UNIT 12 LAND-USE ZONING FOR DISASTER

MANAGEMENT

Structure

12.0 Objectives
i2.1 Introduction
12.2 General Policy Considerations for Disaster Management
12.3 Issues at the National, Regional and Local Levels
12.4 Zoning Controls
12.4.1 Land Use Macro Zoning
12.4.2 Land Use Micro Zoning
12.4.3 Sub-division regulations
12.4.4 Building or Location Permits
12.4.5 Open Space Controls
12.4.6 Building Codes
12.5 Location of Activities and Land-Use
12.5.1 Implications in Town Planning
12.6 Application of Remote Sensing and GIS
12.7 Let Us Sum Up
12.8 Key Words
12.9 References and Further Readings
12.10 Auswers to Check Your Progress Exercises

12.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

• understand the relationship between land-use zoning and disasters;

• know how faulty allocations of land-use can often become the cause of .
disasters, both man-made and natural; and
• describe how judicious land-use zoning can help not only in disaster
mitigation, but also in disaster relief operations.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

The rapid growth and spread of population in hazardous areas is a matter of

increasing concern because it leads to mounting costs of disasters in terms of lives
lost and damage to property and investments. Besides, the high residential
densities add to the problems in hazardous areas. The risk is further increased by
the dramatic increase in infrastructural investments and development assets that get
destroyed by disasters. There land-use has to be decided keeping in view the
vulnerability to disasters. In other words, land-use zoning has to be done so that
different land zones can be earmarked for major activities in accordance with the
risks that they are likely to withstand.

Land-use zoning for disaster prevention and mitigation may act as a spur to
comprehensive land-use planning, more so is disaster prone regions. The major
elements of land-use planning may be summarized as fO,l\ow:

i) Land-use policies and plans setting. out the social, economic and
environmental goals of comprehensive land development and their stages of
34 development;
ii) Land ownership and land tenure patterns identifying the legal, social and Land-Use Zoning for
Disaster Management
economic basis of ownership and tenure;
. -

iii) Land values and prices, reflecting the forces of supply and demand for land;
and
iv) Land-use controls which may be subdivided into three broad categories, i.e.,
legal.fiscal and directive.

12.2 GENERAL POLICY CONSIDERATIONS FOR

DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Land-use policy is only, one of the possible strategies to mitigate disaster, and all
measures must be responsive to the economic and social resource balance of the
region. The major concerns of national or regional policy formulation deal mainly
with economic and social goals but with environmental goals becoming
increasingly important.

Regional policies emphasize local considerations and correspondingly appropriate

physical planning and hence are particularly relevant for disaster management.
Regional policies-may include objectives such as a balance between various areas
in the region by directing economic development into backward areas, or the
encouragement of urban development to allow for social mobility and progress
necessary for industrial activity.

Major components of regional policies include the selection of areas designated for
transport networks, industry, agriculture, and urban growth. The area aspects of
regional planning are a vital link to national planning efforts and constitute a basic
. means of implementingdisaster prevention policies.

Thus, guiding the location of activities within a region may not only serve social,
economic and environmental goals but may also serve as a means of mitigating
disasters leading to very significant benefits in the medium to long-term.

Local policies (including
planning process, for these
It i here that investments
take place, and it is here
required.
urban policies) are extremely important in the total
guide the specific area distribution of human activities.
are made and the development of human settlements
that specific hazard mitigation programmes are really

India being a developing country, most areas under developmental planning and
land-use is decided/assigned accordingly. But the requirements of disaster
~tigation tend to receive lower priority because of the overriding considerations
of expediency. The apparent 'clash of interest between development and disaster
management arises because of the following considerations:

i) The pressures for development are frequently so overwhelming that disaster

risk is often overlooked in the hope of short-term gains, and little weight is
likely to be given to disaster prevention in land-use policies.
ii) Traditional systems of land-use have over a long period adjusted to periodic
disasters, but the pace of development over the last few decades has upset the
natural socio-economic modes of adjustment. This pace is not likely to slow
down, at least, in the foreseeable future.
iii) Traditional and intermediate indigenous economic systems are highly sensitive
.to regulation and the economic costs (measured by employment or
employment growth losses) or uprooting, relocating, or.inhibiting development
can be' very high in labouf intensive employment sectors. This hampers land- ,
use zoning to take care of disaster mitigation. • 35
I ' --- . -
Preparedness and iv) Growth of population and land shortages have tended to make the poor poorer
Mitigaj'jon
and shin to marginal land. such as ravines, steep 51 pes, low flood plains or
even riverbeds. Th is marginal land is prone to 'floods, land Iides or other
adverse natural phenomena.

