HINDU LITERATURE
and South Pacific islands. Later, most
India is the second most populous country
in the world behind China. It is also the
seventh largest in terms of land area; the
country spans from the Himalayas to the
Indian Ocean with a shoreline of 7,000
kilometers from Arabian Sea to the Bay of
Bengal.
the country uses both “India” and
“Bharat” as its official name. Early settlers
called it “Bharat Varsha” or “Bharat”.
During medieval times it was known as
“Hind”.
History
The earliest Indian civilization
existed in the Indus Valley from 4000 to
2500 B.C. Aryan invaders from Central Asia
entered India in 1500 B.C. and intermingled
with the Dravidian people resulting in the
diverse modern Indian population. India
also is the birthplace of ancient religions
like Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and
Sikhism. In the beginning of 11th century,
India was subjected to strong Islamic
influences until the Mughal Empire in 1526.
Unity in India was made possible by the
Mughal Empire. Additionally, the empire
was a great patron of the arts, it brought
forth an era of creative and artistic freedom.
Some notable architectural marvels built
during the time were the palaces in Delhi,
Agra, and the famous Taj Mahal.
GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
India has three (3) main
topographical regions: the Himalayan
Mountain system in the North, The
northern plains in North Central India,
and Peninsular India in the South. The
country also features several major rivers
notably the Ganges in the Himalayas and the
Godavari River which is located only 80
kilometers east of the Arabian Sea and flows
through the Bay of Bengal.
PEOPLE
India has one of the most diverse
populations. The earliest Indians were
believed to have migrated from Australia
invading groups passed through the
mountainous north. These varying cultures
interacted with one another and created one
of the most culturally and linguistically
diverse territories in the world.
LANGUAGES
According to Ethnologue, there are
currently 424 living languages in India.
These languages stemmed from the Indo-
Arab branch of the Indo-European group
and the Dravidian language group. The
most prominent of all is Hindu, spoken by
30% of the population of India—roughly
423 million people, it is also the third most
spoken language in the world next to
Mandarin and English.
RELIGION
Ancient India is the birthplace of
some of the earliest religions in the planet.
Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and
Jainism all originated in India. Hinduism
is the largest in India and third in the world.
According to Pew research Center, 81% of
Indians practice Hinduism, 12.9% are
Muslims, 2.4% are Christians, 1.9% are
Sikhs, 0.7% are Buddhists, and 0.4% are
Jains. Despite originating in India, the
number of Buddhists is surprisingly low.
However, the religion spread in the
Southeast Asia particularly in countries like
Thailand, Myanmar and Cambodia.
EDUCATION
Literacy is higher among men than
women. It is also higher in urban areas than
in rural areas of the country. India’s
educational system is highly centralized.
The government provides free education
from primary to tertiary level requiring
every child age 6-14 years old to attend
school.
There are two major Sanskrit epic poems of
ancient India. One of them is Mahabharata
and the other one is called Ramayana.
GITANJALI
Rabindranath Tagore – Author of Gitanjali
a towering figure in Indian literature and
culture, is the author of "Gitanjali." Born in
1861 in Calcutta, India, Tagore was a
polymath—a poet, novelist, playwright,
philosopher, painter, and musician. He
hailed from a prominent Bengali family and
received a comprehensive education both in
India and abroad.
Summary of Gitanjali
"Gitanjali," a collection of poems
by Rabindranath Tagore, is a spiritual and
lyrical masterpiece that delves into the
essence of human existence and the longing
for a connection with the divine. Composed
originally in Bengali, Tagore translated the
poems into English himself, ensuring the
preservation of their lyrical beauty and
spiritual depth.
Throughout the collection, Tagore's poetic
voice serves as a conduit for profound
spiritual exploration, weaving together
themes of love, devotion, nature, and the
human experience. The poems reflect the
poet's deep reverence for the natural world,
often using vivid imagery of landscapes,
flora, and fauna to convey spiritual truths
and insights.
At its core, "Gitanjali" is a testament to the
human soul's yearning for transcendence and
union with the divine. Tagore's poems
express a sense of humility and surrender, as
the speaker offers prayers and praises to
God, acknowledging the interconnectedness
of all life and the universe.
The collection's title, "Gitanjali," meaning
"Song Offerings," underscores the poetic act
of devotion and surrender to the divine
through song. Each poem serves as a
heartfelt offering, expressing the poet's
longing for spiritual fulfillment and
communion with the divine presence.
Tagore's language is rich with symbolism
and metaphor, inviting readers to
contemplate the deeper meanings behind the
seemingly simple verses. His poetic
expression resonates with readers of all
backgrounds, transcending cultural and
linguistic barriers to touch the universal
aspects of the human experience.
In summary, "Gitanjali" is a timeless work
of spiritual literature that continues to
inspire and uplift readers with its profound
insights, lyrical beauty, and unwavering
devotion to the divine.
3 Poems in Gitanjali
Poem No. 1
Thou hast made me endless, such is thy
pleasure. This frail vessel thou emptiest
again and again, and fillest it ever with fresh
life.
This little flute of a reed thou hast carried
over hills and dales, and hast breathed
through its melodies eternally new.
At the immortal touch of thy hands my little
heart loses its limits in joy and gives birth to
utterance ineffable.
Thy infinite gifts come to me only on these
very small hands of mine. Ages pass, and
still thou pourest, and still there is room to
fill.
