Chapter 24: The Respiratory System

The Respiratory System

▪ Specialized to deliver oxygen to the blood and remove carbon
dioxide from it.
o During inspiration (inhaling), incoming air is conducted to the
alveoli where it exchanges gasses with the bloodstream.
o The air flows back out during expiration.

▪ The body requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide during

aerobic cellular respiration, which produces ATP.
 The Respiratory System
Conducting zone of the respiratory system
▪ Consists of passages that serve only for airflow
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles

Respiratory zone of the respiratory system

▪ Consists of alveoli where gasses are exchanged

▪ Upper respiratory system: nose through larynx.

o i.e., respiratory organs in the head and neck

▪ Lower respiratory system: trachea through alveoli.

o i.e., respiratory organs in the thorax
 Lung Anatomy
▪ Contain: bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli

▪ Right lung: 3 lobes → superior, middle, and

inferior.
o Shorter than left lung
o Horizontal fissure: separates superior lobe
from middle lobe.
o Oblique fissure: separates middle lobe from
inferior lobe.

▪ Left lung: 2 lobes → superior and inferior.

o The left lung is narrower than the right lung.
o Oblique fissure: separates superior lobe from
inferior lobe.
 Lung Anatomy
▪ Apex: blunt superior end; projects a little above
clavicle.

▪ Base: broad concave inferior region; sits on

diaphragm.

▪ Hilum: slit on mediastinal surface of lung;

wedge-shaped.

▪ Root: primary bronchus, blood vessels,

lymphatic vessels and nerves.

▪ Cardiac notch: Region of cardiac impression

visible on anterior surface of left lung.

▪ Cardiac impression: Indentation on medial

surface of left lung where heart presses against
it.
 Upper Respiratory System: Nose
▪ Extends from nares (nostrils) to posterior nasal
aperture.
▪ Functions
o Warms, filters, and moistens inhaled air.
o Detects odors
o Serves as a resonating chamber for the voice
 Upper Respiratory System: Nose
▪ Structure of facial part of the nose
o Bone: nasal bone and maxilla
o Cartilage: lateral, septal, alar cartilages;
o Ala nasi: flared, lateral, lower regions of the nose formed
from dense connective tissue
 Upper Respiratory System: Nose
▪ Air enters the vestibule, the dilated region
inside each nostril.

▪ Vestibule is lined by stratified squamous

epithelium (harsh environment).

▪ Vibrissae: Stiff hairs in vestibule; keep

insects and large particles from entering.

▪ Separated into right and left halves, the

nasal fossae, by the nasal septum.
 Upper Respiratory System: Nose
Nasal septum is formed by:
▪ Vomer
▪ Perpendicular plate of ethmoid
▪ Septal nasal cartilage

Roof is formed by:

▪ Ethmoid bone, sphenoid bone, frontal bones and
nasal bones

Floor is formed by the hard palate

▪ Maxilla bone (anterior 2/3)
▪ Palatine bone (posterior 1/3)
 Upper Respiratory System: Nose
Nasal conchae (superior, middle and inferior)
▪ Three bony scrolls covered by a mucous
membrane.
▪ Increase air turbulence in nasal the cavity.
▪ Ensures that incoming air contacts a mucous
membrane.
▪ Superior and middle conchus: part of ethmoid
bone
▪ Inferior nasal conchus: bone in itself
▪ Meatus: narrow air passageway beneath conche
 Respiratory Epithelium
Respiratory epithelium = ciliated pseudostratified columnal epithelium
o Contains mucus producing goblet cells
o Contains submucosal mucoserous glands in underlying connective tissue
• Secrete a watery fluid with varying amount of mucous
o Contains mucosal associated secondary lymphoid tissue (MALT) throughout underlying
connective tissue
 Upper Respiratory System: Nose
Respiratory epithelium lines the nasal cavity except for the vestibule and the olfactory region
▪ Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
▪ Contains goblet cells
o Produce mucus
▪ Contains ciliated columnar cells
o Cilia sweep mucus towards pharynx to be swallowed
▪ Lamina propria (part of mucous membrane that anchors epithelium to underlying tissue) is
loose connective tissue rich in blood vessels
o Warm the air
▪ Contains seromucus glands
o Mucus glides easily over a serous film