12.3 ISSUES AT THE NATIONAL, REGIONAL AND

LOCAL LEVELS

In the formulation of land use policies in a broad framework at national and

regional levels, the following issueshave been found to be important in the context
, of disaster management. The discussion here is with reference to floods, which are
the most frequent natural disaster.

i) The conflict between irrigation and flooding provides a basic dilemma for
planners. Some of the gains of extra agricultural produce through irrigation
can be legitimately claimed to be preferable to the less tangible benefits of
extra flood management and mitigation measures since reservoirs for irrigation
water obviously need to be kept full. whereas for flood prevention the need is
for empty reservoirs to absorb floods when they come. In our country, most of
the big reservoirs are for irrigation and not for flood control. Only the
reservoirs of the Damodar Valley Corporation cater to flood control in addition
to irrigation.

"ii) Floods provide silt for increasing soil fertility, while both flood prevention and
irrigation can either eliminate the silting or limit it to well-defined areas.
Large numbers of small farmers can lose their livelihood or have their income
reduced if their interests are not taken into account in the new plans.
iii) The relation between floodplain management and watershed area management
has still not been sufficiently clarified; however, it is generally agreed that
uncontrolled deforestation and shifting agricultural cultivation can cause soil
erosion, lower water holding capacity of the land and increased risk of
flooding through silting of riverbeds.
iv) Rapid urban isation has produced large concentrations of urban squatters who
have by and large settled on unoccupied land (both public and private) in
unattractive or undesirable locations, including marshes and other low-lying
land exposed to periodic or seasonal flooding, but where they are close to
employment opportunities and services. One of the most serious and difficult
challenges to land-use policies is the need to provide safe and suitable urban
land for all segments of the population, including the lowest income groups
who can least afford the disruptionbrought about by having to live in areas
constantly subject to disasters.

The relocation of squatter settlements from low lying flood-prone areas is

often hampered by the high cost of suitable alternative locations, and the
extremely high per capita costs of new infrastructure and services, for which
subsidies directed at the lowest income groups are rare because of unbalanced
housing policies and the low capacity of loan repayment among this segment
of the population. Furthermore, as mentioned above the lowest income groups
tend to congregate as near as possible to their sources of employment,
whatever the risk. In sum, noth ing short of comprehensive pal icies and
programmes can effectively cope with problems of disaster prevention in
urban development.

The comprehensiveness of a policy framework is apparent where land-use

policies are supported by corresponding social and economic policies. Thus,
36 the reservationof new urban land for housing, especially where low income
 families are concerned, should be linked to transport and employment Land-Use Zoning for
Disaster Management
facilities. education and other social services. The modes of investment in, and
development of. new urban lands are complex. The most feasible approach is
one that undertakes the development of infrastructure services and housing in
progressive phases, employing wherever possible popular participation
techniques to reduce capital costs by investing the labour and savings of the
interested population itself. One may cite core-housing, sites and services, and
the creation of small savings and loan societies or co-operative as components
ofthe total land development process;

v) With increasing urban and industrial development resulting in drainage

congestion, the risk of flooding increases. On the other hand alternative urban
development strategies aimed at decentralisation and the creation of secondary
urban centres are frequently beyond the available resources.

vi) In vulnerable towns and villages, the land-use planning process is confronted
with many of the same social and economic dilemmas that can be found in
land-use planning for floods and other hazards. The most vulnerable areas are
the portions with the oldest housing. The poor generally live in the older and
most crowded sectors. The economic and social cost of uprooting, disturbing
and resettling this population may inhibit employment and income growth and
also disturb the delicately balanced traditional social system especially in the
villages. Thus, the rezoning of land in the older poorly built or high-risk
portions of towns can have unfavourable income distribution effects.
Nonetheless, preventive measures are required, but should be closely
harmonised with both land use and housing policies designed to respond to the
-. problem of social and economic development.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.

I) Why are land-use policy considerations relevant for disaster management in

the context of development?

