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Professor
Department of Occupational Therapy
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, Michigan

Rosanne DiZazzo-Miller, PhD, DrOT, OTRL, CDP

Assistant Professor Occupational Therapy Program
Wayne State University
Detrotit, Michigan

Kathryn Ellsworth, MA, CCC-SLP

Speech-Language Pathologist
St. Paul, Minnesota

Joanne Phillips Estes, PhD, OTR/L

Assistant Professor
Department of Occupational Therapy
Xavier University
Cincinnati, Ohio

Jennifer L. Forgach, MS, OTR/L

Forgach-Smith
Team Rehabilitation
Bingham Farms, Michigan

Joyce Fraker, MS, OTR/L

Occupational Therapist
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Service
VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System
Ann Arbor, Michigan

Cynthia A. Grapczynski, EdD, OTR, FAOTA

Professor and Chair
Occupational Science and Therapy Department
Grand Valley State University
Allendale, Michigan
Jennifer Harrison, PhD, MSW
Faculty Specialist II
School of Social Work
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, Michigan

Nancy Hock, OTR/L, CHT

Faculty Specialist II and Site Coordinator
Department of Occupational Therapy
Western Michigan University
Grand Rapids, Michigan

Heather Javaherian-Dysinger, OTD, OTR/L

Associate Professor and MOT Program Director
Department of Occupational Therapy
Loma Linda University
Loma Linda, California

Reese Martin, MS, OTR/L

Instructor
Department of Occupational Therapy
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, Michigan

Laura V. Miller, MS, OTR/L, CDI, CDRS

Private Practitioner, Occupational Therapy
Certified Driver Rehabilitation Specialist, Driver’s Rehabilitation Center
of Michigan
Livonia, Michigan

Brandon G. Morkut, MS, OTR/L

Adjunct Faculty
Department of Occupational Therapy
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, Michigan
Timothy M. Mullen, PhD, OTR/L, CHT
Director of Clinical Operations
Orthopedic Physicians of Alaska
Anchorage, Alaska

Shelley Mulligan, PhD, OTR/L, FAOTA

Associate Professor
Department of Occupational Therapy
University of New Hampshire
Durham, New Hampshire

Linda M. Olson, PhD, OTRL

Chair and Assistant Professor
Department of Occupational Therapy
College of Health Sciences
Rush University
Chicago, Illinois

Rebecca Ozelie, DHS, OTR/L, BCPR

Assistant Professor and Academic Fieldwork Coordinator
Department of Occupational Therapy
Rush University
Chicago, Illinois

Sharon L. Pavlovich, MAM, COTA/L

Assistant Professor
Department of Occupational Therapy
Loma Linda University
Loma Linda, California

Emily Raphael-Greenfield, EdD, OTRL, FAOTA

Assistant Professor
Programs in Occupational Therapy
Columbia University Medical Center
New York, New York
Mylene Schriner, PhD, OTR/L
Chair and Associate Professor of Occupational Therapy Education
Rockhurst University
Kansas City, Missouri

Michelle A. Suarez, PhD, OTR/L

Associate Professor
Department of Occupational Therapy
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, Michigan

Suzänne Fleming Taylor, PhD, MBA/HCM, OTR/L

Cancer Rehabilitation, Clinician IV
Adjunct Instructor, Department of Occupational Therapy
Virginia Commonwealth University Medical Center
Richmond, Virginia

Michael J. Urban, MS, OTR/L, MBA, CEAS, CWCS

Department of Veterans Affairs
Healthcare System of Connecticut
West Haven, Connecticut

Christine K. Urish, PhD, OTR/L, BCMH, FAOTA

Professor
Department of Occupational Therapy
St. Ambrose University
Davenport, Iowa

Amy Wagenfeld, PhD, OTR/L, SCEM, FAOTA

Assistant Professor
Department of Occupational Therapy
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, Michigan

Andrea L. Washington, BS, OTR/L

Clinical Occupational Therapy Specialist
Inpatient Rehabilitation
Children’s Hospital of Michigan
Detroit, Michigan

Mary Steichen Yamamoto, MS, OTL

Occupational Therapist
Private Practice
Ann Arbor, Michigan

Jayne Yatczak, PhD, OTRL

Assistant Professor and Director, Occupational Therapy Program
Eastern Michigan University
Ypsilanti, Michigan
 Preface

In this fifth edition of Conditions in Occupational Therapy: Effect on

Occupational Performance, we continue with the approach used in
previous editions which includes common conditions seen by occupational
therapists as published in the executive summary of the most recent
practice analysis published by the National Board for Certification of
Occupational Therapists (NBCOT, 2012). The book is designed to
facilitate the teaching and learning of conditions from an occupational
therapy perspective. We honor Dr. Ruth Hansen, Professor Emeritus,
Eastern Michigan University, for her significant contributions as the
founding coeditor of this textbook in which she created the design for
analysis of conditions using an “occupational therapy way of thinking.”
Dr. Hansen’s original idea continues to hold forth in Chapter 1, Thinking
Like an OT, which begins with an overview and relevance of the
philosophy and values of occupational therapy in relation to understanding
a given condition and its impact on occupational performance.
In this new edition, we organized the conditions into units including
pediatric, mental, and physical conditions. Each chapter is consistent in its
structure to include an opening case, definition and descriptions, incidence
and prevalence, signs and symptoms, course and prognosis,
medical/surgical management, and impact on occupational performance,
followed by two case illustrations. We continue to incorporate the
language of the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework, third edition
(OTPF) where relevant, as this is the most current “language of the
profession.”
Following a national review of faculty who have used the fourth
edition of our textbook and their helpful input, new content has been
included. We are pleased to announce new chapters in this edition. These
include Obsessive Compulsive and Related Disorders, Somatic Symptoms
and Related Disorders, Feeding and Eating Disorders, Sensory Processing
Disorders, Substance Related and Addictive Disorders, Personality
Disorders, Cancer, and Obesity. Where relevant, chapters have included
updates published in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, fifth edition (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). As
always, each chapter has incorporated the most recent information
available. The notion that occupational therapists treat diagnoses is on
ongoing point of discussion and debate. As emphasized in Chapter 1, we
are mindful of the importance of “person first” philosophy that a person is
more than a sum of his or her diagnosis. Simultaneously, it is essential that
occupational therapists understand the distinct client factors of a given
condition that impact a person’s ability to regain function necessary to
resume occupational roles.
Each chapter in this edition provides the authors’ interpretation of the
effects of the condition on occupational performance and is not
necessarily all inclusive. Our goal is that the information will motivate
occupational therapy students to expand their knowledge and
understanding of the given condition. We expect that each chapter is a
starting point for discussion and analysis of the condition which then will
lead to the development of effective intervention planning.

