Psychology for Educators 1A

(PSED5111)
Booster Session 2024
By
Nomcebo Ndaba
Rosebank College - Durban
Learning Unit 1 Roots of Psychology and Paradigm Shifts
Theme 1: General Orientation: (Where did Psychology come from?)
LO1: Use an example to highlight the importance of perspective and perspective-taking in
Psychology.
LO2: Describe the focus of Rationalism as a paradigm and its contributions to modern
Psychology.
LO3: Explain how Empiricism can be used as a technique in a classroom situation.
LO4: Apply Structuralism and Functionalism as two key approaches of modern Psychology.
LO1: Use an example to highlight the importance of perspective and perspective-taking in
Psychology.

• In psychology, perspective and perspective-taking are crucial for understanding

human behaviour, social interactions, and mental health.
• It highlights how understanding that others have different views and knowledge is
critical for effective interpersonal interactions.

LO2: Describe the focus of Rationalism as a paradigm and its contributions to modern
Psychology.
Rationalism, as a paradigm

Emphasizes the role of reason and logic as the primary sources of knowledge and understanding.

Originating in the philosophical traditions of figures like René Descartes

Rationalism asserts that certain truths about the world and human experience can be deduced
through intellectual reasoning rather than sensory experience alone.

Focus of Rationalism

• Innate Ideas: Rationalists argue that some knowledge is innate (natural)

• Deductive Reasoning: Rationalism places a strong emphasis on deductive reasoning, where
conclusions are logically derived from premises. This method contrasts with empirical
approaches that rely on observation and induction.

Contributions to Modern Psychology

Rationalism as a paradigm emphasizes the primacy of reason and innate ideas in acquiring
knowledge. Its influence on modern psychology is extreme, shaping the development of cognitive
psychology and neuropsychological research. The rationalist legacy continues to inform our
understanding of the human mind and its capabilities.

LO3: Explain how Empiricism can be used as a technique in a classroom situation.

Empiricism: knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience.

Examples of how Empiricism can be used as a technique in a classroom situation.

Social Sciences (History):

Role-play - experience a particular event (e.g. voting).

Excursion - Visiting museums/historical sites

Social Sciences (Geography): Observe and collect information (weather patterns)

Like Sciences:

• Observe and collect information (track & record plant growth).

• Experiments (dissect a plant or animal to learn about its anatomy).
• Excursion - Visiting nature reserves/ botanical gardens - observe wildlife.

Mathematics: Use objects (blocks or beads)

LO4: Apply Structuralism and Functionalism as two key approaches of modern Psychology.
Functionalism and Structuralism are two foundational schools of thought in psychology that emerged
in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. While both contributed significantly to the development of
psychology as a scientific discipline, they differ in their focus, methods, and underlying philosophies.

Structuralism
Founders: Wilhelm Wundt and Edward B.
Titchener
Focused on the components of the mind.
Relied on introspection and sought to create a
map of the mind’s structure.
Introspection was the main method used in
structuralism.
Functionalism
Founders: William James, John Dewey
Focused on the functions of mental processes.
Used a variety of methods and was more open
to studying different aspects of mental life and
behaviour.
Used a variety of methods, including
introspection, observation, and experiments.

Influenced by the natural sciences' emphasis on
structure and classification
Aimed to identify and describe the basic
elements of consciousness.
Influenced by evolutionary theory and its
emphasis on adaptation and practical utility.
Functionalists aimed to understand how mental
processes work to help individuals adapt to
their environments.
Learning Unit 2 Perspectives in Psychology
Theme 1: Psychodynamic Perspective
LO1: Discuss how the Psychodynamic perspective could be used to understand behaviour in
a classroom setting.
Theme 2: Behaviourist Perspective: Classical and Operant Conditioning
LO2: Outline the historical origins of behaviourism as a perspective in Psychology.
LO3: Discuss behaviourism and its role in the classroom.
Theme 3: Humanistic Perspective
LO4: Compare the basic views of the humanistic approach proposed by Maslow with those
proposed by Carl Rogers.
LO5: Describe how the humanistic perspective might be appealing in the school setting.
Theme 4: Cognitive Perspective
LO6: Explain how information processing, using the computer analogy as an example, as a
cognitive approach to Psychology and its uses in the classroom.
Theme 5: Psychobiological Perspective
LO7: Explain how the Psychobiological perspective will assist teachers with understanding
behaviour management in the classroom.
Theme 6: Evolutionary Perspective
LO8: Describe the role that social and cognitive factors play in how children adapt to their
environment.
LO1: Discuss how the Psychodynamic perspective could be used to understand behaviour
in a classroom setting.