Analysis:
God made man immortal and
everlasting for His delight. Man's physical
body is a frail vessel, yet God continually
gives life, making people eternal. A poet is a
reed created by God to play delightful songs
with their restricted hearts. God's limitless
gifts are received by man's finite hands, and
inspiration endures forever.
Poem No. 2
When thou commandest me to sing it seems
that my heart would break with pride; and I
look to thy face, and tears come to my eyes.
All that is harsh and dissonant in my life
melts into one sweet harmony - and my
adoration spreads wings like a glad bird on
its flight across the sea.
I know thou takest pleasure in my singing. I
know that only as a singer I come before thy
presence.
I touch by the edge of the far spreading wing
of my song thy feet which I could never
aspire to reach.
Drunk with the joy of singing I forget
myself and call thee friend who art my lord
Analysis:
The poet describes how God inspired him to
create and sing poetry, which provides him
great joy and pride. He overcomes his
worries of joy and contentment, bringing
discordant aspects in his life into lovely
harmony. His love for God increases like a
bird flying over the sea. He recognizes that
God is pleased with his songs and that only
as a singer can he approach God's presence.
His delight in singing fills him with
excitement, causing him to get intoxicated
and forget himself. He begins to call God his
master and friend, acknowledging that he is
only a servant.
Poem No. 3
I know not how thou singest, my master! I
ever listen in silent amazement.
The light of thy music illuminates the world.
The life breath of thy music runs from sky to
sky. The holy stream of thy music breaks
through all stony obstacles and rushes on.
My heart longs to join in thy song, but
vainly struggles for a voice. I would speak,
but speech breaks not into song, and I cry
out baffled. Ah, thou hast made my heart
captive in the endless meshes of thy music,
my master!
Analysis
The poet is mesmerized by God's
wonderful melody, which illuminates and
brightens the earth. The singing is holy and
heavenly, has no bounds, and flows from
one end of the sky to another. The poet
aspires to join God and sing along, but he
can't find his voice. When he talks, his
words do not burst into song, prompting him
to cry out in confusion. The poet feels
caught and captured in the never-ending net
created by God's melody because he is
unable to break into the song.
HEBREW LITERATURE
Hebrew Language
Hebrew is the official language of the state
of Israel. It is a semantic language spoken
by jews and one of the oldest living
language on the world. The Hebrew alphabet
has 22 letters and is read from right to left.
Hebrew has been the sacred language of the
jewish people. The language of its religion
culture and civilization, it has been in some
the language of gradism and intimately
identified with the national and religious
experiences of the jewish people throughout
the generation.
In addition, The nature of the Hebrew
language must be properly considered
firstly. It is most evident flow is it is lack of
abstract and abroad knowledge. There are no
philosophical or scientific terms in it.
Almost every word has a definite meaning
and that may be seen even in figurative
usage.
The Importance of Hebrew Poetry
The Prominence of Poetry in the Scriptures.
First is, The poetry and wisdom section of
the English old testament is cast almost
entirely in poetic verse.
The second is A large version of the prophet
section of the English bible is cast also in
poetic verse.
The third is The narrative texts are
interspersed with poetry.
And lastly is number four the Approximately
one third of the entire old testament can be
considered poetry.
 B. The unique relevance of Hebrew
poetic literature.
For many Christians psalms and proverbs
are the favorite books of the old testament.
These works describe humanity’s
relationship to god from the perspective of
the believer. Because they reflect the entire
range of human emotions. There are
passages that will minister to people in any
situation in life.
The prophets also have direct and obvious
relevance. In contrast to Hebrew narrative in
which the message is of thankful implicit.
The prophetic messages are usually explicit,
They tend to be powerful direct and
evocative even as they call for immediate
application. Thus transference of the
prophet’s theological insights to the
contemporary scene is often more readily
apparent.
There is difficulty in demonstrating the
contemporary relevance of the theological
message of Hebrew poetry than Hebrew
prose. While the technicalities of Hebrew
poetry may render these breaks, Initially
more difficult to understand an Hebrew
narrative. There is usually little difficulty in
demonstrating the contemporary relevance
of the theological message once it is
ascertained.
TYPES OF HEBREW POETRY
Psalms is the book of the old testament
composed of sacred songs or of sacred
poems meant to be sung.
For example are hymns, thanksgiving, royal
sounds, window sounds, wisdom sounds,
laments, liturgies.
Wisdom writings it consists of statements by
sages and the wise that offered teachings
about divinity and virtue.
For example are proverbs, legends, riddles,
and sayings.
Prophecy It isn’t inspired appearance of a
prophet and a declaration of divine will and
purpose.
Others like funerary dirges, song of wars,
curses, drinking songs and poems.
Types of Hebrew Prose
Narrative style a form of writing in which
the word tells a different story through
actions.
For example are saga, tale, novella, legend,
and myth.
Reportorial which includes historiography or
an analysis of the interpretations of written
by past historians. Biography a written
history of a person’s life. Genealogy the
study of family origins and history and List
it is a series of particular images details or
facts.
Ecclesiastes can be summarized as a
philosophical exploration of life's meaning
and purpose, grappling with humanity's
limitations in the face of mortality, suffering,
and the fleeting nature of everything
earthly.Here are some key aspects that
capture the essence of the book:
1.Central Theme: The book revolves around
the concept of "hevel" (Hebrew for "vapor"
or "vanity"), which signifies the fleeting and
ultimately meaningless nature of pursuing
solely worldly things like wealth, pleasure,
and power. These pursuits, according to the
book, offer no lasting satisfaction or
fulfillment.