2) What issues at the national and regional level play an important role 111
Iand-use zoning for disaster management?

37
Preparedness and
I) itigatlon
12.4 ZONING CONTROLS

Zoning and sub-division controis are twomeans by which government can regulate,
and control both land use pattern and development in both rural and urban areas.
Legal controls are incr a ingly lised to regulate the activities of the private sector
by placing location re ·triction and In-inimurn standards 011 specific types of land
uses and activities. These controls can tal c the following forms:

12.4.1 Land Use Macro Zoning

Macro zoning is the establishment of land use planning zones at regional levels.
Such zones generally establish agricultural, urban, industrial and recreational uses
incorporating existing and future patterns. Specific uses are allowed in designated
areas, although macro-zoning plans are revised at appropriate intervals to take into
account changes and growth. Such zoning is an efficient tool to control the
over-all location of various human activities. Macro zoning has a broad function
in the reduction of risk since hazardous areas can be zoned permanently for
agricultural or recreational uses, minimizing as far as possible urban or semi-urban
concentrations of population or indu try.

Natural hazard macro-zoning is a technique of somewhat longer standing and more

general application, but has been of limited use for detailed land-use planning,
since it applies natural hazard mapping to the national and regional scales only.
However, the demarcation of a country or regions into broad areas of natural
hazard is useful for outlining general national policies in disaster prevention and
mitigation.

As an example, land use planning with respect to flood plains can have two
objectives:

i) To bring about the 1110st effective beneficial use of the flood plain with least
possible risks, consistent with over-all community development; and
ii) To promote the health and safety of the present occupants of land prone to
flooding.

During the formulation of the land use plan, certain parts of the flood plains can be
studied in the following format. '

i) If residential and other publ ic interest uses are to be permitted in the floodway
fringe area, it should be only <after adequate safeguards in the form of
construction design criteria, which should be enforced to render structures safe
from floods. -:
ii) Unless economic and location factors greatly over-balance the risk of potential
flood damage, industrial development in flood hazard areas should be limited
to a certain type of industry to areas beyond the limits of the floodway (e.g.,
pulp and textile mills, chemical and metal processing plants which require
large quantities of water and discharge great amount of effluent).
iii) Site needs for wholesale and distribution uses, which require the stocking of
large quantities of goods particularly susceptible to water, are flexible enough
that locations free from flooding can usually be found.
iv) Flood plain land can be left as natural parks or developed as golf courses,
picnic spots and stadium areas.

An evaluation of land use must include an analysis of public works and

improvements and their relation to the local flood problem. The planning of public --
o
o
~
improvements, such as water and sewage treatment plants, transportation facilitie •.....
and public buildings require the same type of consideration that is accorded to co
N
38 nrivare rlevelonment with respect to flooding,
 12.4.2 Land Use Micro Zoning Land-Use Zoning for
! Disaster Management

,Micro zoning isthe detailed preparation of land use maps by local bodies and
'public authorities, particularly in urban settlements, fixing specific land - uses for
each site (such as residential, educational, commercial, etc.). Micro zoning also
«ietails the density of land uses at particular sites. Furthermore, micro zoning
establishes a detailed land use pattern within .the natural hazard macro-zoning
framework. From the point of disaster prevention, micro zoning is a basic tool
which relates natural hazard assessment to land-use planning.

Detailed risk analysis for given locations assists in determining both land-use and
building criteria. It can be said as a general rule, that whereas natural hazard
macro-zoning maps are based on the broad geological and geographical -.
configuration of a given region coupled to records of past hazard frequency and
magnitude, natural hazard micro-zoning is essentially a detailed study of the
probability of natural hazards in a given site as determined principally by the
detailed study of sub-soil conditions. Naturally, hazard zoning identifies not only
probable intensities but also probable return periods or frequency. Micro-natural
hazard mapping allows the land-use planner to employ quantitative as well as
qualitative criteria for establishing land use zoning guidelines. Similarly, it enables
the civil engineer to formulate more precisely, than would otherwise be possible,
building codes for public works, housing, industry, education and health facilities
and transport networks.

12.4.3 Sub-division Regulations

Sub-division regulations, like zoning, provide public control over the development
of land. The sub-division regulation is a widely used tool that seeks to ensure the
proper development of unused land. This is accomplished through approval of
plans by the designated government authority where the criteria for approval
establish restriction governing the exact way land is subdivided and the provision
made for public facilities and infrastructure. The developer is prohibited from
commencing development until the authorized government agency approves a map
of the proposed design of the sub:division.

