exchanger (sodium
in; calcium out pump). As a result, calcium is unable to leave the cell and thus is
available for muscle contraction. This is of particular relevance in cardiac
muscle. Digitalis has the same effect. Aldosterone causes the reabsorption of
sodium and secretion of potassium in the renal tubules.

Essay question on smooth muscle: (same marking process): The question was
on the molecular mechanisms.

Calcium ions are involved in the contraction of smooth muscle. Entry of calcium
ions in smooth muscle occurs mainly through the cell membrane from the
extracellular fluid. Very little come from the sarcoplasmic reticulum as the
sarcoplasmic reticulum is poorly developed. Myosin in smooth muscle must first
be phosphorylated before contraction can occur. Calcium ions bind with a
calcium binding protein called calmodulin. There is no troponin C in smooth
muscle. The calcium-calmodulin complex activates an enzyme called
calmodulin-dependant myosin light chain kinase. This phosphorylates the
myosin. ATPase is then activated, and ATP is split into ADP and energy on the
myosin molecule. Myosin then slides on actin, and contraction occurs
(shortening of muscle fibre length). Myosin is dephosphorylated by myosin
phosphatase. This leads to relaxation of smooth muscle in some cases. In other
cases, relaxation does not occur. A unique smooth muscle mechanism called
the latch-bridge mechanism allows for the sustained binding of actin and myosin
even after the intracellular calcium ion concentration has fallen. This mechanism
is a low energy mechanism that is important in maintaining the tone of smooth
muscle (degree of partial contraction)