Ben J. Atchison
Diane Powers Dirette
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical
manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
National Board for Certification of Occupational Therapists. (2012).
Practice analysis of the occupational therapist registered: Executive
summary. Gaithersburg, MD: Author.

To review key terms and their definitions, visit

http://thePoint.lww.com/Atchison5e, and use the access code on the inside
front cover of this book. Resources for instructors include a test generator,
PowerPoint presentations, and an image bank.
 Contents

Contributors
Preface

1 Thinking Like an OT

UNIT 1 • PEDIATRIC CONDITIONS

2 Cerebral Palsy
3 Autism Spectrum Disorders
4 Intellectual Disability
5 Muscular Dystrophy
6 Attention Deficit Disorder
7 Sensory Processing Disorder

UNIT 2 • MENTAL CONDITIONS

8 Mood Disorders
9 Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders
10 Anxiety Disorders
11 Neurocognitive Disorders
12 Complex Trauma
13 Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
14 Somatic Symptoms and Related Disorders
15 Feeding and Eating Disorders
16 Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders

UNIT 3 • PHYSICAL CONDITIONS

17 Cerebrovascular Accident
18 Cardiopulmonary Disorders
19 Diabetes
20 Acquired Brain Injury
21 Burns
22 Progressive Neurodegenerative Disorders
23 Rheumatic Diseases
24 Spinal Cord Injury
25 Orthopedics
26 Low Vision Disorders
27 Cancer
28 Obesity

Index
Glossary
CHAPTER
1 Thinking Like an OT
Diane Powers Dirette Ben J. Atchison
KEY TERMS
Altruism
Client factors
Context and environment
Core values
Equality
Evidence-based practice
Freedom
Justice
Occupations
Performance patterns
Performance skills
Personalized medicine
Person-first language
Philosophical assumptions
Practice Framework
Prudence
Truth
 It is more important to know what kind of person has the disease than what kind of disease the
person has.
—Sir William Osler (Address at Johns Hopkins University, February 1905)

Lindsey is finishing her course work in occupational therapy and is now

beginning her first level II fieldwork experience. Throughout her education,
she has learned the importance of evidence-based practice to guide her
treatment decisions. Her challenge now is to develop her clinical reasoning
skills to merge the science she has learned with the art of practice. To
achieve this, she must understand the person’s diagnosis, analyze the
person’s unique set of problems based on the person’s individual
characteristics, and determine the impact on occupational performance.
The first step of this process is the referrals she receives. Each referral
gives her some basic information about the person including the person’s
diagnosis. Her job is to decide what to do next.
How does a student learn to correlate general information about a
diagnosis with the needs of a particular person and to identify the problems
that require occupational therapy intervention? How does a staff therapist
set priorities for problems and decide which require immediate attention?
How much problem identification can be done before the therapist actually
sees the patient? How does a supervisor know when a student or therapist is
doing a “good job” of screening referrals and anticipating the dysfunction
that the patient might be experiencing? These are precursors to the actual
intervention process and are essential to effective and efficient clinical
reasoning (Benamy, 1996).
The clinical reasoning procedure used by each health care professional
is somewhat different. The information that is the main focus of
intervention for a speech therapist will differ from that of a psychologist or
a nurse. The basic tenet of the occupational therapy profession is that
practitioners gather and use information to help people function in their
daily activities. Such data gathering and analysis provide the therapist with
the foundation for a treatment plan through a prioritized list of anticipated
problems or dysfunctions for an individual.
To comprehend the unique aspects of occupational therapy requires an
understanding of the core values, philosophical assumptions, and domain of
concern of the profession, as well as the language that is used to
communicate information clearly and precisely.
Core Values of Occupational Therapy
The core values of occupational therapy are set forth in the document “Core
Values and Attitudes of Occupational Therapy Practice” (Kanny, 1993).
Seven have been identified: altruism, dignity, equality, freedom, justice,
truth, and prudence.

1. Altruism is the unselfish concern for the welfare of others. This

concept is reflected in actions and attitudes of commitment, caring,
dedication, responsiveness, and understanding.
2. Dignity emphasizes the importance of valuing the inherent worth and
uniqueness of each person. This value is demonstrated by an attitude
of empathy and respect for self and others.
3. Equality requires that all individuals be perceived as having the same
fundamental human rights and opportunities. This value is
demonstrated by an attitude of fairness and impartiality.
4. Freedom allows the individual to exercise choice and to demonstrate
independence, initiative, and self-direction.
5. Justice places value on the upholding of such moral and legal
principles as fairness, equity, truthfulness, and objectivity.
6. Truth requires that we be faithful to facts and reality. Truthfulness or
veracity is demonstrated by being accountable, honest, forthright,
accurate, and authentic in our attitudes and actions.
7. Prudence is the ability to govern and discipline oneself through the
use of reason. To be prudent is to value judiciousness, discretion,
vigilance, moderation, care, and circumspection in the management
of one’s affairs, to temper extremes, make judgments, and respond on
the basis of intelligent reflection and rational thought (Kanny, 1993).

These values are the foundation of the belief system that occupational
therapists (OTs) use as a moral guide when making clinical decisions.
Philosophical Assumptions
The philosophical assumptions of the profession guide OTs in providing
client-centered therapy that meets the needs of the client and society. These
assumptions express our basic beliefs about the client and the context in
which the client functions (Mosey, 1996). These assumptions are as
follows:

Each individual has a right to a meaningful existence: the right to live

in surroundings that are safe, supportive, comfortable, and over which
he or she has some control; to make decisions for himself or herself;
to be productive; to experience pleasure and joy; and to love and be
loved.
Each individual is influenced by the biological and social nature of the
species.
Each individual can only be understood within the context of his or her
family, friends, community, and membership in various cultural
groups.
Each individual has the need to participate in a variety of social roles
and to have periodic relief from participation.
Each individual has the right to seek his or her potential through
personal choice, within the context of accepted social constraints.
Each individual is able to reach his or her potential through purposeful
interaction with the human and nonhuman environment.
Occupational therapy is concerned with promoting functional
interdependence through interactions directed toward facilitating
participation in major social roles (occupational performance) and
development of biological, cognitive, psychological, and social
components (client factors) fundamental to such roles.
The extent to which intervention is focused on the context, on the
areas of occupational performance, or on the client factors depends on
the needs of the particular individual at any given time.
Personalized Medicine
The core values and philosophical assumption of the profession of OT lead
practitioners of OT to a focus on personalized medicine. According to
Burke, Trinidad, and Press (2014), “personalized medicine is best
understood as a comprehensive process to determine the best health care
options for a particular patient, deriving from a partnership between patient
and clinician. This approach offers the opportunity to weigh personal
values and preferences as well as clinical findings” (p. 196). In addition,
Topol (2014) defines personalized medicine as the tailoring of medical
treatments to the individual characteristics of each patient with a focus on
the individual as the source of medical data and as the driver of health care.
The core values, especially dignity, equality, and freedom, are the
profession’s moral guide to personalized medicine. They guide us to value
differences, to treat people equally despite those differences, and to allow
individuals to make their own choices based on differing perspectives and
preferences.
The philosophical assumptions summarize the OT profession’s basic
beliefs about focusing on the rights and preferences of individuals relative
to their biological and social environments. In addition, the philosophical
assumptions help guide practitioners to form a partnership with each
individual to determine the focus of the intervention. Each of these
concepts form a practice in which personalized medicine is an essential
element.
Whereas the primary purpose of this book is to describe the potential
impact of a condition on occupational performance, the descriptions should
not be considered prescriptive or exhaustive. It is necessary to understand
common facts of these conditions, including etiology, basic pathogenesis,
commonly observed signs and symptoms, and precautions. However, it is
equally important to recognize that the effects of a condition on
occupational well-being will also be dependent on contextual factors such
as age, developmental stage, health status, and the physical, social, and
cultural environment (Dunn, Brown, & McGuigan, 1994). Rather than
viewing an individual as a diagnostic entity, as a condition, or as the sum of
biological cells, the treatment must be personalized.
Language
Although many language systems and mechanisms are available, we will
discuss language from two perspectives. First is a philosophical discussion
of using person-first language. Second is the use of the Occupational
Therapy Practice Framework: Domain and Process, Third Edition (AOTA,
2014) that presents the professional language and the occupational therapy
domain of concern.
Person-First Language
In many cases, the literature and the media, both popular and professional,
describe a person with a given condition as the condition—the arthritic, the
C.P. kid, the schizophrenic, the alcoholic, the burn victim, the mentally
disabled. All of these terms label people as members of a large group rather
than as a unique individual. The use of person-first language requires that
the person be identified first and the disease used as a secondary descriptor.
For example, a woman, who is a physicist, is active in her church and has
arthritis; the fourth grade boy, who is a good speller, loves baseball and has
cerebral palsy. The condition does not and should not be the primary
identity of any person.
Consider the following: a father is introducing his son to his coworkers.
Which of the following is the best introduction?
“Hey, everyone, this is my disabled son, John.”
“Hey, everyone, this is my son, John, who is disabled and loves soccer
and video games.”
“Hey, everyone, this is my son, John. He loves soccer and video games.”
Of course, the third statement is the best choice. Yet it is common when
describing a person who has a disability to emphasize the disability first.
The consequence is a labeling process. “Although such shorthand language
is commonplace in clinics and medical records, it negates the individuality
of the person. Each of us is a person, with a variety of traits that can be
used to describe aspects of our personality, behavior, and function. To use a
disease or condition as the adjective preceding the identifying noun negates
the multiple dimensions that make the person a unique individual”
(Hansen, 1998).
The Occupational Therapy Practice
Framework
The official language for the profession of occupational therapy was
revised in 2014 and presented in a document titled the Occupational
Therapy Practice Framework: Domain and Process, Third Edition (AOTA,
2014). The Practice Framework outlines the language and constructs that
describe the occupational therapy profession’s domain of concern. The
domain defines the area of human activity to which the occupational
therapy process is applied. The process facilitates engagement in
occupation to support participation in life. The specific aspects of the
domain are outlined in the language of the Practice Framework.
The Framework is organized into five aspects—occupations, client
factors, performance skills, performance patterns, and context and
environment. Occupations are various kinds of life activities in which
individuals, groups, or populations engage. Occupations include activities
of daily living, instrumental activities of daily living, rest and sleep,
education, work, and play, leisure, and social participation. Client factors
are values, beliefs, and spirituality, the body functions, and the body
structures that reside within the person. These client factors influence the
person’s participation on occupations. Performance skills are observable
elements of action that have an implicit functional purpose. These skills are
separated into the categories of motor skills, process skills, and social
interaction skills. Performance patterns are the habits, routines, roles, and
rituals used by the person in the process of engaging in occupations or
activities. These patterns may enhance or hinder occupational performance.
Context and environment refers to a variety of interrelated conditions that
are within and surrounding the person. Those conditions include cultural,
personal, temporal, and virtual contexts. Environments are the physical and
social conditions that surround the person (Table 1.1).