12.4.4 Building or Location Permits

Building and location permits provide planners and government officials with an
opportunity to exercise micro-controls over development. A building permit can
be used not only to regulate the type of land use activity and the structure it
occupies but also enables the authorities to control employment opportunities
thereby influencing patterns of development. ,. . .

The point here is that land use controls should not be limited to those areas that
experience flooding, but should be expanded to include areas that may in fact
contribute the hazard potential e.g. by blocking drainage. -,

12.4.5 Open space Controls

Land use policies that regulate the location of agriculture or green area have a
direct impact on the provision of open spaces in the total planning area "and
vice-versa. Agricultural lands, parks and other types of open spaces can play an
important role in improving the environment and also mitigating the effect of
natural disasters.

Not only do open space help reduce capital losses, but equally important, they
serve to limit- the loss of life because of their tendency to generate minimum
human activity. However, it should be noted that open space does not imply the
total non-use of land. Clearly, such areas may be used to satisfy a wide variety of
social and economic needs. Thus, open spaces may serve to prevent or mitigate
disasters while providing some economic returns as well. 39
I

:.Preparedness and 12.4.6 Building Codes

Mitigation

Any discussion of disaster prevention and mitigation must consider not only
"where" but "how" a particular building is built, and this leads to the regulatory
instrument of building codes. Building codes or building by-laws in the present
context establish minimum standards of design, construction and materials in order
to avoid structural collapse under conditions of severe physical stress eau ed by
extreme natural phenomena to which that land might be vulnerable.

Although building codes. are extremely important for mitigating the effects of
'natural disasters, they should not be considered as separate from land use controls,
especially zoning. The co-ordination of land use controls and building codes is
one of the most effective local level devices for disaster prevention and mitigation.

Since building codes are not retroactive, the use of performance standards for the
repair or rehabilitation of older structures could serve as a supplementary means of
improving the safety of existing structures.

12.5 LOCATION OF ACTIVITIES AND LAND USE

As a basic principle, major functional land uses should be segregated and not
mixed as far as possible. Mixing of land uses, especially between residential and
high-risk industrial, should be avoided. All such industrial plants and storage areas
of explosive and combustible material and substances should be separated from
. residential development by a system of green belt.

In order to diminish the risk of ~otal paralysis of productive or administrative

activities in disaster prone areas, the industrial and business zone should be
decentralised and located in more than one centre in the city.
,,....-...,.
All important installations like centres of communication, key supply facilities, and
even historical monuments and cultural landmarks require special attention in case
of a catastrophe .' These elements should be located in such way that they are well
accessible and well protected.

Density of development in a disaster-prone area should be kept as low as possible.

In case of a conflict due to economic criteria (cost of land and infrastructure) or
with functional demand (accessibility or proximity) the compromise, if
unavoidable, should be a function of the level of risk in the area, building
technology and material, and height of buildings and cost of infrastructure.

12.5.1 Implications in Town Planning

Urban planning is a state re ponsibility and as such the plans are prepared under
the respective Town and Country Planning Acts. Such acts should be amended to
include disaster mitigation as an integral component of a master plan. Similarly,
techniques of plan preparation should include risk mapping and vulnerability
analysis to identify the extent and nature ofvulnerability.

A modification of steps in master plan preparation would also be required. Instead

of a detailed zonal plan being prepared after the overall land use plan, a broad
zonal structural plan based upon risk zones identified. should be prepared before
the overall land use plan. This will reduce the time lag between master plan and
zonal plan preparation. Existing development in each zone can be accommodated
40 and modified to suit the risk factor of any zone.
As a further follow-up, building codes need not be uniform in each zone. High- Land-Use Zoning for
Disaster Management
risk zones, which are consequently more vulnerable, should have lower Floor Area
Ratio (FAR), wider set backs, more open spaces, and restriction on high rise
development. Use of building materials that increases structural safety should be
mandatory in high-risk areas. The rear set back, in case of industrial plots, should
be kept larger than the front set back to prevent factories from being built back to
back which: reduces avai labi Iity of open spaces for rescue operations.