2.Human Perspective: The book emphasizes
our limited human perspective, often using
the phrase "under the sun" to highlight that
our understanding is confined to what we
can experience in this life.
3.Seeking Wisdom: Despite the perceived
meaninglessness, the author, referred to as
the "Teacher" or "Preacher", embarks on a
quest for wisdom, exploring different paths
like pleasure, work, and wealth. Ultimately,
the book suggests that true wisdom lies in
living with awareness of our limitations and
finding meaning within that framework.
4.Fear of God: While not advocating
specific religious practices, the book
emphasizes the importance of living with
respect and reverence for a higher power.
This "fear of God" is not presented as fear of
punishment, but rather as an
acknowledgement of a grander order and
purpose beyond our comprehension.
5.Finding Meaning: Although
acknowledging life's challenges, the book
doesn't advocate for complete pessimism. It
encourages finding meaning through living
wisely, appreciating simple pleasures, and
fulfilling responsibilities within one's
circumstances.
6.Acceptance and Appreciation: The book
encourages accepting the limitations of life
and focusing on what we can control - our
own actions, attitudes, and choices. It also
advocates for appreciating the good things in
life like relationships, work, and enjoying
the world around us.
The Story of Joseph
Summary:
Joseph, favored by his father Jacob, dreams
of future greatness, sparking jealousy and
resentment from his brothers. They sell him
into slavery, separating him from his family
and dreams. In Egypt, Joseph finds favor
with his master Potiphar but is falsely
accused by Potiphar's wife, leading to
imprisonment. Despite hardships, Joseph
remains steadfast in his faith and interprets
dreams for fellow prisoners, gaining the
Pharaoh's attention. Through his
interpretation of the Pharaoh's dream, Joseph
predicts a coming famine and proposes
strategies to prepare Egypt. As a result, he
rises to become second-in-command, saving
Egypt and surrounding nations from
starvation.
Years later, the famine reaches his
homeland, forcing his brothers to travel to
Egypt seeking food. Unrecognized, Joseph
tests them, ultimately revealing himself and
forgiving his brothers. He reunites with his
family and secures their future in Egypt.
Moral Lesson:
The story of Joseph carries several powerful
messages, but a central theme is faith and
forgiveness.
Faith: Despite facing betrayal, slavery, and
false accusations, Joseph maintains his faith,
believing in a higher purpose and trusting
that God is working through his trials. This
faith allows him to persevere through
adversity and ultimately achieve his destiny.
Forgiveness: Even after experiencing
immense suffering at the hands of his
brothers, Joseph chooses forgiveness,
demonstrating compassion and
understanding. This act of forgiveness heals
not only his brothers but also himself,
allowing him to move forward with a sense
of peace and reconciliation.
These lessons of faith and forgiveness
remain relevant and inspiring for audiences
of all backgrounds and beliefs, offering a
message of hope and resilience in the face of
life's challenges.
The Parables of Talent
Summary
A master, preparing for a journey, entrusts
varying amounts of "talents" (representing
potential or skills) to three servants.
One receives five talents, another two, and
the last one. Upon his return, the master
calls the servants to account for their
actions.
The first two servants who invested their
talents and doubled their amount are praised
for their initiative and rewarded. The third
servant, who out of fear buried his talent in
the ground, is rebuked for his inaction and
punished.
THE STORY OF RUTH
It is a part of the biblical canon called
KETUVIM or WRITINGS.
KETUVIMS or WRITINGS is the third part
of the Jewish Scriptures which contains the
poetic books and the remaining canonical
books.
CHARACTERS:
RUTH - She is a Moabite woman who
becomes the daughter-in-law of Naomi.
NAOMI - Naomi is Ruth's mother-in-law.
She is a widow who experiences great loss
and hardship.
ELIMELECH – husband of Naomi and
father-in-Law of ruth
BOAZ - is a wealthy landowner and relative
of Naomi's late husband. Ruth's kinsman-
redeemer, marrying her and ensuring their
family's redemption.
MAHLOH AND CHILION - sons of
Naomi and Elimelech. Mahloh is the
husband of ruth and chilion is the husband
of Orpah but tragically pass away, leaving
their wives as widows.
ORPAH – is the other daughter-in-law of
Naomi.
STORY
- The story takes place during the time
of the Judges in Israel. A man named
Elimelech, along with his wife Naomi and
their two sons, Mahlon and Chilion, leave
their hometown of Bethlehem-Judah due to
a famine and settle in the land of Moab.
Unfortunately, Elimelech dies, leaving
Naomi a widow with her two sons. Mahlon
and Chilion marry Moabite women named
Orpah and Ruth. Tragically, both Mahlon
and Chilion also die, leaving Naomi and her
daughters-in-law as widows. Upon hearing
that the famine in Bethlehem has ended,
Naomi decides to return to her homeland.
She encourages her daughters-in-law to stay
in Moab and find new husbands, but Ruth
insists on accompanying Naomi, ruth vows
“your people will be my people and your
God will be my God” declaring her loyalty
and faithfulness. In Bethlehem, Ruth takes
on the responsibility of providing for Naomi
by gleaning in the fields. She happens to
glean in the fields of Boaz, a wealthy
landowner and relative of Naomi's late
husband. Boaz notices Ruth's dedication and
kindness and instructs his workers to leave
extra grain for her. Naomi recognizes that
Boaz could be a potential kinsman-
redeemer, a person who has the
responsibility to marry a widow from his
family to continue the family line. Naomi
devises a plan for Ruth to approach Boaz
and seek his protection and redemption.