TABLE 1.1 Occupational Therapy Practice Domains

Each of these aspects has a relationship and influence on the others. The
outcome is, of course, the ability to function and engage in occupations.
Although at a given time you may focus on an occupation or client factors,
the ultimate concern is whether the individual is able to function in daily
life. For example, a therapist may evaluate a person’s attention span, but
not in isolation. Attention span is evaluated within the realm of the
performance patterns and context of the person— the attention span
required to work on an assembly line, to drive a car, to learn a card game,
or to conduct a business meeting.
Once a therapist knows the diagnosis and age of the person, he or she
can use this Practice Framework to examine systematically the deficits that
occur in the client factors, as well as how these particular deficits can and
do alter the person’s ability to complete functional activities relevant to
occupations. In other instances, the therapist may focus primarily on the
occupation or the context, without paying much attention to the underlying
client factors that influence the occupational performance. Definitions of
all terms are provided in the Glossary at the back of the book.
Evidence-Based Practice
There has been a call to action in the health professions to practice health
care based on evidence of the effectiveness of each treatment approach
(Gutman, 2010). High levels of evidence are based on studies that compare
groups of people, usually with similar conditions. Evidence, especially high
levels of evidence, on which to base one’s practice, however, might be
limited (Dirette, Rozich, & Viau, 2009). First, it is limited by an
insufficient number of resources to support specific treatment approaches
for specific conditions. Second, it might be limited by the fact that groups
of people with “average” results do not always represent the unique
situation of the person with whom the therapist is working.
Therefore, while we support the idea of evidence-based practice in
general, there is clearly a need for therapists to develop clinical reasoning
skills that will not only help them decide which evidence to use with people
who have particular conditions but also help them decide what to do with
the unique individual with whom they are working. Understanding the
condition with which the individual presents is often the first step in the
clinical reasoning process. This textbook provides information about
common conditions seen by OTs and provides the first steps in the clinical
reasoning process by providing ideas about the potential impact on
occupational performance.
Framework of This Textbook
As an instructional tool, this book provides an opportunity to examine each
condition closely. The reader is urged to use the information as a
springboard for further study of the conditions included here and the many
other conditions that OTs encounter in practice. The analysis of the impact
on occupational performance for a particular condition is dynamic, and the
identification of the most important areas of dysfunction and, therefore,
treatment will vary from practitioner to practitioner. In addition, factors
such as secondary health problems, age, gender, family background, and
culture contribute greatly to the development of a unique occupational
performance profile for each individual served.
The occupational performance approach to the identification of
dysfunction described in this book can be used to examine the effects of
any condition on a person’s daily life. This process will enable the therapist
to identify and set a priority for problems in occupational performance,
which, in turn, will serve as the foundation for creating an effective
intervention plan.
 REFERENCES
American Occupational Therapy Association. (2014). Occupational therapy
practice framework: Domain and process, 3rd edition. American Journal of
Occupational Therapy, 68(Suppl. 1), S1–S51. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2014.682006
Benamy, B. C. (1996). Developing clinical reasoning skills. San Antonio,
TX: Therapy Skill Builders.
Burke, W., Trinidad, S. B., & Press, N. A. (2014). Essential elements of
personalized medicine. Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original
Investigations, 32, 193–197. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.urolonc.2013.09.002
Dirette, D., Rozich, A., & Viau, S. (2009). Is there enough evidence for
evidence-based practice in occupational therapy? American Journal of
Occupational Therapy, 63, 782–786. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.5014/ajot.63.6.782
Dunn, W., Brown, C., & McGuigan, A. (1994). Ecology of human
performance: A framework for considering the effect of context. American
Journal of Occupational Therapy, 48(7), 595–607.
Gutman, S. A. (2010). From the desk of the editor: AJOT publication
priorities. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 64, 679–681.
Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2010.064501
Hansen, R. A. (1998). Ethical implications. In J. Hinojosa & P. Kramer
(Eds.), Evaluation: Obtaining and interpreting data. Bethesda, MD: AOTA.
Kanny, E. (1993). Core values and attitudes of occupational therapy
practice. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 47, 1085–1086.
Mosey, A. C. (1996). Applied scientific inquiry in the health professions:
An epistemological orientation (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD: American
Occupational Therapy Association.
Topol, E. J. (2014). Individualized medicine from prewomb to tomb. Cell,
157, 241–253. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.02.012
 UNIT
1

Pediatric Conditions
The Pediatric Conditions Unit includes the most common conditions that
children have who are treated by occupational therapists as determined by
the National Board of Certification in Occupational Therapy. These
chapters focus on conditions that are typically diagnosed in childhood, but
many of them affect people throughout their lifespan. Each chapter
provides information about the etiology, incidence and prevalence, signs
and symptoms, course and prognosis, diagnosis, medical/surgical
management, and impact on occupational performance of these conditions.
Case illustrations are used to provide examples of lives affected by the
condition. The conditions included in this unit are the following:
Chapter 2: Cerebral Palsy
Chapter 3: Autism Spectrum Disorders
Chapter 4: Intellectual Disability
Chapter 5: Muscular Dystrophy
Chapter 6: Attention Deficit Disorder/ADHD
Chapter 7: Sensory Processing Disorder
CHAPTER
2 Cerebral Palsy
Mary Steichen Yamamoto
KEY TERMS
Ataxia
Athetoid (dyskinetic)
Clonus
Contracture
Diplegia
Dysarthria
Equinovarus
Equinovalgus
Gastroesophageal reflux
Hemiplegia
Homonymous hemianopsia
Hydrocephalus
Hypertonicity (spasticity)
Hyperreflexia
Hypotonicity
Kyphosis
Lordosis
Nystagmus
Primitive reflexes
Quadriplegia
Scoliosis
Strabismus
Stretch reflex