12.6 APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

The data supplied by earth observation satellites can often provide information
such as maps and images which are useful at scales I :500,000 or better. Maps of
watersheds, river and stream patterns and coastal plains can be produced and
geographical maps completed. They can also be used to show inhabited
settlement, which are of the order of I km or larger in dimension.

Satellite observations of the earth can be used to map flood plains and delineate
areas of potential flood impact. Observations by the satell ite (e.g., Indian Remote
Sensing Satellite IRS-I C with a spatial revolution of 5.8111 and revisit capability of
5 days) can provide information on surface cover changes, which when processed
using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can help in producing a judicious
land use map and also help in assessing the impact of various alternative land use
plans. Satellite data can also provide maps of destruction caused by a disaster
, (flood. earthquake. drought, even pests and diseases). As GIS is a computerized
system. the maps in GIS can be easily and quickly manipulated and studied.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Usethe pace given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of this Unit.

I) Explain the various components of zoning control as a tool for disaster

management.

".
,):t'.
._._ ..... - ._----
"I

2) Write the steps you would follow in preparing a town plan keeping disaster
management as a top priority.

41
Preparedness and
Mitigation 12.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have learnt how important land use planning and zoning regulations
are in the context of disasters. Careful land-use zoning can prevent disasters, and
also reduces the extent of damage both to lives and property. We also saw' tha.
with varying sub-division regulations, relief operations can also be made smooth
and quick.

12.8 KEY WORDS

Land Use The observed (or planned) dominant activity that

occurs at a particular location at the scale of a
- \
region or a city.
Sub-division Locally adopted laws governing the process of
converting Regulations unused land into building
sites. Together with zoning, these regulations
approve or disapprove permissions to make
improvements or to divide and ell a developer's
land based upon development standards set forth
in the sub-division regulations.
Zoning Zoning provides for the division of an area into
zones by categories of allowed and/or prohibited
land uses, such as industrial zone, residential
\
zone or green belt zone. Zoning is also done
according to the perceived risk of disasters on the
basis ofvulnerability.

12.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Ansari, Jamal H., 1997, Floods: Can Land Use Planning Help? Journal of the
Inst~tute of Town Planners, India, VCl. 16, No. 1 (171), July, 1997, New Delhi, pp.
4-6.

Kulshrestha, S.K., 1997, Human Settlements in Disaster ..Prone Areas: Planning.

Principles and Design Considerations, in Spatio-Econornic Development Record,
Vo\. 4, No. I, Jan-Feb 1997, New Delhi, pp. 23-30,

Mahavir 1982, Drainage Characteristics 0/ an Area as a Determinant of Urban

Development, Unpublished MSc. Thesis, School of Planning and Architecture,
New Delhi.
Srinivasan, Sumitra, 1993, Disaster Mitigation and Urban Planning: Industrial
Areas of Delhi, Unpublished Thesis, School of Planning- and Architecture, New
Delhi ..
United Nations, 1984, Disaster Prevention and Mitigation: A Compendium of
Current Know/edge, Yol. 5, Land Use Aspects; Office of the United Nations
Disaster Relief Co-ordinator (UNDRO), Geneva, United Nations, New York.
United Nations, 1984, Disaster Prevention and Mitigation: A Csmpendium of
Current Knowledge, Yo1.11, Preparedness Aspects; Office of the United Nations
42 Disaster Relief Co-ordinator (UNDRO), Geneva, United Nations, New York.
 Land-Use Zoning for
12.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Disaster Management
EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1

1) Your answer should include following points:

• more pressure on urban land;

• pace of change of land use is faster than the society can handle;
• socio-economic cost of relocating people is very high;
• economic pressures are pushing the poor into marginal lands prone to
disasters; and

• overall economic resource crunch.

2) Your answer should include following points:

• conflict between conservation storage such as for irrigation and dedicated
flood storage reserve in large reservoirs;
• relation between floodplain management and watershed management;
• rapid urbanization process and pressure on urban land; increasing change
of land use from agricultural to non-agricultural land uses; and general
resistance to shifting of population.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Your answer should include the following points:

• Macro zoning, micro zoning, sub-division regulation, building permits,
open space controls, building codes, and development controls.

2) Your answer should include folTowing points:

"I

• broad zonal plan based on risk zones;

• building codes;
•
• building material supporting structural safety; and
• monitoring through techniques of Remote Sensing and GIS.

43