Psychodynamic perspective

• Sigmund Freud
• Focuses on the influence of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences
on behaviour.
In a classroom setting, this perspective can be used to understand and address student
behaviour in several ways:
Unconscious Motives and Desires
Learners' behaviours may be influenced by unconscious motives and desires that stem from
early childhood experiences.
For example:

• A learner who shows aggression might be expressing unresolved conflicts from

home, such as parental neglect or sibling conflict.
• A learner who is withdrawn or excessively shy might be avoiding social interactions
due to unconscious fears or anxieties rooted in past experiences.
Identifying Root Causes of Behaviour
Understanding the underlying psychodynamic factors can help educators address the root
causes of concerning behaviours rather than just the symptoms.
For instance:

• A student frequently disrupting the class might be doing so to gain the attention they
lack at home.
• A student struggling with anxiety during tests might have deeper fears of failure and
inadequacy stemming from early childhood experiences.
Interventions can be designed to address these underlying issues:

• Referring students to school counsellors who can explore their unconscious conflicts
and past experiences.
• Ensuring the classroom is a safe space where students feel valued and understood
can help mitigate some of the negative effects of their unconscious struggles.
• Engaging with parents to understand the home environment and provide a
consistent approach to dealing with behavioural issues.
LO2: Outline the historical origins of behaviourism as a perspective in Psychology.

• Behaviourism, as a perspective in psychology, emerged in the early 20th century as a

reaction to the dominant introspective methods of the time.

o Ivan Pavlov:
▪ Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s
▪ Classical conditioning
▪ Behaviours could be learned through association.

▪ His experiments with dogs, where he paired a neutral stimulus (a bell)

with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to elicit a conditioned response
(salivation), became foundational for behaviourist theory.

o B.F. Skinner:
▪ Developed the theory of operant conditioning in the 1930s and
1940s.
▪ Skinner's experiments with animals, using devices like the Skinner box,
illustrated how behaviour could be shaped by reinforcement and
punishment.

▪ His work emphasized the importance of consequences in learning and

behaviour modification.
LO3: Discuss behaviourism and its role in the classroom.

• Emphasizes the study of observable behaviours rather than internal mental states.
• Operates on the principle that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning.

Classical Conditioning
This form of learning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus
to generate a conditioned response.
For instance, Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell when it was repeatedly
paired with food.
Operant Conditioning

• This method involves learning through rewards and punishments.

• Positive reinforcement strengthens behaviour by providing a desirable consequence.
• Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour by removing an undesirable
consequence.
• Punishment aims to reduce unwanted behaviours.
Behaviourism plays a critical role in educational settings, offering practical strategies to
enhance teaching and learning.

• Behaviourist principles are often applied to manage student behaviour.

• Teachers use positive reinforcement (praise, rewards) to encourage desirable
behaviours and negative reinforcement (removal of negative conditions) to maintain
those behaviours.
• For instance, a teacher might give extra playtime for completing homework on time,
thereby reinforcing timely submission.
LO4: Compare the basic views of the Humanistic approach proposed by Maslow with those
proposed by Carl Rogers

• Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are two of the most influential figures in the
humanistic approach to psychology.
• Emphasizes the study of the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual.
• Despite their shared emphasis on human potential and self-actualization, there are

Abraham Maslow’s Humanistic Approach:

Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs such as food, water, and shelter.
Safety Needs: Security and protection from harm.
Love and Belongingness Needs: Relationships, social connections, and belonging.
Esteem Needs: Self-esteem, respect from others, and a sense of accomplishment.
Self-Actualization: Realizing one’s full potential and creative abilities.

• Maslow's theory emphasizes positive aspects of human nature and potential. He

believed that humans have an inherent tendency towards growth and self-
improvement.
Carl Rogers’ Humanistic Approach:

• Rogers developed person-centred therapy which focuses on the therapeutic

relationship to personal growth and self-discovery.
• The therapist provides an environment of unconditional positive regard, empathy,
and genuineness.
• A central component of Rogers' theory is the concept of the self, which consists of
the "real self" (how one actually is) and the "ideal self" (how one would like to be).
• Rogers believed that individuals develop conditions of worth during their upbringing,
meaning they only feel worthy of love and respect when they meet certain
conditions imposed by others.
 • Similar to Maslow’s concept of self-actualization, Rogers believed in an inherent
actualizing tendency within every individual, driving them towards growth,
fulfilment, and the realization of their potential.
Comparison:

• Maslow's hierarchy outlines a structured progression of needs, suggesting that

higher needs become relevant only after lower ones are satisfied.
• Rogers did not propose a hierarchy but focused on the continuous process of
becoming and the actualizing tendency, which operates throughout life regardless of
unmet basic needs.
• Maslow’s theory is more focused on the individual's inner drive and less on external
conditions, though he acknowledged the environment’s role in providing basic needs.
• Rogers emphasized the importance of a supportive and accepting environment,
especially in therapeutic settings, to help individuals grow.
• For Maslow, self-actualization is the ultimate goal, achieved after fulfilling all prior
needs.
• For Rogers, the process of self-actualization is ongoing, with a strong focus on the
alignment of the real self and ideal self and the reduction of conditions of worth.
Both theorists fundamentally believed in the inherent potential for growth and self-
improvement within each individual, emphasizing different aspects and processes involved
in realizing that potential.
LO5: Describe how the humanistic perspective might be appealing in the school setting.
• The humanistic approach emphasizes the importance of addressing not just academic
needs but also emotional, social, and psychological needs.
• This holistic view helps create a nurturing environment where learners can thrive in all
aspects of their development.
• Humanistic theories, particularly those of Abraham Maslow, stress the importance of self-
actualization—realizing one's fullest potential. In schools, this translates to encouraging
students to pursue their interests, talents, and passions, fostering a love for learning and
personal growth.
• Humanistic education highlights the importance of positive relationships between teachers
and learners.
• Humanistic education encourages learners to find personal meaning and satisfaction in their
learning. This can lead to deeper engagement and a lifelong love of learning.
• The humanistic perspective can make the school setting more engaging, supportive, and
conducive to the holistic development of learners, preparing them not only academically but
also as well-rounded individuals ready to contribute positively to society.
LO6: Explain how information processing, using the computer analogy as an example, as a
cognitive approach to Psychology and its uses in the classroom.

• Information processing, using the computer analogy, is a cognitive approach to

psychology that likens the human mind to a computer, focusing on how information
is encoded, processed, stored, and retrieved.
• This analogy helps psychologists understand the inner workings of the mind by
comparing mental processes to computer operations.

Explanation and its applications in the classroom:

Information Processing

• Encoding:
o This is the process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be
processed and stored.
o In a classroom, this might involve a teacher presenting new information in a
way that students can understand and relate to.

• Storage:
o This involves maintaining encoded information in the brain over time.
o In educational settings, teachers use repetition and reinforcement to help
students store information in their long-term memory.

• Retrieval:
o This is the process of recalling stored information when needed.
o Classroom activities like quizzes, discussions, and practical applications help
students retrieve and apply what they have learned.
Key Components of the Information Processing Model

• Sensory Memory:
o This is the initial stage that holds sensory information for a very short period.
In the classroom, it involves learners' immediate perception of information
through sight, sound, etc.
• Short-Term Memory:
o Holds information temporarily for analysis and is crucial for comprehension
and problem-solving tasks.
o Teachers can enhance short-term memory by breaking down complex
information into smaller chunks and using strategies like rehearsal.
• Long-Term Memory:
o This is where information is stored longer.
o Effective teaching strategies, such as elaborative rehearsal, and connecting
new information to prior knowledge, help transfer information from Short-
Term Memory to Long-Term Memory.
Applications in the Classroom

• Breaking down information into manageable units helps students process and
remember information more effectively.
o For instance, a complex topic can be divided into smaller subtopics.
• Providing a structured framework helps students gradually build their understanding.
o Teachers can give step-by-step instructions and gradually reduce assistance as
learners become more skilful.
• Engaging students in discussions, problem-solving tasks, and group work can
enhance information processing by involving them actively in learning.
• Using different modes of learning (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) caters to various
learning styles and helps reinforce learning through multiple channels.
• Mnemonics: Techniques like acronyms, visual imagery, etc. can help in encoding and
retrieval of information.

LO7: Explain how the Psychobiological perspective will assist teachers with understanding
behaviour management in the classroom.

• The Psychobiological perspective focuses on the interplay between biological

processes and psychological states.
• This perspective can assist teachers in understanding and managing behaviour in the
classroom by providing insights into how students' brains and bodies influence their
actions, emotions, and learning abilities.
• By integrating the psychobiological perspective, teachers can create a more inclusive,
understanding, and effective approach to behaviour management, in the end
fostering a better learning environment for all students.

LO8: Describe the role that social and cognitive factors play in how children adapt to their
environment.

• From an evolutionary perspective, social and cognitive factors play crucial roles in
how children adapt to their environment.
• This perspective emphasizes that human development is shaped by the need to
survive and reproduce, with children's behaviour and cognitive development being
tailored to meet these evolutionary imperatives.
• Social and cognitive factors are intertwined in shaping how children adapt to their
environments.
• Social interactions and cultural learning provide the context and content for cognitive
development.
Learning Unit 3 Developing Approaches to Psychology
Theme 1: Positive Psychology (What is it?)
LO1: Summarise the key points of Positive Psychology.
Explain the 3 pillars of positive psychology.
LO2: Outline how Positive Psychology can be applied to the school setting with reference to
specific research.
Theme 2: Conceptualizing Flow
LO3: Define the concept flow.
LO4: Describe the antecedents, characteristics, and consequences of it according to
Csikszentmihalyi’s model.
LO5: Use an example, and briefly describe how flow can be developed in the classroom
setting.
LO6: Outline the role of flow in teaching.
Theme 1: Positive Psychology (What is it?)
LO1: Summarise the key points of Positive Psychology.
Explain the 3 pillars of positive psychology.
Positive psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the study and promotion of well-being
and optimal functioning. The three pillars of positive psychology are:

1. Positive Experiences
This pillar emphasizes the importance of positive emotions and experiences in enhancing well-
being. It includes:
✓ flow, joy, and optimism.