A couple who had been trying to conceive a child for several years were
thrilled when a family friend asked if they would be interested in adopting
a baby girl that had just been born to a young unmarried woman in her
church. The baby was born 6 weeks early and her weight was 4 lb, but she
appeared to be healthy. After initiating the paperwork for a private
adoption, they brought the baby home and named her Jill. By the time of
Jill’s 6-month well-baby visit, her parents had become concerned. She
appeared to be a bright baby who smiled and cooed and enjoyed reaching
for and playing with toys, but her legs seemed stiff and she was not yet
rolling over. They spoke with their family doctor about their concerns, but
he assured them that Jill was developing normally and they had nothing to
be concerned about. By the time of Jill’s 9-month well-baby visit, her
parents’ concerns were only growing. Jill was still not sitting up and had
not yet learned to roll over or crawl. Her doctor decided to refer Jill to the
county early intervention program for a developmental assessment. Jill was
assessed by the early intervention team consisting of an occupational
therapist, physical therapist, and speech and language pathologist. The
occupational therapist noted some mildly increased tone and incoordination
in her upper extremities and a 2- to 3-month delay in fine motor and self-
help skills. The physical therapist noted that Jill had hypertonicity and
retained primitive reflexes in her lower extremities, which was causing
significant delay in the acquisition of gross motor skills. The speech and
language therapist found Jill’s cognitive, language, and social skills to be at
age level. The team suggested to the parents that they have a pediatric
neurologist assess Jill, as she was demonstrating some of the signs and
symptoms of cerebral palsy. Both the occupational and physical therapist
recommended that therapy services begin as soon as possible. An IFSP
(Individualized Family Service Plan) was developed at a subsequent
meeting, and Jill began receiving weekly physical and occupational therapy
services.Jill’s parents took her to a pediatric neurologist who diagnosed her
with spastic diplegia, a type of cerebral palsy. Her parents were initially
overwhelmed and devastated by the diagnosis. The next year was very
difficult as they grieved the loss of so many dreams that they had for Jill
and faced so much uncertainty about her future. They waded through an
array of possible therapy approaches and medical and surgical
interventions that were recommended trying to decide which would be right
for Jill and their family. They struggled to find time to work on home
exercises that had been prescribed for Jill. The strain became so great that
they even separated for a period but eventually reconciled. By the time Jill
turned 3 years old, she was walking with a walker and able to sit in a chair
independently, although she needed assistance with changing positions. She
was feeding herself but not yet dressing herself. They enrolled her in a
preschool special education classroom where she received therapy services.
By kindergarten, Jill was in a regular education classroom with a
paraeducator for safety and support. Jill was a happy child, who had many
friends and did well academically. Jill most likely will continue to need
some type of additional support in order to be an independent adult, but all
involved were optimistic about her future.
Description and Definition
Sigmund Freud, in his monograph entitled “Infantile Cerebral Paralysis,”
points out that a well-known painting by Spanish painter Jusepe Ribera
(1588–1656), which depicts a child with infantile hemiplegia, proves that
cerebral paralysis existed long before medical investigators began paying
attention to it in the mid-1800s (Freud, 1968). Freud’s work as a
neurologist is not generally well known, and at the time that his monograph
was published in 1897, he was already deep into his work in the area of
psychotherapy. However, he was recognized at the time as the prominent
authority on the paralyses of children. Today, cerebral paralysis is known as
cerebral palsy.
Cerebral palsy is not one specific condition but rather a grouping of
clinical syndromes that affect movement, muscle tone, and coordination as
a result of an injury or lesion of the immature brain. It is not considered a
disease, but is classified as a developmental disability since it occurs early
in life and interferes with the development of motor and sometimes
cognitive skills. Historically, cerebral palsy has been classified as and is
still sometimes diagnostically referred to as a static encephalopathy
(Brooke, 2010). This is now considered inaccurate due to recognition of the
fact that the neurological manifestations of cerebral palsy often change or
progress over time. Static encephalopathy is permanent and unchanging
damage to the brain and includes other developmental problems such as
fetal alcohol syndrome, cognitive impairments, and learning disabilities.
Many individuals with cerebral palsy perform well academically and
vocationally without any signs of cognitive dysfunction associated with the
term encephalopathy (Johnson, 2004).
A child is considered to have cerebral palsy if all of the following
characteristics apply:
The injury or insult occurs when the brain is still developing. It can
occur anytime during the prenatal, perinatal, or postnatal periods. There is
some disagreement about the upper age limit for a diagnosis of cerebral
palsy during the postnatal period. An upper age limit ranging from 2 to 8
years of age is applied to postneonatally acquired brain injury (Smithers-
Sheedy et al., 2009).
1. It is not progressive. Once the initial insult to the brain has occurred,
there is no further worsening of the child’s condition or further
damage to the central nervous system. However, the characteristics
of the disabilities affecting an individual often change over time.
2. It always involves a disorder in sensorimotor development that is
manifested by abnormal muscle tone and stereotypical patterns of
movement. The severity of the impairment ranges from mild to
severe.
3. The sensorimotor disorder originates specifically in the brain. The
muscles themselves and the nerves connecting them with the spinal
cord are normal. Although some cardiac or orthopedic problems can
result in similar postural and movement abnormalities, they are not
classified as cerebral palsy.
4. It is a lifelong disability. Some premature babies demonstrate
temporary posture and movement abnormalities that look similar to
patterns seen in cerebral palsy but resolve typically by 1 year of age.
For children with cerebral palsy, these difficulties persist.
Etiology
Historically, birth asphyxia was considered the major cause of cerebral
palsy. When the British surgeon William Little first identified cerebral
palsy in 1860, he suggested that a major cause was a lack of oxygen during
the birth process (Little, 1862). In 1897, Sigmund Freud disagreed,
suggesting that the disorder might have roots earlier in life. Freud wrote,
“Difficult birth, in certain cases is merely a symptom of deeper effects that
influence the development of the fetus” (Freud, 1968). Although Freud
made these observations in the late 1800s, it was not until the 1980s that
research supported his views (Freeman & Nelson, 1988; Illingsworth,
1985). Only a small percentage of cases of cerebral palsy are a result of
birth complications. The majority of children (70% to 80%) who are
diagnosed with cerebral palsy have congenital cerebral palsy, that is, the
injury to the brain occurred prior to their birth (Johnson, 2004).
There are a large number of risk factors that can result in cerebral
palsy, and the interplay between these factors is often complex, making it
difficult to identify the specific cause (Blickstein, 2003). The presence of
risk factors does not always result in a subsequent diagnosis of cerebral
palsy. The presence of one risk factor may not result in cerebral palsy
unless it is present to an overwhelming degree. Current thought is that
often two or more risk factors may interact in such a way as to overwhelm
natural defenses, resulting in damage to the developing brain. The strongest
risk factors are prematurity and low birth weight (Lawson & Badawi,
2003). During the postpartum period, premature and low birth weight
infants are at greater risk for developing complications, especially in the
circulatory and pulmonary systems. These complications can lead to brain
hypoxia and result in cerebral palsy.
Additional risk factors include intrauterine exposure to infection and
disorders of coagulation (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and
Stroke, 2015). Maternal infection is a critical risk factor for cerebral palsy,
both during prenatal development and at the time of delivery. The infection
does not necessarily produce signs of illness in the mother, which can make
it difficult to detect. In a study conducted in the mid-1990s, it was
determined that mothers with infections at the time of birth had a higher
risk of having a child with cerebral palsy (Grether & Nelson, 1997). Table
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Fig. 343.-Morus alba ♀ inflorescence.
 Fig. 344.—Morus nigra fruits.
A. Moreæ. The filaments are incurved in the bud. Leaves folded
in the bud—Morus (Mulberry) (Figs. 342–344). Monœcious. The
inflorescences are catkin-like in appearance, but in reality composed
of many small dichasia. The flowers are similar to those of the Nettle,
but with 2 carpels: in the ♂ with perianth 2 + 2, and stamens 2 + 2
(Fig. 342), in the ♀ , perianth 2 + 2, and 2 carpels in regular
alternation. The small drupes are enveloped by the perianth, which
eventually becomes fleshy, and as all the flowers on the axis very
accurately fit together, the collection of fruits is formed, which we call
a Mulberry (Fig. 344). The leaves are folded in the buds, and have
small stipules. The following are allied to Morus:—Maclura, Broussonetia (the
Paper-mulberry tree) which has spheroid ♀ inflorescences (made up of dichasia),
etc.
Dorstenia presents an interesting transitional form to the Fig in its flat, open,
and, in some instances, lobed inflorescence on which the ♂ and ♀ flowers are
sunk in grooves. Indications of a somewhat similar structure are found in certain
Nettles, the sympodial axes of the dichasia becoming flatly expanded. The fruits
are 1-seeded, but, nevertheless, spring open and eject their seeds.
 B. Artocarpeæ. Filaments straight in the bud; foliage-leaves with
convolute vernation. An interpetiolar leaf-sheath (ocrea) formed in
the axil of each leaf by the connate stipules, covers the younger
leaves as a hood. It falls off as the leaf expands, and leaves a ring-
like scar on the stem.—Ficus (the Fig). The inflorescence (the so-
called syconus) has a pear-shaped, fleshy, but hollow axis, on the
interior surface of which the flowers are situated (Fig. 345). It is a
kind of capitulum, with a hollow receptacle, whose “involucral” leaves
close over the entrance to the interior; it is not, however, a simple
capitulum, but a coalescence of cymose inflorescences. The edible
parts are the fleshy stem-portion and perianth-leaves. The ♂-flower
has a 2–6 divided perianth, 1–2 (–6) stamens; the ♀-flower has an
oblique ovary. The fruits are drupes, with thin flesh.—Many species
have aerial roots, and some live as epiphytes on trees. Pollination, in the edible
Fig, is effected by a small Gall-wasp (Cynips psenes L.), which lays its eggs in the
Fig, and hence carries the pollen away. Even in very ancient times it was
customary to hang infected wild Figs on the branches of cultivated ones, so that
the young Gall-wasps, as they emerged, could immediately effect the pollination
(caprification). Ficus carica, and other species, have two kinds of ♀ -flowers,
besides the ♂-flowers. One kind has a short style and no stigmatic hairs, and it is
only in the ovaries of these that the wasps lay their eggs (gall-flowers); the other
kind has a long style and well-developed stigmatic-hairs, but the wasps cannot
reach their ovaries—these are “seed-flowers.” There are, moreover, two kinds of
plants of Ficus carica; ♀-plants, which have only seed-flowers, and bear the edible
Figs, and ♂ -plants (called “Caprificus”), which bear inedible fruits, and have ♂ -
flowers at the upper part of the Fig, but gall-flowers at the base. [The Caprificus, at
Naples, bears three crops of inedible Figs each year, viz. Mamme (April), Profichi
(June), Mamnoni (August). The ♂-flowers are produced especially in June, the first
Figs being almost entirely ♀ , and the last having but few ♂ -flowers. Each crop
produces a new generation of Fig-wasps. The female wasp enters the Figs on the
Caprificus, and lays one egg in each flower, with the result that the flower
developes into a kind of gall. The mother-wasp dies within the Fig. The male wasp
is wingless; it bites a small passage into the ovaries containing the female wasps,
and impregnates them; the female wasps then escape from the Fig, those in the
Profichi carrying pollen away with them as they pass out. They then enter another
Fig, lay their eggs, and die. The edible Fig-tree similarly has three crops in the
year, Fiori di fico, Pedagnuoli, Cimaruoli. The wasps, entering these Figs, are
unable to lay their eggs in the ovary, but, nevertheless, they effect cross-pollination
on entering the Pedagnuoli, which bear fertile seeds.]

