ARTICLE KD-1
GENERAL
KD-100 SCOPE
(a) The requirements of this Part KD provide specific
design criteria for some commonly used pressure vessel
shapes under pressure loadings and, within specified
limits, criteria or guidance for treatment of other load-
ings. This Part does not contain rules to cover all
details of design.
(b) A complete analysis, including a fatigue or frac-
ture mechanics analysis, of all structural parts of the
vessel shall be performed in accordance with applicable
Articles of this Part. All of the loadings specified in
the User’s Design Specification (see KG-311) and all
stresses introduced by the fabrication processing, auto-
frettage, temperature gradients, etc., shall be considered.
This analysis shall be documented in the Manufacturer’s
Design Report. See KG-324.
(c) Small vessels, which the User’s Design Specifica-
tion clearly states are for research laboratory service
only, are exempt from the requirements of Articles
KD-3 and KD-4, provided all the following are met:
(1) the volume does not exceed 75 cu in.
(1.26 dm3);
(2) the required number of design cycles does not
exceed 1000;
(3) all design limits of Article KD-2 are satisfied;
(4) the vessel is intended to be operated at all
times with supplementary protective devices to provide
personnel safety.
KD-101 Materials and Combinations of
Materials
A vessel shall be designed for and constructed of
materials permitted in Part KM. Any combination of
those materials in Part KM may be used, provided the
applicable rules are followed and the requirements of
Section IX for welding dissimilar metals are met, when
welding is involved.
Material design data such as moduli of elasticity,
coefficients of thermal expansion, yield and tensile
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strength values, and other material properties are given
in Section II, Part D.
KD-102 Types of Construction
Article KD-2 contains rules for the basic design of
all pressure vessels within the scope of this Division.
Article KD-2 also provides rules for designing non-
welded vessels which are constructed of forged or
otherwise wrought material machined to its final con-
figuration.
For openings, closures, and other types of construc-
tion, such as multiple-wall and layered, wire-wound,
interlocking strip, or welded, these rules shall be supple-
mented by those given in the appropriate Articles, i.e.,
KD-6, KD-8, KD-9, KD-10, and KD-11.
KD-103 Protective Liners
A protective liner is the innermost layer of a pressure
vessel, whose function is to protect the surface of load-
carrying members against chemical and mechanical
damage. It can be of any suitable material, and this
material need not be listed in Part KM. Credit shall
not be given for the thickness of a protective liner in
the static strength and primary stress calculations, but
the effects of a liner shall be considered in the secondary
stress and number of design cyclic loading calculations.
The designer shall consider the consequences of the
liner failure in order to preserve the integrity of the
pressure boundary.
KD-104 Prestressed Inner Layers A99
A prestressed inner layer is the innermost shell of
a pressure vessel which is surrounded and put in
compression by one or more outer shells such that a
crack through its thickness would cause the vessel to
leak but not burst. This layer shall be considered in
the static strength and primary stress calculations, and
shall be fabricated from a material listed in Part KM.
The material of this layer need not comply with the
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 KD-104 1998 SECTION VIII — DIVISION 3
minimum Charpy V-notch impact values listed in Table
KM-234.2(a), providing:
(a) failure of the inner liner will not result in separa-
tion of the end closure from the vessel; and
(b) the requirements of KD-141(c) are satisfied.
KD-110 LOADINGS
Some of the loadings which shall be considered are
as follows (see KG-311.8):
(a) internal and external pressure, at coincident tem-
perature;
(b) service temperature conditions which produce
thermal stresses, such as those due to thermal gradients
or differential thermal expansion;
(c) weight of vessel and normal contents under op-
erating or test conditions;
(d) superimposed loads caused by other vessels, pip-
ing, or operating equipment;
(e) wind loads and earthquake loads;
(f) reactions of supporting lugs, rings, saddles, or
other types of vessel supports;
(g) impact loads, including rapidly fluctuating pres-
sures and reaction forces from relief devices;
(h) loadings resulting from expansion or contraction
of attached piping or other parts;
(i) residual stresses, introduced at fabrication, e.g.,
by autofrettage, hydrostatic test, shrink fit, prestressed
wire or strip winding, rolling, forming, welding, thermal
treatments, and surface treatment such as shot peening;
(j) the effect of fluid flow rates, density, jet impinge-
ment streams, inlet and outlet temperatures, on loadings.
KD-111 Limits of Test Pressure
The lower and upper limits on test pressure are
specified in Article KT-3.
KD-112 Basis for Design Temperature
(a) When the occurrence of different metal tempera-
tures during operation can be definitely predicted for
different axial zones of the vessel, the design of the
different zones may be based on their predicted tempera-
tures.
When the vessel is expected to operate at more than
one temperature and under different pressure conditions,
all significant sets of temperature and coincident pres-
sure shall be considered.
The metal temperature under steady operating condi-
tions may vary significantly through the thickness. The
temperature used in the design shall be not less than
the mean temperature through the thickness of the part
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KD-120
being examined under the set of conditions considered.
If necessary, the metal temperature shall be determined
by computations or by measurements from equipment
in service under equivalent operating conditions. How-
ever, in no case shall the temperature at any point in
the metal or the design temperature exceed the maximum
temperature in the yield strength tables in Section II,
Part D for the material in question or exceed the
temperature limitations specified elsewhere in this Divi-
sion, except as provided in KD-113.
In vessels exposed to repeated fluctuations of tempera-
ture in normal operation, the design shall be based on
the highest fluid temperature, unless the designer can