2. Positive Traits
This pillar focuses on the cultivation and recognition of individual strengths and virtues. It
involves:
✓ character strengths and virtues.

By identifying and taking advantage of their strengths, individuals can achieve greater fulfilment and
effectiveness in their personal and professional lives.

3. Positive Institutions
This pillar examines how positive psychology principles can be applied to organizations and
communities to create supportive environments. It includes:
✓ Schools: Implementing educational practices that foster positive learning environments
and learner development.
✓ Communities: Building social structures and policies that enhance the well-being of
citizens and create supportive, thriving communities.

Positive institutions aim to create environments that enable individuals to flourish and contribute to
the well-being of others.

LO2: Outline how Positive Psychology can be applied to the school setting with reference
to specific research.

• One of the core features of positive psychology is the focus on empirical research.
• As per research findings, it has been reported that optimistic or happy people
perform better, are less depressed, have fewer health problems and have better
relationships.
• In reference to children many researchers have advocated positive psychology as a
significant approach for future development. observations of interventions to
promote inner strengths within children have long been sought by parents, teachers
and community leaders, to ensure that children are more resilient to a variety of
problems associated with modern life such as depression, substance abuse, risky
sexual behaviour or violence.
• Four strands unite the research on the positive development of school-aged children.
o Resilience (the process of adapting positively to adversity)
 o Developmental assets (developing positive relationships, competencies, self-
perceptions and values to succeed
o Social-emotional learning (promoting social and emotional well-being)
o Subjective well-being (the individuals’ experience of the positive qualities of
their life)
• Even though there is limited research on the third pillar of positive psychology,
enhancing social institutions, it has been suggested that schools can function as
psychologically healthy environments if they can address and in turn challenge
children's developmental needs.

LO3: Define the concept flow.

• The concept of "flow" was introduced by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.

• Refers to a mental state in which an individual is fully immersed in an activity,
experiencing a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in the
process.
• This state is characterized by a seamless merging of action and awareness. When in
flow, people often lose track of time and perform at their best ability.
Key characteristics of the flow state include:

• Intense Concentration: Deep focus on the present moment, with undivided attention
on the task at hand.
• Clarity of Goals: Clear understanding of what needs to be done and how to do it.
• Immediate Feedback: While performing an activity, a person gets clear and instant
feedback about their performance.
• Balance Between Challenge and Skill: The task is appropriately challenging relative
to the individual's skill level, neither too easy nor too difficult.
• Loss of Self-Consciousness: A sense of merging with the activity, with little or no
awareness of oneself as a separate entity.
• Distorted Sense of Time: Time may seem to speed up or slow down, with hours
passing by in what feels like minutes.
• Intrinsic Motivation: Engagement in the activity is rewarding in and of itself, rather
than for some external reward.
Learning Unit 4 The Effective Teacher
Theme 1: What is meant by ‘Effective’?
LO 1: Explain what is meant by an Effective Teacher.
LO 2: Use an example to highlight the relationship between efficiency and effectiveness.
Theme 2: An Effective Teacher: Learner Perspective
LO3: Name the three key areas of the effective teacher.
LO4: Discuss understanding, communication, and enjoyment as it relates to developing good
learning relationships.
LO5: Describe the conscious competence learning model’s four stages of development.
LO6: Summarise the organisational skills as it relates to the effective teacher.
Theme 3: An Effective Teacher: Researcher Perspective
LO7: Analyse the three key areas of the effective teacher based on findings from recent
research.
Theme 4: ‘Seven Habits of Highly Effective Teachers’
LO8: Differentiate between the seven habits of highly effective teachers with reference to
the teaching practice.
LO9: Discuss the seven habits of highly effective teachers with reference to the teaching
practice.
Theme 5: Characteristics of Effective Teachers
LO10: Identify the core features of effective and ineffective teachers.
LO 1: Explain what is meant by an Effective Teacher.
‘Effective’ can quite simply be defined as ‘getting the job done’, so an effective teacher can
engage with the full range of expected activities.
LO2: Use an example to highlight the relationship between efficiency and effectiveness.
Effectiveness:
Example: Learners are successfully learning and understanding algebra, demonstrated by
good results on their exams and the ability to apply concepts in various situations.
Efficiency:
Example: Efficiency refers teacher’s ability to teach these concepts in a manner that
optimizes time, resources, and effort, both for herself and her students.
Example Breakdown:
High Effectiveness, Low Efficiency:
The teacher spends a lot of time preparing extensive lesson plans and offers one-on-one
tutoring to all learners, often staying late after school. She prints numerous handouts and
uses a lot of classroom materials. Her learners perform very well on their exams.
Outcome: The teacher is effective because her learners understand algebra well and
get very good results. However, she is not efficient because she uses an unreasonable
amount of time and resources.
High Efficiency, Low Effectiveness:
The teacher uses a standardized lesson plan and relies heavily on pre-made online
resources and automated grading systems. She covers the syllabus quickly with minimal
extra help outside class hours. However, her students struggle with the material and do not
perform well on their exams.
Outcome: Ms. Johnson is efficient because she uses minimal time and resources.
However, she is not effective because her students do not achieve a good
understanding of algebra.
High Effectiveness and High Efficiency:
The teacher adopts a flipped classroom model where learners watch pre-recorded lessons at
home and spend class time doing problem-solving activities and engaging in group work. She
uses online platforms for additional practice and feedback, making her teaching highly
interactive and focused. Her learners perform very well on their exams, and she manages
her time and resources efficiently.
 Outcome: Ms. Johnson is both effective and efficient because her students
understand algebra well, perform highly on their exams, and she make the best her
teaching resources and time.
Low Effectiveness and Low Efficiency:
The teacher lacks a structured lesson plan and frequently changes her teaching methods
without clear goals. She uses a lot of printed materials that are often redundant and don't
provide additional help to struggling learners. Her learners do poorly on exams.
Outcome: The teacher is neither effective nor efficient because her learners do not
understand the material well, and she wastes time and resources.
LO3: Name the three key areas of the effective teacher.
An effective teacher: What do learners think?
(1) effective teachers are able to develop good learning relationships.
(2) effective teachers have a good subject background.
(3) effective teachers have good organizational skills.
LO4: Discuss understanding, communication, and enjoyment as it relates to developing
good learning relationships.
Refer to the PowerPoint slide and the prescribed textbook.
LO5: Describe the conscious competence learning model’s four stages of development.
LO6: Summarise the organizational skills as it relates to the effective teacher.
Refer to the PowerPoint slide and prescribed textbook.
LO7: Analyse the three key areas of the effective teacher based on findings from recent
research.

• Effective teachers are able to develop good learning relationships.

• Effective teachers have a good subject background.
• Effective teachers have good organizational skills.
For more information, please refer to the prescribed textbook and PowerPoint slides.
LO8: Differentiate between the seven habits of highly effective teachers with reference to
the teaching practice.

• A series of principles related to ‘effectiveness’ that, he suggests, are found globally,

with such ‘habits’ having naturally developed among many highly successful people.
• These principles can be related to anyone and any profession: the following is an
interpretation and adaptation of his habits applied to the teaching profession.
• The first three habits relate to developing independence.
o Be Proactive
o Begin with the End in Mind
o Put First Things First
• The next three habits relate to interdependence or working with others.
o Think Win-Win:
o Seek First to Understand, Then to Be Understood:
o Principles of creative cooperation (synergize):
• The final habit could arguably be central to the other six and has been represented
as such in the following diagram.
o Principles of balanced self-renewal (sharpen the saw)
LO9: Discuss the seven habits of highly effective teachers with reference to the teaching
practice.
The "7 Habits of Highly Effective Teachers" can be differentiated by their specific focus areas and
how they influence teaching practice.