Following Naomi's instructions, Ruth goes
to Boaz at night and lies at his feet. Boaz
acknowledges Ruth's loyalty and agrees to
take on the role of the kinsman-redeemer.
However, there is another relative who has
the first right to redeem Ruth. Boaz arranges
a meeting with this relative and skillfully
secures his own position as the kinsman-
redeemer. Boaz and Ruth marry, and they
are blessed with a son named Obed. Obed
becomes the father of Jesse, and Jesse
becomes the father of King David, making
Ruth an ancestor of the great King David.
THE GOOD SAMARITAN
The story of the Good Samaritan is one of
the parables of Jesus. Parables are stories
Jesus told about everyday life to help people
understand spiritual things. The story is
recorded in the Bible, in the Gospel of Luke.
Jesus used the story to help people
understand the concept of loving their
neighbor. According to Luke 10:25 – 37,
M
JESUS - the one who tells the parable of the
Good Samaritan. He uses this story to teach
a lesson about loving one's neighbor and
showing compassion to those in need.
LAWYER - the person who initiates the
conversation with Jesus.
MAN ATTACKED BY ROBBERS - This
character represents a victim who is
traveling from Jerusalem to Jericho and falls
prey to robbers. He is left half-dead by the
side of the road.
PRIEST and LEVITE- they are the people
who comes across the injured man.
SAMARITAN - the central character in the
parable and the one who exemplifies
compassion and kindness.
STORY
- A lawyer stands up to test Jesus and
asks Him what he must do to inherit eternal
life. Jesus responds by asking the lawyer
what the Bible says. The lawyer answers
correctly, stating that one must love God
with all their heart, soul, strength, and mind,
and love their neighbor as themselves.
Wanting to justify himself, the lawyer asks
Jesus, "And who is my neighbor?" In
response, Jesus tells the story of the Good
Samaritan: A man is traveling from
Jerusalem to Jericho when he is attacked by
robbers. They strip him, beat him, and leave
him half-dead by the side of the road. A
priest happens to come by, but he crosses to
the other side and continues his way without
helping. Likewise, a Levite does the same.
Then, a Samaritan, a person despised by the
Jews, comes upon the injured man. He is
moved with compassion and goes above and
beyond to help him. The Samaritan
bandages the man's wounds, pours oil and
wine on them, and puts him on his own
donkey. He takes the man to an inn, where
he cares for him throughout the night. The
next day, the Samaritan gives the innkeeper
money and promises to pay for any
additional expenses when he returns. Jesus
concludes the parable by asking the lawyer
which of the three men proved to be a
neighbor to the man who was attacked. The
lawyer responds, "The one who showed
him mercy." Jesus tells him to go and do
likewise.
PERSIAN LITERATURE
Persia Country: Brief Background
Iran, historically known as Persia, is a
country situated in western Asia. It shares
borders with Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Turkmenistan, and the Caspian Sea to the
north, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the east,
and Turkey and Iraq to the west. To the
south, Iran is bounded by the Persian Gulf
and the Gulf of Oman. Covering an area of
approximately 1.65 million square
kilometers (about 636,400 square miles),
Iran boasts a population exceeding 80
million people, making it one of the most
populous nations in the Middle East.
The geography of Iran is diverse, featuring
deserts, mountains, plateaus, and coastal
regions. The country's rich history, ancient
cultural heritage, and notable contributions
to fields such as literature, art, and science
are widely recognized. Iran is home to
several UNESCO World Heritage Sites,
including the ancient city of Persepolis, the
Golestan Palace in Tehran, and the historic
city of Yazd.
Tehran, the capital city, serves as the
political, economic, and cultural hub of Iran,
while other major cities like Mashhad,
Isfahan, Tabriz, and Shiraz also hold
significant importance. The official language
spoken in Iran is Persian (Farsi), with the
majority of the population being ethnically
Persian. However, Iran is also home to
substantial minority groups such as Azeris,
Kurds, Arabs, and Baloch.
Iran has a very rich culture. Persian
literature has flourished for over a thousand
years, with poetry being the most important
art form. Music and architecture are also
historically important, as are calligraphy and
miniature painting. Iran is also famous for
its crafts, including ceramics, silver and gold
metalwork, and, above all, Persian carpets.
The traditional crafts, however, have
declined with industrialization.
Persian Culture
Iran has a very rich culture. Persian
literature has flourished for over a thousand
years, with poetry as the most important art
form. Music and architecture are also
historically important, as are calligraphy and
miniature painting. Iran also is famous for
its crafts, including ceramics, silver, and
gold metalwork, and, above all, Persian
carpets. The traditional crafts, however, have
declined with industrialization.
Brief History of Persian Literature
Persian literature is the world’s oldest
literature known during the medieval
classical Persian period. Classical Persian
and poetry flourished during the beginning
of the tenth century and lasted well into the
sixteenth century. Poetry became the
dominant form of literary expression during
the classical period, it was used as the
medium for almost all intellectual pursuits, a
tradition often supported by royal patronage.
Around the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries, Persia had an increased contact
with Europe, specifically Russia and Britain
that greatly affected the traditions of writing
poetry. However, prominent Persian-
speaking communities prized Persian
calligraphy as a high art form therefore the
printing press wasn’t easily adopted by the
Persians.