demonstrate by calculation or experiment that a lower
temperature can be justified.
For determination of the fracture toughness to be
used in the fracture mechanics evaluation, the minimum
design metal temperature (MDMT) at the point of
interest shall be used. See KG-311.4(d) for a definition
of MDMT and for service restriction when the vessel
temperature is below MDMT.
The lower limit of the metal temperature during the
hydrostatic test is given in KT-320.
(b) It is the responsibility of the designer to specify
the anticipated temperature of the overpressure relief
device.
KD-113 Upset Conditions
Sudden process upsets, which occur infrequently, can
cause local increases or decreases in metal surface
temperature. For the purpose of the static pressure
design requirements, no credit shall be taken for that
portion of the wall thickness which is predicted to
exceed the maximum temperature permitted in the
material’s yield strength table. The minimum metal
surface temperature which occurs during sudden cooling
shall be considered in the fracture toughness evaluations.
A complete stress and fracture mechanics analysis
is required for any credible upset condition.
KD-114 Environmental Effects
The designer shall consider environmental effects,
such as corrosion, erosion, and stress corrosion cracking,
and their influence on the material thickness, fatigue,
and fracture behavior.
KD-120 DESIGN BASIS
The design of the vessel parts is based on the
requirement that the average and local stress intensities
shall be limited to values which ensure an adequate
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KD-120 PART KD — DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
safety margin against relevant failure modes under the
stated conditions. The fulfillment of this requirement
shall be demonstrated by a calculation based on the
following data:
(a) the results of a stress analysis (Article KD-2)
giving the average stress intensity across section areas
and the local stress intensity at critical points;
(b) yield strength Sy (see Part KM and Section II,
Part D);
(c) fracture toughness KIc (see Appendix D);
(d) fatigue crack growth constants C and m (see
Article KD-4);
(e) fatigue strength Sa (see Article KD-3);
(f) mill undertolerance on material thickness;
(g) corrosion/erosion allowances [see KG-311.7(b)].
KD-121 Relevant Failure Modes
Some of the relevant failure modes are the following:
(a) through the thickness yielding as a consequence
of too high an average stress intensity;
(b) local yielding of a magnitude which could pro-
duce excessive distortion and unacceptable transfer of
load to other portions of the structure, or leakage;
(c) leak caused by stable fatigue crack propagation
through the wall (leak-before-burst);
(d) unstable crack growth, i.e., fast fracture;
(e) buckling (see KD-252).
KD-130 DESIGN CRITERIA
KD-131 Maximum Shear Stress Theory
In accordance with this theory, yielding at any point
occurs when the difference between the algebraically
largest and the algebraically smallest principal stress
reaches the yield strength of the material.
KD-132 Residual Stress
Except as provided in KD-924, residual stresses are
not considered in the static analysis, but shall be
considered in the calculated number of design cycles
in accordance with Article KD-3 or KD-4.
(a) The vessel may contain residual stresses of prede-
termined magnitudes and distributions. These residual
stresses may be produced by assembling concentric
cylinders with an interference in the dimensions of the
mating surfaces (shrink fitting). Such vessels shall meet
the requirements of Articles KD-8 and KF-8.
(b) Residual stresses also may be produced by auto-
frettage and wire winding, in which case the component
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KD-141
shall meet the requirements of Articles KD-5, KD-9,
KF-5, or KF-9, as appropriate.
(c) Residual stresses from fabrication operations such
as welding and thermal heat treatments may also be
present. See KD-110(i).
KD-133 Openings and Closures
Article KD-6 provides rules for the design of openings
through vessel walls, connections made to these open-
ings, and end closures and their attachment to cylindrical
vessels. Additional guidance is provided in Appendix H.
KD-140 FATIGUE EVALUATION
If it can be shown that the vessel will have a
leak-before-burst mode of failure (see KD-141), the
calculated number of design cycles may be determined
using the rules of either Article KD-3 or Article KD-
4. However, if the leak-before-burst mode of failure
cannot be shown, then the Article KD-4 procedure
shall be used.
KD-141 Leak-Before-Burst Mode of Failure
For the purpose of this Code, it may be assumed
that leak-before-burst failure will occur if the critical
crack depth of a crack in the appropriate plane is
greater than the wall thickness at the location considered.
Since many of the available methods for calculating
stress intensity factors are not accurate for very deep
cracks, it may not be possible to determine critical
crack depths which are greater than 0.8 times the wall
thickness. In such cases, leak-before-burst mode of
failure may be assumed if both of the following condi-
tions are met:
(a) the stress intensity factor at a crack depth equal
to 0.8 times the wall thickness is less than the fracture
toughness of the material; and
(b) the remaining ligament (distance from the crack
tip to the free surface that the crack is approaching)
is less than the quantity (KIc/Sy)2.
Alternatively, leak-before-burst mode of failure can be
established by the user based on documented experience
within the industry with vessels of similar design, size,
material properties, and operating conditions (see KG-
311.10).
For multiple wall or wire- or strip-wound vessels,
it may be assumed that leak-before-burst mode of failure
will occur, in the event of rapid fracture of the inner
layer if no parts or fragments are ejected and the outer
KD-141 1998 SECTION VIII — DIVISION 3 KD-141

layer remains intact, although there may be some plastic

deformation.
For the case of failure due to a crack in the tangential–
radial plane of a cylinder, such as a crack growing
radially from an end closure thread or blind end, it is
not possible to ensure a leak-before-burst mode of
failure. Therefore, the number of design cycles for
these cases shall be calculated using Article KD-4.

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