1. Be Proactive:
• Effective teachers take responsibility for their actions and attitudes.
• They don't blame external circumstances for their challenges but instead focus on what they
can control or influence.
2. Begin with the End in Mind:
• Effective teachers set clear, achievable goals for their students and their professional
growth.
3. Put First Things First:
• Effective teachers prioritize their tasks and time based on what will have the most significant
impact on student learning.
• They focus on high-priority tasks.
4. Think Win-Win:
• Effective teachers foster a collaborative environment where everyone benefits.
5. Seek First to Understand, Then to Be Understood:
• Effective teachers practice active listening with students, colleagues, and parents.
• They seek to understand others’ perspectives and concerns before sharing their own.
6. Principles of creative cooperation (synergize):
• Effective teachers encourage collaboration and teamwork, recognizing that diverse
perspectives and skills can lead to innovative solutions.
7. Principles of balanced self-renewal (sharpen the saw):
• Effective teachers are committed to continuous personal and professional growth.
• They seek out opportunities for professional development, reflect on their teaching
practices, and stay updated with the latest educational research.
• They also prioritize their well-being, ensuring they maintain a healthy work-life balance.
This self-care is crucial for sustaining their energy and passion for teaching.
Learning Unit 5 The Philosophy and Psychology of Professional
Practice
Theme 1: Philosophy and Education
LO1: Define the key concepts of Philosophy.
LO2: Analyse the four key philosophies. that have influenced education.
LO3: Outline the idiosyncratic or eclectic philosophical approach to education.
Theme 2: Heuristics
LO4: Explain the concept of heuristics in relation to education.
Theme 3: Reflection
LO5: Outline the importance of reflection.
LO6: Discuss why reflection is considered essential for the development of professional
practice.
Theme 4: Kolb’s Cycle of Experiential Learning
LO7: Describe the four elements of Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning.
LO8: Summarise the categories of the learning styles inventory.
LO9: Highlight the points of critique of Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning.
Theme 5: Brookfield’s Critical Lenses
LO10: Discuss how the four perspectives according to Brookfield’s model facilitate reflection.
LO11: List the main benefits of reflective practice.
LO1: Define the key concepts of Philosophy.

• Philosophy is concerned with the nature of thinking through questioning.

• What is the nature of reality? What is existence? What is the nature of objects and
their properties?
• Three specific questions are fundamental to philosophy, each relating to a specific
branch of philosophy as detailed as follows:

o Metaphysics
▪ The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of reality,
existence, and the fundamental nature of being.
▪ What is the nature of reality? What is existence? What is the nature of
objects and their properties?
o Epistemology
▪ The study of knowledge and belief, addressing questions about the
nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge.
▪ What is knowledge? How is knowledge acquired? What do people
know and how do they know it?
o Ethics
▪ The branch of philosophy that deals with questions of morality and
values, examining what is right and wrong, good, and bad.
▪ What is the right thing to do? What does it mean to live a good life?
What are our moral obligations to others?
LO2: Analyse the four key philosophies that have influenced education.

• Essentialism
• Realism
• Progressivism
• Existentialism
For more information, please refer to the prescribed textbook and PowerPoint slides.
LO3: Outline the idiosyncratic or eclectic philosophical approach to education.

• A fifth philosophical perspective is called the idiosyncratic or eclectic approach,

which is a combination of all 4 philosophies.
• This approach implies that a teacher will rigidly to a single educational philosophy –
that they will be informed by the different approaches depending on the context.
LO4: Explain the concept of heuristics in relation to education.

• Heuristics is concerned with the process of personal discovery: it is a method of

inquiry and a way of knowing.
• Simply put, you could refer to it as your ‘gut reaction’, or ‘what your heart tells you is
right’ (Dawes et al., 2005).
 • Such an internal reaction is subconsciously based upon the collected experiences
that have shaped you since you joined the human population and how such
experiences, thoughts, and reflections have shaped your inner knowledge.
• A process of internal search through which one discovers the nature and meaning of
experience and develops methods and procedures for further investigation and
analysis (Moustakas ,1990).
LO5: Outline the importance of reflection.

• Reflection can be simply defined as a process of acquiring new knowledge through

considering practical experience.
• The process of reflection is essential for the development of professional practice.
• It involves the process of introspection and critical analysis of one's experiences,
actions, and outcomes to gain a deeper understanding and improve future practices.
LO7: Describe the four elements of Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning.

LO8: Summarise the categories of the learning styles inventory.

• Converger: Favours abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. Such

learners tend to prefer the practical application of knowledge, using deductive
reasoning to approach problems and tend to be unemotional.
• Diverger: Favours concrete experience and reflective observation. Such learners tend
to use their imagination to develop ideas, consider alternate perspectives, and prefer
working with other people.
• Assimilator: Favours abstract conceptualization and reflective observation. Such
learners tend to prefer developing their theoretical models through inductive
reasoning, preferring to work with abstract concepts rather than people.
• Accommodator: Favours concrete experience and active experimentation. Such
learners prefer to take risks and do things, reacting well to immediate issues through
the use of intuition.
LO9: Highlight the points of critique of Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning.

• Kolb’s work has received criticism ~ limited research conducted on the validation of
the questionnaire, as the model does not apply to all situations.
• Further criticism ~ it has been perceived as too predominantly focused on the
individual, with little attention to the social factors, as reflection does not occur
without social interaction.
LO10: Discuss how the four perspectives according to Brookfield’s model facilitate
reflection.
Brookfield’s model suggests that there are four perspectives we should use to facilitate our
reflection.
These are:

• our personal perspective

• our learners’ perspectives
• our colleagues’ perspectives
• theoretical perspectives from literature

LO11: List the main benefits of reflective practice.