Olfactory epithelium
▪ Located in 5cm3 area of roof of nasal fossa and adjacent septum and superior concha
▪ Cilia of olfactory epithelium are immobile and bind odor molecules.
▪ Contains olfactory sensory neurons
 Upper Respiratory System: Pharynx
▪ Funnel-shaped muscular organ commonly referred to as the throat.
▪ Extends from posterior nasal apertures to the larynx.
3 Zones:
▪ Nasopharynx: communicates with the nasal cavities.
o Posterior to posterior nasal aperture and soft palate.
o Lined by respiratory epithelium.
o Contains tonsils and adenoids (secondary lymphoid tissue)
▪ Oropharynx: communicates with the oral cavity.
o Extends from inferior region of soft palate to epiglottis
o Lined by stratified squamous epithelium
▪ Laryngopharynx: communicates with the larynx.
o Extends from epiglottis to opening into esophagus.
o Lined by stratified squamous epithelium
 Upper Respiratory System: Larynx
▪ Functions in sound production.
▪ Glottis: Opening into larynx.
▪ Epiglottis: Tissue flap that covers the glottis when swallowing.
o Prevents food entering the larynx.
▪ Wall is supported by 9 cartilages .
o Epiglottic: cartilage in epiglottis
o Thyroid: largest; shield-shaped
o Cricoid: ring-like; below thyroid
o Arytenoid: double; posterior to thyroid
o Corniculate: double, tiny, horn-shaped
o Cuneiform: double; support soft tissue
between arytenoids and epiglottis
Upper Respiratory System: Larynx
 Upper Respiratory System: Larynx
▪ Lined by respiratory epithelium (except vocal cords)
▪ Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
o Close larynx when you swallow to prevent choking.
▪ Vestibular ligaments inferior and parallel to vestibular folds support the vocal cords
▪ Glottis: vocal cords and opening between them
▪ Air vibrates the vocal cords and produces sound
▪ Vocal cords are lined by stratified squamous epithelium
 Lower Respiratory System: Trachea
▪ Wall is supported by 16 – 20 C-shaped cartilage supports.
o Prevent trachea from collapsing during ventilation.

▪ Ends of each cartilage are connected by smooth muscle,

the trachealis muscle.
o Contraction/relaxation narrows/widens lumen of trachea
to adjust airflow.

▪ Adjacent cartilages are connected by fibroelastic

connective tissue.
o Allows for elongation of trachea during inspiration.
 Lower Respiratory System: Trachea
▪ Lined by respiratory epithelium.
▪ The mucociliary escalator moves mucous with
trapped debris toward pharynx.

▪ Walls contain mucus and serous glands in addition to

the goblet cells in the epithelium.

▪ The trachea bifurcates at the carina giving rise to

the right and left main (primary) bronchus.
o Carina: internal median ridge of lowest
cartilage.
 Lower Respiratory System: Bronchi
▪ Main (Primary) Bronchi:
o Wall supported by C-shaped cartilage
supports.
o Lined by respiratory epithelium
o Layer of smooth muscle cells present

▪ Right main bronchus

o Wider and straighter than the left.
o Gives off superior lobar bronchus before
entering the lung.
o Gives off middle and inferior right lobar
bronchi after entering the lung.

▪ Left main bronchus

o Gives off a superior and inferior left
lobar bronchus after entering the lung.
 Lower Respiratory System: Bronchi

▪ Lobar Bronchi: 5 total

o Produced by branching of the main bronchi.
o Enter lobes of lungs.
o 3 branch from right main bronchus and 2 from the
left main bronchus.
o C-shaped cartilages replaced by cartilage plates.
▪ Lined by respiratory epithelium
o Cells grow shorter and epithelium gets thinner
 Lower Respiratory System: Bronchi
▪ Segmental Bronchi
o Produced by branching of the lobar bronchi.
o Lined by respiratory epithelium
o Thinner wall/smaller diameter than lobar bronchi.
o Each ventilate a bronchopulmonary segment.