Fig. 345.—A Fig in longitudinal

section.
The flowers of Brosimum are the most reduced. The perianth is wanting, and
the ♂ -flower has only 1 stamen. Cecropia (Trumpet-tree), in S. Am., has its pith
divided into chambers; these are inhabited by ants, which feed upon small food-
bodies formed on the swollen base of the petioles. The leaves are petiolated, often
shield-like, fringed or lobed, and sometimes with white felted hairs. They serve as
food for Bradypus (the Sloth). Sorocea; Castilloa.
About 300 species exclusively in the warmer climates. The white Mulberry (M.
alba, from China, India, Mongolia) is cultivated for the sake of its leaves, which are
the indispensable food for silkworms. The black Mulberry (M. nigra, W. Asia) is
cultivated for its fruits, which are used for the officinal Mulberry juice. The ordinary
Fig-tree (Ficus carica) is from the Mediterranean. The fruit of the well-known
Oriental Sycamore (F. sycomorus) is edible. The Bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus
incisa) and the Jack (A. integrifolia) have their home in the South Sea Islands, and
are cultivated in tropical countries. The Bread-fruit is morphologically the same as
the Mulberry. It has a very large, spheroid inflorescence, whose floral-leaves and
perianth become fleshy and united into one nutritious mass, together with the axis,
which is also fleshy. The milky juice of the India-rubber tree (Ficus elastica, East
Indies, a common house-plant), and of Castilloa elastica (Am.) is the raw material
of India-rubber. The milky juice of Galactodendron utile (Cow-tree, S. Am.) is
saccharine and nutritious, but in Antiaris toxicaria (the Upas-tree, of Java) it is a
strong poison. The bast of the Paper-Mulberry tree (Br. papyrifera, Eastern Asia);
is used in Japan for paper. Shellac is obtained from a small, hemipterous insect
(Coccus lacca), which lives upon Ficus laccifera and F. religiosa (the Bo-tree,
sacred to Buddha), E. India. The wood of Maclura aurantica (Am.) has a yellow
colour, and is known as yellow Brazilian wood.
Order 4. Cannabaceæ. The plants which belong to this order are
aromatic herbs, either annuals or perennials, without latex. Leaves
palminerved, and more or less divided, hispid, and with free,
persistent stipules. Flowers always diœcious; ♂-flowers in panicles,
formed of dichasia, passing over into uniparous scorpioid cymes.
They differ from the Nettles, particularly in the 5-leaved perianth of
the ♂ -flower, the 5 stamens (Fig. 346–351) with filaments erect in
the bud, and in the ♀ -flower by the small, entire, cup-like perianth,
which surrounds the base of the ovary (Fig. 346, p. 352). The ovary
has two styles, or one divided into two, with two stigmas and a
pendulous, curved ovule (Fig. 346 B, 352 B); the fruit is a nut; the
embryo is curved (Hemp, Fig. 353), or rolled (Hop, Fig. 349), without
endosperm.
 Fig. 346.—Diagram of male and female flowers of the Hop and
Hemp: b the bract, p the perianth. The position of the embryo is
indicated.
Only 2 genera with 3 species (Asiatic), of which two are cultivated.
—Humulus lupulus (Hop, Figs. 347–349) is a twining, perennial
plant, twisting to the right, with opposite, palmilobed, rough leaves,
and large, interpetiolar stipules. The ♀ -flowers are situated in
closely-flowered, cone-like, compound inflorescences, with ultimately
large, thin, imbricate floral-leaves (Fig. 348) which bear the yellow,
glandular hairs, containing lupulin. This inflorescence is made up as
follows:—The most external floral-leaves are situated in pairs, and are the
persistent stipules of a leaf, the blade of which has become suppressed, or in any
case is rudimentary. Such a pair of stipules supports 4 (2–6) flowers in a double
uniparous cyme, whose central axis does not develope into a flower. The bracts of
these flowers (bracteoles of the partial inflorescence) become, at maturity, very
large, spathe-like, and, together with the stipules, produce a cone-like appearance.
 Fig. 347–348.—Humulus lupulus: 347,
twining stem; 348, branch with strobiles.
Cannabis sativa (Hemp, Figs. 350–353) is an East Indian herb,
with palmilobed leaves, and differs from the Hop in being annual,
erect, and in having its leaves opposite at the base and scattered
above. The ♀ -inflorescence is not cone-like as in the Hop, but the
flowers are similar in construction. The main difference is to be found in the
axillary shoot, which was suppressed in the Hop, and is in the Hemp developed
into a leaf-bearing shoot which on each side bears only one ♀-flower, and in the
fact that the bracts are not so strongly developed.
The “Hops” (the female inflorescences) are used in brewing, and medicinally on
account of the yellow glands which contain lupulin. The Indian variety of Cannabis
sativa contains an abundance of glandular hairs and resin. The withered
inflorescences are used in medicine and are officinal. The bast of the stems of the
Hemp is also used and the fat oil of the seeds. In Oriental countries the entire plant
is used in the preparation of an intoxicating drink (haschisch), the narcotic material
being found in the glandular hairs.