• provides a deeper understanding for teachers about their own learning and teaching
style.
• enables the teacher to be more effective.
• enables the teacher to challenge traditional practices by considering new or
alternate approaches.
• develops a greater respect for diversity in applying theory to classroom practice.
Learning Unit 6 The Individual Learner
Theme 1: Neurological and Physical Development
LO 1: Provide a concise explanation of development as it pertains to the brain.
LO 2: Discuss the child’s physical development from a macro and micro level.
LO3: Explain ‘growth spurts’ in childhood.
LO4: Analyse the structure and function of the developing brain.
LO5: Explain its relationship with the development of the motor system.
Theme 2: Perceptual and Cognitive Development
LO6: Describe perceptual development with reference to the relevant theories.
LO7: Discuss Piaget’s cognitive development and learning theory by using examples.
LO8: Analyse attention, concentration, and memory and highlight ways to enhance
attentional focus.
Theme 3: Social, Emotional Development and Personality
LO9: Outline social development in the developing child as it relates to the socialisation
process.
LO10: Explain how children develop emotionally according to relevant research.
LO11: Compare the assumptions of contemporary personality theories on personality
development.
LO12: Explain how the development of children plays a role in teaching.
LO 1: Provide a concise explanation of development as it pertains to the brain.
Brain development refers to the process by which the brain forms, grows, and matures from
the prenatal stage through adulthood.
LO 2: Discuss the child’s physical development from a macro and micro level.

• At the macro level, physical development in children encompasses the broad,

observable changes in their body size, proportions, and physical capabilities over
time.
• At the micro level, physical development involves the cellular and molecular changes
that underpin observable growth and development.
LO3: Explain ‘growth spurts’ in childhood.

• Growth spurts in childhood are periods of rapid physical growth that occur at specific
stages of a child's development.
• These spurts are characterized by a significant increase in height and weight over a
relatively short period.
LO4: Analyse the structure and function of the developing brain.

• There are two key components to brain development:

o Nutrition
o Stimulation
• Structure of the brain with reference to the 4 parts of the brain.

- The 4 lobes of the brain

 - Generic localized functions of the brain

LO5: Explain its relationship with the development of the motor system.

• The first stage in motor development is known as the reflexive movement phase –
from within the uterus to one year old.
• During the initial part of this phase, the embryo starts to display reflexive
movements (Castle & Buckler, 2018).
 • For example, when a pregnant woman feels her baby kicking for the first time, this is
an example of spontaneous movement.
o Reflexive movements are involuntary – you are not in conscious control
over them – and there is no processing of information taking place.
Blinking is an example of a reflexive movement; breathing is another
example.
o Reflexive movements can take one of three forms: primitive, postural, and
locomotor.
• Primitive reflexes
• simple reactions or responses to stimuli.
• can be observed in the sucking action of infants from birth to 6 months, in response
to stimulation of the face by touch – think about when you tickle a baby's cheek, he
will reflexively turn to suck your finger.
• Postural reflexes –
• movements involving the gravity-based reflexes of maintaining posture in the infant’s
environment – whether this is maintaining an upright, seated position, or moving to
help the infant roll over (Castle & Buckler, 2018).
• Locomotor reflexive movement
• comprises of three distinct reflexes: crawling, stepping, and swimming (Castle &
Buckler, 2018).
LO6: Describe perceptual development with reference to the relevant theories.

• 2 Main competing ideas of perception

• Each idea offers a different perspective on how we perceive and interpret the world
around us.
Information Processing Theory

• Perception involves creating mental representations of external stimuli.

• Perception is viewed as a series of stages, including sensation, perception, and
higher-level cognitive processes.
• Perception can be driven by data from the environment (bottom-up) or influenced by
prior knowledge and expectations (top-down).
• The brain is likened to a computer that processes information through various
algorithms and neural mechanisms.
Ecological Theory (Direct Perception)

• James J. Gibson, who developed the ecological approach to visual perception.

• The theory is influential in fields like ecological psychology and human factors.
• Perception is direct and immediate, without the need for intermediate mental
representations or complex cognitive processing.
• Emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between the perceiver and the environment.
LO7: Discuss Piaget’s cognitive development and learning theory by using examples.
The Preoperational Stage (Ages 2-7)

• In the Preoperational Stage, children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to
manipulate symbols, but they do not yet understand concrete logic.

• This stage is characterized by:

1. Egocentrism:
• A child in this stage might assume that everyone sees the world as they do.
• For instance, if a child is playing with a toy and is asked to describe what someone else sees,
they might describe what they see instead of considering the other person's perspective.

2. Symbolic Function:
• Children use symbols to represent objects that are not present.
• Using banana as if it is a telephone.

3. Animism:
• Children in this stage often believe that inanimate objects have life-like qualities and
feelings.
• A child might say that her doll is hungry.