The early modern period of Persian
literature evolved to include genres in prose
such as short stories, novels, satire and
comedy.
Persian literature was shaped by a variety
of ideals, religions, and colonialism.
Sufism, a religious practice in Islam,
became a staple ingredient in Persian
literature. Sufism believes that there exists in
the universe only one reality. A part of it is
imprisoned in the human body and this is the
human soul. It can only find release by the
destruction of the flesh. This also resulted in
ordinary terms being mystical in
implications.
During the pre-Islamic Persia that dates
from 226 to 651 CE, Persian literature was
mostly an oral tradition being utilized for
administrative and financial functions as
well as in regal inscriptions. This explains
why it was only accessible to priests or
scribes. Writings were mainly composed of
religious poetry and love stories written in
Greek and Aramaic.
The 9th to mid-19th Century makes
up the classical period of Persia, wherein the
creation of written literary works was
facilitated by the emergence of the first
printing presses. Its development was also
influenced by Arab invaders who spread
Islam across the country, allowing Persian
historians and spiritual luminaries to bring
written works to the Muslim world. Persians
developed as the empire’s scribes and
officials and eventually became poets and
writers. During this period, writings were
written in Greek, Arabic, and Persian.
Persian literature went through a
major transformation during the Modern age
that dates from the 19th Century up to the
present. The Iranian literature has become a
political requirement of the government to
advance and modernize the society. New
Persian authors write tales that are more
concerned with narrative and action than
with mood or character. Additionally, several
strategies are tested, ranging from realism
and naturalism to surreal fantasy.
The two main divisions of Persian
literature are poetry and prose. The latter
receives less attention from most people due
to its ‘serious nature.’ Meanwhile, the
former utilizes didactic and mystical writing
styles, which is natural in a country whose
traditions abound in maxims, saying, and
proverbs. The first great mystical poet was
SANAI of Ghazni, who wrote the best
mystical epic “Hadigat at Haquiqa” (The
Walled Garden of Truth). While the most
popular didactic poet was SA’DI, who wrote
“Bustan” (Scented Garden) and “Gullistan”
(Rose Garden).
Another well-known Persian author
was Omar Khayyam whose surname
means “Tentmaker.” Many Persian poets
derived their names from their occupations.
He even used his surname as a subject in his
piece titled “The Shears of Fate.” The poem
goes:
Khayyam, who stitched the tents of science,
Has fallen in grief’s furnace and been
suddenly burned,
The shears of Fate have cut the tent ropes of
his life,
And the broker of Hope has sold him for
nothing!
RUBAIYAT
“Rubaiyat” is another poem of
Khayyam. It was translated and adapted into
English by Edward Fitzgerald in 1872. It
was Edward who made Khayyam the most
famous poet of the East in the West.
“Rubaiyat” means “quatrains.” It contains
158 quatrains that illustrate pithy
observations on complex subjects such as
love, death, and the existence of God and an
afterlife. About 2/3 of the manuscript was
translated by Fitzgerald. Some selected
stanzas are shown below:
I Grass,
AWAKE! For Morning in the Bowl of Night
Has flung the Stone that puts the Stars to
Flight:
And lo! The Hunter of the East has caught
The Sultan’s Turret in a Noose of Light
II
Dreaming when Dawn’s Left Hand was in
the Sky
I heard a Voice within the Tavern cry,
“Awake, my Little ones, and fill the Cup
Before Life’s Liquor in its Cup be dry.”
III
And, as the Cock crew, those who stood
before
The Tavern shouted – “Open then the Door!
You know how little while we have to stay,
And once departed, may return no more.”
XCIV
Ah Love! Could thou and I with Fate
conspire
To grasp the sorry scheme of Things entire,
Would not we shatter it to bits – and then
Re-mould it nearer to the Heart’s desire!
XCV
Ad, Moon of my Delight who know’st no
wane,
The Moon of Heav’n is rising once again:
How oft hereafter rising shall it look
Through this same Garden after me – in
vain!
XCVI
And when Thyself with shining Foot shall
pass
Among the Guests Star-scatter’d on the
And in thy joyous Errand reach the Spot
Where I made one – turn down an empty
Glass
“Rubaiyat” is a long lyric poem in
quatrains of iambic pentameter with a
rhyme scheme of AABA called Limerick.
The author used symbols to convey deeper
meanings: “stone” which symbolizes “sun”
and “empty glass” which symbolizes the
body of a human being at death that is
suitable to receive God’s fine wine. The use
of kennings was also evident, including the Before the introduction of kanji from China,
“Bowl of Night” (Sky) and the “Dawn’s Left there was no writing system in
Hand” (the phantom of false morning).
Japan. At first, Chinese characters were used
Overall, the message of the poem is to live
in Japanese syntactical formats, and the
the life given to us while it is still ours.
Khayyam wrote it to awaken the people of literary language was classical Chinese;
the East and the West to a deeper awareness resulting in sentences that looked like
of innate divinity in every human being. Chinese
JAPANESE LITERATURE but were phonetically read as Japanese.