▪ Bronchopulmonary segment
o Discrete anatomical and structural unit.
o 10 in right lung and 8 in left.
o Each separated by layers of connective tissue (intersegmental
septum).
o Help limit spread of disease.
 Lower Respiratory System: Bronchioles
▪ Form from branching of segmental bronchi.
▪ 1 mm or less in diameter.
▪ Wall contains smooth muscle but no cartilage.
▪ Starts as pseudostratified columnr epithelium but
grades into simple columnar and then simple
cuboidal epithelium.
▪ No goblet cells or mucous glands, but cilia still
present.
▪ Portion of lung ventilated by one bronchiole is called
a pulmonary lobule.

▪ Terminal bronchioles
o Form by branching of bronchioles.
o About 65, 000 in each lung.
o 0.5 mm or less in diameter.
 Lower Respiratory System: Bronchioles
▪ Terminal bronchioles give off smaller respiratory bronchioles
o Alveoli bud from the walls.
o They are the beginning of the respiratory zone.
o Scanty smooth muscle

▪ Each respiratory bronchioles branches to produce 2 - 10 alveolar ducts

o Non-ciliated simple squamous epithelia

▪ Alveolar ducts end in alveolar sacs

o Clusters of alveoli around a central
space called the atrium
 Lower Respiratory System: Alveoli
▪ Gas exchange regions of lungs.
▪ Composed of 2 cell types

Squamous (Type I) Alveolar Cells

▪ Cover ~95% of surface area.
▪ Simple squamous cells.
▪ Site of exchange of gases between lungs and
blood.

Great (Type II) Alveolar Cells

▪ Cover ~5% of surface area.
▪ Simple cuboidal cells with round nuclei.
▪ Repair alveolar epithelium and secrete surfactant
which decreases surface tension in alveoli
(prevents alveoli from collapsing).
 Lower Respiratory System: Alveoli
Alveolar Macrophages
▪ Phagocytize surfactant, dust, etc.
▪ Migrate between type I alveolar cells and enter
alveolus.
▪ 100 million migrate into bronchi each day.
▪ Removed by mucociliary escalator to pharynx.
 Respiration
▪ Respiration: Exchange of gases.
o External respiration: Exchange of gases between the lungs (alveoli) and the blood.
o Internal respiration: Exchange of gases between the blood and body cells.
▪ Ventilation: movement of air into and out of the lungs.
 Pleurae
▪ Double serous membranes enclosing each lung.

▪ Visceral pleura
o Adheres to surface of lung.
o At hilum, turns back on itself and forms parietal
pleura.

▪ Parietal pleura
o Adheres to mediastinum, inner surface of rib
cage, and superior surface of diaphragm.

▪ Both secrete serous fluid: pleural fluid

▪ Surface tension holds the two layers together.

▪ Pleural cavity
o Potential space between the pleural membranes
 Ventilation
Inspiration
▪ Ribcage moves up and outward.
▪ Diaphragm contracts and moves down.
o ↑ volume of thoracic cavity and lungs
o ↓ air pressure in lungs
o When atmospheric pressure exceeds air pressure
in lungs → air enters lungs passively.

▪ Diaphragm is prime mover of inspiration

▪ External and internal intercostal muscles are
synergists
▪ Accessory muscles aid in deeper inspiration
 Inspiration
INSPIRATION
Sternocleidomastoid
(elevates sternum)
Scalenes
(fix or elevate ribs 1–2)

External intercostals
(elevate ribs 2–12,
widen thoracic cavity)

Pectoralis minor (cut)

(elevates ribs 3–5) FORCED
Forced expiration EXPIRATION

Internal intercostals, costal part

(depress ribs 1–11,
Internal intercostals,
narrow thoracic cavity)
intercartilaginous part
(aid in elevating ribs) Diaphragm
(ascends and reduces depth
Diaphragm of thoracic cavity)
(descends and Rectus abdominis (depresses lower ribs,
increases depth pushes diaphragm upward by compressing
of thoracic cavity) abdominal organs)
External oblique (same effects as
rectus abdominis)
 Ventilation
Expiration
▪ Ribcage moves back down and inward.
▪ Diaphragm relaxes and domes back up.
o ↓ volume of the thoracic cavity and lungs
o ↑ air pressure in the lungs.
o When air pressure in lungs exceeds atmospheric
pressure, air moves passively out of lungs.

▪ Normal expiration is passive

▪ Muscles can aid in forceful expiration.