4. Centration:
• Children tend to focus on one aspect of a situation while ignoring others.
• E.G. If you pour the same amount of water into a tall, thin glass and a short, wide glass, a
child in the preoperational stage will likely say the taller glass has more water.

The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7-11)

• In the Concrete Operational Stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
• They gain a better understanding of the concept of conservation and can perform
operations that involve objects and situations directly experienced.

Conservation:
• Children understand that quantities remain the same despite changes in shape or
appearance.
• For example, they realize that if you pour water from a tall, thin glass into a short, wide
glass, the amount of water remains the same.

Decentration:
• Children can consider multiple aspects of a situation.
• E.G. When asked to classify shapes, children can consider both colour and shape
simultaneously, sorting red triangles and blue circles correctly into respective categories.

Logical Thinking:
• Children can now engage in logical thinking about concrete events.
• They can solve problems that involve adding, subtracting, or categorizing objects.
• A child can follow a series of logical steps in a story problem, such as calculating how many
apples are left after giving some away from a total amount.
Formal Operational Stage

Abstract Thinking:
• Individuals in the formal operational stage can think about abstract concepts and ideas that
do not have a physical form. This includes hypothetical situations, theoretical questions, and
moral reasoning.
• They are no longer limited to concrete objects and events; they can ponder possibilities and
think in terms of "what if.
Logical and Methodical Problem-Solving:
• Adolescents can approach problems systematically, using logical operations. They can plan,
organize, and systematically test hypotheses.
• This stage involves the ability to use deductive reasoning, where one can draw specific
conclusions from general principles.
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning:
• One of the most important features of the formal operational stage is the ability to think
scientifically. This means formulating hypotheses and methodically testing them.
• For instance, when faced with a problem, an individual can generate multiple potential
solutions and systematically test them to determine which one is correct.
Metacognition:
• This stage includes an awareness of one's thought processes. Individuals can reflect on their
thinking, understand their cognitive strategies, and adjust them as necessary.
• They can think about how they think and learn, leading to better problem-solving and
learning strategies.

LO8: Analyse attention, concentration, and memory and highlight ways to enhance attentional
focus.

LO9: Outline social development in the developing child as it relates to the socialization
process.

• Social development is a complex process of observing, assimilating (fully

understanding), and reproducing behaviours that are acceptable in the society within
which the child lives.
• Socialization process – a lifelong process that enables children to become integrated
into society, it is about learning values, acceptable attitudes, social skills, and
sensitivity, as well as knowledge of the appropriate language of the society.
• The three major facets of the socialization process are: -
o significant others
o social situations
o individual constraints.
LO10: Explain how children develop emotionally according to relevant research.

• An emotion is an instant feeling created by some form of trigger, such as a car pulling
out in front of you.
• It is a short, intense feeling that may cause a person’s mood to change – thus you
hear comments such as ‘That put me in a bad mood for the morning’.
• These distinctions are subtle, but Castle and Buckler (2018) emphasize the
importance of knowing their differences.
o Joy, excitement, and surprise are regarded as positive emotions.
o Anger or rage, fear or terror, and sadness or dejection are regarded as
negative emotions.
o These basic emotions have been further expanded to include additional
emotions.
o Plutchik’s emotional wheel ~ with the blends of emotions – creating even
more emotions – shown around the outer edge of the wheel.

Plutchik’s emotional wheel

LO11: Compare the assumptions of contemporary personality theories on personality

development.
Personality
Everybody has a personality.
It is part of what makes us who we are.
Children are not born with personality.
Personality is something that is acquired because of an interaction with the environment
and people within that environment.
Personality is therefore shaped from infancy.
As children enter adulthood, they establish a personality that often remains the same for
many years, although, according to Castle and Buckler (2018), sometimes life events and
stresses may cause or contribute to a personality change.
A simple definition of personality –is a particular pattern of behaviour and thinking that
prevails across time and situations and differentiates one person from another.
Carlson (2004, cited in Castle & Buckler, 2018: 159), expands on this definition using an
earlier definition by Child (1968): ‘the more or less stable, internal factors that one person’s
behaviour consistent from one time to another and different from the behaviour other
people would manifest in comparable situations.
Big Five Personality Traits - The Big Five – OCEAN
Openness - describes a person's willingness to engage with new experiences, ideas, and
unconventional values.
Conscientiousness - Organized, disciplined, diligent, and careful.
Extraversion - Outgoing, lively, sociable, energetic.
Agreeableness - Patient, tolerant, lenient, gentle, and forgiving.
Neuroticism - Tendency to experience negative emotions and emotional instability.
Best wishes for a successful exam. May all your hard work pay off.
Remember to stay confident and give it your all in the exam.
Stay calm and composed during the exam. I have faith in you!
You've got this!

Best Wishes
Nomcebo Ndaba