Japanese Literature spans a period of almost
two millennia and comprises one of the
Chinese characters were used, not for their
major
meanings, but because they had a
literatures in the world, comparable to
phonetic sound which resembled a Japanese
English literature in age and scope. From the
word. The use of Chinese characters
early seventh
initiated a centuries-long association of
century until the present there has never
literary composition with the art of
been a period when literature was not being
calligraphy.
produced by
Chinese characters were later adapted to
Japanese authors.
write Japanese speech, creating the
Japan adopted its writing system from man'yōgana,
China, often using Chinese characters to
the earliest form of kana, or syllabic writing.
represent
Japanese words with similar phonetic
sounds. Early works were heavily influenced • Kanji
by cultural
- Chinese characters used in the modern
contact with China and Chinese literature Japanese logographic writing system
and was often written in Classical Chinese.
along with hiragana (平仮名), katakana (片
仮名), and the Arabic numerals.
History of Japanese Literature
Japanese literature is one of the major • Nara Period
literatures of the world, comparable to
- the period of the creation of the earliest
English literature in age and variety. From works including:
the seventh century C.E., when the earliest
▪ Kojiki (712) – a work recording Japanese
surviving works were written, until the mythology and legendary history.
present day, there has never been a period
▪ Nihonshoki (720) – a chronicle with a
when
slightly more solid foundation in
literature was not being produced in Japan.
historical records than Kojiki.
▪ Man'yōshū (759) – Ten Thousand Leaves;
I. Ancient Literature (until 894) an anthology of poetry.
II. Classical Literature | The Heian Period
(894 - 1194)
Classical Japanese literature generally refers
to literature produced during the
Heian Period, what some would consider a
golden era of art and literature. During this
time, the imperial court patronized poets,
many of whom were courtiers or ladies-in-
waiting. Editing anthologies of poetry was a
national pastime. Reflecting the aristocratic
atmosphere, the poetry was elegant and
sophisticated and expressed emotions in a
rhetorical style.
• Important Works of this Period
1. The Tale of Genji (early 11th century) by
Murasaki Shikibu
- considered the pre-eminent masterpiece of
Heian fiction and an early example
of a work of fiction in the form of a novel.
- believed to be the earliest full-length novel.
2. Kokin Wakashū (905)
- waka poetry anthology.
3. The Pillow Book (990s)
- an essay about the life, loves, and pastimes
of nobles in the emperor’s court.
- written by Murasaki Shikibu's
contemporary and rival, Sei Shonagon.
4. Iroha Poem
- now one of two standard orderings for the
Japanese syllabary.
III. Medieval Literature (1195 - 1600)
Medieval Japanese Literature is marked by
the strong influence of Zen Buddhism,
and many writers were priests, travelers, or
ascetic poets. Other notable genres in this
period were renga (linked verse) and Noh
theater. Both were rapidly developed in the
middle of the 14th century, during the early
Muromachi period.
During this period, Japan experienced many
civil wars which led to the
development of a warrior class, and a
widespread interest in war tales, histories,
and
related stories. Work from this period is
notable for its insights into life and death,
simple
lifestyles, and redemption through killing.
• Notable Works in this Period
1. The Tale of the Heike (1371)
- an epic account of the struggle between the
Minamoto and Taira clans for
control of Japan at the end of the 12th
century.
2. Kamo no Chōmei's Hōjōki (1212)
3. Tsurezuregusa (1331)
- a tale written by Yoshida Kenko.
IV. Early Modern Literature (1600-1868)
The literature of this time was written during
the generally peaceful Tokugawa
Period (commonly referred to as the Edo
Period). Due in large part to the rise of the
working and middle classes in the new
capital of Edo (modern Tokyo), forms of
popular
drama developed which would later evolve
into kabuki.
Many genres of literature made their début
during the Edo Period, inspired by a
rising literacy rate among the growing
population of townspeople, as well as the
development of lending libraries. New
genres included horror, crime stories,
morality
stories, and comedy, often accompanied by
colorful woodcut prints.
Although there was a minor Western
influence trickling into the country from the
Dutch settlement at Nagasaki, it was the
importation of Chinese vernacular fiction
that
proved the greatest outside influence on the
development of this period.
• Notable Authors in this Period
1. Chikamatsu Monzaemon
- a joruri and kabuki dramatist who became
popular at the end of the 17th
century.
2. Matsuo Bashō
- wrote Oku no Hosomichi (奥の細道,
1702), a travel diary.
3. Hokusai
- perhaps Japan's most famous woodblock
print artist.
- illustrated fiction as well as his famous 36
Views of Mount Fuji.
4. Ihara Saikaku
- said to have given birth to the modern
consciousness of the novel in Japan,
mixing vernacular dialogue into his
humorous and cautionary tales of the
pleasure quarters.
5. Jippensha Ikku (十返舎一九)
- wrote Tōkaidōchū hizakurige (東海道中膝
栗毛), a mix of travelogue and
comedy.
6. Tsuga Teisho, Takebe Ayatari, & Okajima
Kanzan
- instrumental in developing the yomihon,
which were historical romances
almost entirely in prose, influenced by
Chinese vernacular novels such as
Three Kingdoms and Shui hu zhuan.
7. Kyokutei Bakin
- wrote the extremely popular fantasy and
historical romance, Nansō Satomi
Hakkenden (南総里見八犬伝), in addition
to other yomihon.
8. Santō Kyōden
- wrote yomihon mostly set in the gay
quarters until the Kansei edicts banned
such works, and he turned to comedic
kibyōshi.