Fig. 349.—Humulus lupulus: fruit in

longitudinal section.
 Figs. 350–353.—Cannabis sativa: 350, ♂ -plant; 351, ♂ -flower; 352, ♀ -flower,
entire and in longitudinal section; 353, fruit in longitudinal section.
 Family 6. Polygonifloræ.
This family is on one side closely allied to the Urticaceæ by its
solitary, basal, vertical, and straight ovule, and by the conical ocrea
which envelopes the younger leaves in the bud, similar characters
being present in the Urticaceæ. On the other side it is related to the
Curvembryæ. The flowers are small, often trimerous, regular and
slightly perigynous (in Chloranthaceæ, if they properly belong to this family,
and Houttuynia, more or less epigynous). Syncarps are present in some
Piperaceæ, but the fruit is generally a single fruit, one-seeded berry,
nut or drupe. The leaves are generally scattered.
Order 1. Polygonaceæ. The majority are herbaceous plants with
round, often jointed stems, scattered leaves and ocrea, that is a
membranous, tubular, ligular or stipular structure inside the base of
the leaf, which clasps the stem and axillary bud; the edges of the
lamina are rolled backwards in the bud. The flowers are regular,
small, generally ☿, slightly perigynous, with inconspicuous, simple,
green or white perianth of 5–6 free segments; stamens 5–9 (Fig.
354) sometimes arranged in two series; gynœceum 2–3 carpels,
ovary unilocular with one basal, straight (orthotropous) ovule, 2–3
free styles. The fruit is a 2–3-angular nut; the embryo, with mealy
endosperm, is straight or curved (Fig. 355 H), often unsymmetrical.
—The inflorescences are compound, and generally branch from the axils of the
bracteoles, so that the last partial-inflorescences become coiled, uniparous
scorpioid cymes; in Polygonum the two bracteoles unite into a membranous tube;
in Rheum and Rumex there is only one bracteole.
 Fig. 354.—A Diagram of Rheum; B of Rumex; C of Polygonum fagopyrum; D of
P. lapathifolium. The ovules are indicated inside the ovaries; bracts and bracteoles
are not shown.
Rheum (Rhubarb, Fig. 354 A) has a 6-leaved, petaloid perianth
(Pn 3 + 3) and 9 stamens (A 32 + 3). The 3-winged nut is not
enclosed by the perianth.
Rumex (Dock, Fig. 354 B) has 6 stamens (A 32 + 0); the perianth
is 6-leaved (Pr 3 + 3), green or red, and the triangular nut is
enveloped by the 3 interior perianth-leaves, which point upwards and
continue to grow after flowering. These perianth-leaves often have
warts on their outer surface. The following are monœcious: R. acetosa and
R. acetosella.
 Polygonum (Knot-grass, Figs. 354 C, D; 355). The petaloid
perianth is most frequently 5-merous (2/5 spiral); 5–8 stamens. The
nut is triangular (Fig. 354 C, 355), or lenticular (Fig. 354 D). There are
two whorls of stamens, the external with introrse, and the internal with extrorse
anthers. The gynœceum is often bicarpellate (Fig. 354 D).
The flowers may be considered as constructed upon the monocotyledonous
type. Pterostegia has a perfectly monocotyledonous flower with 5 trimerous
whorls. Rheum likewise, but here the external staminal whorl is doubled (Fig. 254
A). Oxyria has a dimerous Rheum-flower (4-leaved perianth, 6 stamens, 2
stigmas). Rumex has a Rheum-flower with the suppression of the internal whorl of
stamens (Fig. 354 B); Emex is a dimerous Rumex. Polygonum, to which
Coccoloba, Muehlenbeckia and others are related, differs from Rheum chiefly in
having one of the leaves, which in the latter takes part in the formation of the
perianth, developed in this case into a bracteole (so that the perianth is reduced to
five members), and several or all the stamens in the inner whorl become
suppressed.—The perianth in Coccoloba and Muehlenbeckia is more or less
perigynous and becomes fleshy, enclosing the fruit. Muehlenbeckia platyclada has
flat branches with rudimentary leaves; sometimes branches with normal, arrow-
shaped leaves are found. Atraphaxis.
 Fig. 355.—Polygonum fagopyrum: A branch with flower and fruits (nat. size); B
flower; C the same in longitudinal section; D anterior and posterior view of stamen;
E gynœceum; F fruit (mag.); G fruit in longitudinal section; H transverse section,
showing the curved cotyledons embedded in the endosperm; I the embryo.
 Pollination. Rumex is wind-pollinated, the stigmas are therefore large and
brush-like (indicated in Fig. 354 B). Rheum and Polygonum are insect-pollinated
and have therefore capitate stigmas, etc.; honey-glands are situated at the base of
the stamens (d, in Fig. 354 C, and n in Fig. 356); a few small-flowered Polygonum
species are self-pollinated; Buckwheat (P. fagopyrum) is dimorphic and has long-
styled and short-styled flowers (Fig. 356). Pol. bistorta is protandrous and
homostyled.
About 750 species, most of which are found in the temperate regions of the
Northern Hemisphere, some reaching as far as the snow line or into the Arctic
regions (Oxyria, Kœnigia). Trees and shrubs are found in the Tropics: Coccoloba,
Triplaris. Rheum is Central Asiatic.—The thick rhizomes of R. officinale (Rhubarb)
are officinal. The rhizomes of the ordinarily cultivated species, R. undulatum and
rhaponticum, are used in veterinary medicine. The following are cultivated as
culinary plants for the sake of their leaves:—Rumex acetosa (Sorrel), R. patientia,
R. scutatus, and Rheum undulatum (petioles). Several species of Polygonum (P.
hydropiper and others) have a sharp, pungent taste. “Buckwheat” is the mealy fruit
of Polygonum fagopyrum (Central Asia) and is of value as a farinaceous food. P.
cuspidatum (P. sieboldi, Japan) is an ornamental plant.—Calligonum in sandy and
stony deserts.