V. Meiji, Taisho, & Early Showa Literature
(1868-1945)
The Meiji era marked the re-opening of
Japan to the West, and a period of rapid
industrialization. The introduction of
European literature brought free verse into
the
poetic repertoire; it became widely used for
longer works embodying new intellectual
themes. Young Japanese prose writers and
dramatists struggled with a whole galaxy of
new ideas and artistic schools, but novelists
were the first to successfully assimilate
some
of these concepts.
▪ Early Meiji Era (1868 – 1880s)
- Fukuzawa Yukichi and Nakae Chomin
authored Enlightenment Literature,
while pre-modern popular books depicted
the quickly changing country.
▪ Mid-Meiji Era (late 1880s – early 1890s)
The following are genres, characteristics,
and notable authors that have transpired
and emerged in this era (onwards):
✓ Realism was introduced by Tsubouchi
Shoyo and Futabatei Shimei.
✓ Classicism of Ozaki Koyo, Yamada
Bimyo and Koda Rohan gained popularity.
✓ Higuchi Ichiyo, a rare woman writer in
this era, wrote short stories on powerless
women of this age in a simple style, between
literary and colloquial.
✓ Izumi Kyoka, a favored disciple of Ozaki,
pursued a flowing and elegant style and
wrote early novels such as The Operating
Room (1895) in literary style and later
ones including The Holy Man of Mount
Koya (1900) in colloquial language.
✓ Mori Ogai introduced Romanticism to
Japan with his anthology of translated
poems (1889), and it was carried to its
height by Shimazaki Toson and his
contemporaries and by the magazines Myōjō
and Bungaku-kai in the early
1900s. Mori also wrote some modern novels
including The Dancing Girl (1890),
Wild Geese (1911), and later wrote historical
novels.
✓ A new colloquial literature developed
centering on the “I” novel, (Watakushi-
shôsetu), a form of fiction that describes the
world from the author’s point of view
and depicts his own mental states. This style
incorporated some unusual
protagonists such as the cat narrator of
Natsume Soseki's humorous and satirical
Wagahai wa neko de aru (“I Am a Cat,”
1905).
✓ Natsume Soseki, who is often compared
with Mori Ogai, also wrote the famous
novels Botchan (1906) and Sanshirô (1908),
depicting the freshness and purity
of youth. He eventually pursued
transcendence of human emotions and
egoism
in his later works including Kokoro (1914),
and his last unfinished novel Light
and Darkness (1916).
✓ Shiga Naoya, the so called "god of the
novel," wrote in an autobiographical style,
depicting his states of his mind, that is also
classified as “I” novel.
✓ Shimazaki shifted from Romanticism to
Naturalism, which was established with
the publication of The Broken
Commandment (1906) and Katai Tayama's
Futon (1907).
✓ Naturalism led to the “I” novel. Neo- Oguma Hideo, and Ishikawa Jun.
romanticism came out of anti-naturalism
and was led by Nagai Kafu, Junichiro
VI. Post-War Literature
Tanizaki, Kotaro Takamura, Kitahara
Hakushu, and others during the early 1910s.
Japan’s defeat in World War II influenced
✓ Mushanokoji Saneatsu, Shiga Naoya, and
Japanese literature during the 1940s and
others founded a magazine,
1950s. Many authors wrote stories about
Shirakaba, in 1910 to promote Humanism.
disaffection, loss of purpose, and the coping
with
✓ Ryunosuke Akutagawa, who was highly defeat.
praised by Soseki, represented Neo-
realism in the mid-1910s and wrote
• Prominent Authors (1940s – 1950s)
intellectual, analytical short stories including
1. Dazai Osamu
- his novel, The Setting Sun, tells of a
Rashômon (1915).
soldier returning from Manchukuo.
During the 1920s and early 1930s the
2. Mishima Yukio
proletarian literary movement, comprising
- well known for both his nihilistic writing
such writers as Kobayashi Takiji, Kuroshima
and his controversial suicide by
Denji, Miyamoto Yuriko, and Sata Ineko,
seppuku, began writing in the post-war
produced a politically radical literature
period.
depicting the harsh lives of workers,
peasants, 3. Kojima Nobuo
women, and other downtrodden members of - his short story, The American School,
society, and their struggles for change. portrays a group of Japanese teachers
War-time Japan saw the début of several of English who, in the immediate aftermath
authors best known for the beauty of of the war, deal with the American
their language and their tales of love and occupation in varying ways.
sensuality, notably Tanizaki Junichiro and

• Prominent Writers (1970s – 1980s)

Japan's first winner of the Nobel Prize for
Literature, Kawabata Yasunari, a master of
psychological fiction. Hino Ashihei wrote
lyrical bestsellers glorifying the war, while
Ishikawa Tatsuzo attempted to publish a
disturbingly realistic account of the advance
on
Nanjing. Writers who opposed the war
include Kuroshima Denji, Kaneko
Mitsuharu,
- identified with intellectual and moral
issues in their attempts to raise social and
political consciousness.
1. Oe Kenzaburo
- wrote his best-known work, A Personal
Matter in 1964 and became Japan's
second winner of the Nobel Prize for
Literature.
2. Inoue Mitsuaki
- had long been concerned with the atomic
bomb and continued during the 1980’s
to write on problems of the nuclear age.
3. Endo Shusaku
- depicted the religious dilemma of the
Kakure Kirishitan, Roman Catholics in
feudal Japan, as a springboard to address
spiritual problems.
4. Inoue Yasushi
- also turned to the past in masterful
historical novels, set in Inner Asia and
ancient
Japan, in order to comment on present
human fate.