Fig. 356.—Flower of Polygonum fagopyrum in longitudinal section: 1, long-

styled; 2, short-styled; a the anthers; st the stigmas; n nectary.

Order 2. Piperaceæ (Peppers). Shrubs or herbs, often with

nodose, jointed stem; leaves simple, entire, often with curved veins;
stipules wanting (Peperomia) or intrapetiolar and cap-like, often
enclosing the terminal buds (Piper). The flowers in the group
Pipereæ (Piper, Fig. 357, and Peperomia) are borne in spikes with
fleshy axes (club-like), seldom in racemes, the outer ones are
crowded and are ☿ or unisexual, always small, naked and without
bracteoles; generally stamens 3 + 3, and gynœceum 3, but the number of the
stamens may be reduced by suppression to 2, and the carpels to 1. The flowers
are situated in the axils of the small, generally shield-like floral-
leaves. The ovary is always unilocular and has one upright,
orthotropous ovule. Fruit a berry or drupe. Both endosperm and
perisperm are present, the latter being especially well developed
(Fig. 359).
Piper; generally shrubs with scattered leaves, and terminal
inflorescences which are crowded to one side by the development of
the highest lateral bud, so that they are situated opposite the leaves
(Fig. 357). Many species have stems with an abnormal anatomical
structure.—Peperomia; chiefly succulent herbs, often epiphytes, with
opposite or verticillate leaves having aqueous tissue on the upper
side.
 Fig. 357.—Piper nigrum: branch with fruit (½)
The group Saurureæ (considered by some as an order, and perhaps
representing a more original type) has 3–4 carpels with many ovules. Lactoris
stands the highest with regular 3-merous perianth, 3 + 3 stamens and 3 carpels,
which are united at the base. Fruit a capsule with several seeds. (It has one
species from the island of Juan Fernandez, and is also placed in an order of its
own, Lactoridaceæ, allied to the Magnoliaceæ, through Drimys).—Saururus has
naked flowers; most frequently 6 stamens, and 4 carpels, free or united at the
base, each with 2-4 orthotropous ovules. Fruit, small berries.—Houttuynia;
stamens situated a little upward on the ovaries; placentation parietal; capsule
many-seeded.
About 1,000 species; entirely tropical, especially from South America and East
India. They are found chiefly among the underwood in damp, shady places; some,
which are fleshy (Peperomia), live as epiphytes on trees; a few climb by roots.—
Uses. Several Piperaceæ are used medicinally and for spices on account of their
pungent properties and the essential oils found in nearly all parts of the plant. The
following are officinal: “Black-pepper” (the unripe, dried fruits) and “White-pepper”
(the seeds of the ripe fruits) of Piper nigrum (climbing shrub, East Indian); “Cubeb”
berries of P. cubeba (climbing shrub, Java). “Long-pepper” is the unripe
inflorescence of P. longum, East India. The leaves of P. angustifolia (Matico) are
officinal. The leaves of the Betelpepper (East India) are used together with the
nuts of the Areca-palm to form the well-known East Indian intoxicating compound
“Betel.” A good many others are also used.

Fig. 358.—Piper nigrum

(Diagram). In addition to the bract
there are two structures
resembling bracteoles.
 Fig. 359.—Piper nigrum: Fruit in
longitudinal section, showing the
endosperm, perisperm, and pericarp.
Order 3. Chloranthaceæ. (Chloranthus, Hedyosmum) have opposite leaves,
with stipules more or less united at the base, and inferior “drupes.” Ovules
pendulous. Only endosperm. About 33 species, Tropical.

Family 7. Curvembryæ.
The plants in this family have a curved ovule, and most frequently
a kidney-shaped seed (generally provided with fine, cuticular,
projecting warts, Fig. 362 B), with a curved, peripheral embryo
enclosing the endosperm which is most frequently floury (Figs. 362
C, 365 H; for exceptions, see Fig. 366); the seeds in all cases are
borne on a centrally-placed, and in most cases free, placenta (they
are “basal” when there is only 1 ovule in the ovary, Fig. 364). The
flower is regular, hypogynous or perigynous (Fig. 364) (only rarely
epigynous) and usually 5-merous. The flower which is most
complete has 5 whorls (S5, P5, A5+5, G2-3–5), as in some genera
of the Caryophyllaceæ (Figs. 360, 361); but from this type it
becomes reduced, the petals and stamens being suppressed, so
that finally 5 perianth-leaves, 5 stamens (opposite the perianth-
leaves), and 2 carpels (Fig. 361 F) only are present; for example, in