• Avant-Garde Writers
1. Abe Kobo
the elderly in hospitals; the recent past; the
Pure-Hearted Shopping District in Koenji,
Tokyo; and the life of a Meiji period ukiyo-e
artist. In international literature, Kazuo
Ishiguro, a native of Japan, who had taken
up residence in Britain, won Britain's
prestigious Booker Prize.
Murakami Haruki is one of the most popular
and controversial of today's Japanese
authors. His genre-defying, humorous and
surreal works have sparked fierce debates
in Japan over whether they are true
"literature" or simple pop-fiction: Oe
Kenzaburo has
been one of his harshest critics. Some of his
best-known works include Norwegian
Wood (1987) and The Wind-Up Bird
Chronicle (1994-1995). Another best-selling
contemporary author is Banana Yoshimoto.

- wrote fantastic novels such as Woman in

the Dunes (1960).
VII. Contemporary Literature
- wanted to express the Japanese experience
✓ Popular fiction, non-fiction, and
in modern terms without using either
children's literature all flourished in urban
international styles or traditional Japan
conventions, developed new inner visions.
during the 1980s.
2. Furui Yoshikichi
- tellingly related the lives of alienated urban
✓ Many popular works fell between "pure
dwellers coping with the minutiae of
literature" and pulp novels
daily life, while the psychodramas within
(inexpensive, fast-paced literary works),
such daily life crises have been
including all sorts of historical serials,
explored by a rising number of important
information-packed docudramas, science
women novelists.
fiction, mysteries, detective fiction,
3. Todo Shizuko
business stories, war journals, and animal
- won the 1988 Naoki Prize for Ripening stories.
Summer, a story capturing the complex
✓ Non-fiction covered everything from
psychology of modern women. crime to politics.

Other award-winning stories at the end of ✓ Although factual journalism

the decade dealt with current issues of predominated, many of these works were
interpretive, reflecting a high degree of
individualism.
✓ Children's works re-emerged in the 1950s,
and the newer entrants into this field,
many of them younger women, brought new
vitality to it in the 1980s.
▪ Manga (comic books)
- penetrated almost every sector of the
popular market.
- include virtually every field of human
interest, such as a multi volume high-
school history of Japan and, for the adult
market, a manga introduction to
economics, and pornography.
Characteristics of Japanese Literature
1. AMBIGUITY
Japanese literature can be difficult to read
and understand, because in many
ways the written Japanese reflects certain
peculiarities of the spoken language.
Statements are often ambiguous, omitting as
unnecessary the particles of speech which
would normally identify words as the
subject or object of a sentence, or using
colloquial
verb forms from a specific region or social
class.
Special language used to depict gender, age,
social status, or regional origins
is often the only clue as to who is speaking
or being spoken about in a sentence. In
many cases the significance of a simple
sentence can only be understood by
someone who is familiar with the cultural or
historical background of the work.
2. CULTURAL HOMOGENEITY
Japan’s deliberate isolation during the
seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries created a strong cultural
homogeneity, and the literature of that
period
incorporated many common understandings
that are unintelligible to someone who
does not share the same background. For
example, Japanese readers of the
seventeenth
century immediately understood the phrase,
“some smoke rose noisily” (kemuri
tachisawagite), as a reference to Great Fire
of 1682 that ravaged Edo (the modern city
of Tokyo).
3. EMOTIONAL WRITING SYSTEM
Though the Japanese writing system was
first adapted from Chinese, the
Japanese and Chinese languages are
unrelated. The original Japanese language
contained a great variety of words
expressing emotion and feeling, but very
few words
for abstract intellectual concepts such as
justice, morality, honesty or rectitude.
Japanese literature tends to be emotional and
subjective, rather than
intellectual, and consequently appeals
strongly to modern readers all over the
world,
who can relate to sentiments and feelings
which transcend historical changes and
cultural differences. Japanese writers who
wanted to express more intellectual or
abstract meanings wrote in Chinese or
borrowed from the Chinese language.
4. LITERARY CRITICISM / ARTISTIC
CODES
As early as the tenth century, patronage of
literature and poetry by the court
and the aristocracy gave rise to literary
criticism and artistic “codes,” developed by
the
writers and poets themselves, which dictated
the style and form of poetic
composition.
These codes restricted the types of sentence
structures which were
acceptable, and generally prohibited the use
of words with humble meanings or foreign
origins until the sixteenth century, when less
formal haikai no renga (俳諧の連歌,
“playful linked verse”) became popular.
Japanese writers emphasized refinement of
sentiment and elegant phrasing over the
expression of intellectual concepts.
THE TALE OF GENJI (Genji
Monogata9ri)
The Tale of Genji, the first ever novel, was
written by a woman. The novel is
comprised of fifty-four chapters, and it was
written in 11th century Japan by Murasaki
Shikibu, an influential court lady-in-waiting.
The Tale of Genji is one of the greatest
Japanese classics of literature, which gives
amazing insights into Japanese high society
in a period of radical change. During the
Heian period (8th-12th Centuries CE), Japan
became more and more independent and
isolated from China, distinguishing itself in
language, customs, and writing. In this
period,
women were generally believed to be less
intelligent than men and thus weren't taught
the
Chinese language.
• About the Author – MURASAKI
SHIKIBU
Murasaki Shikibu, or Lady Murasaki as she
is sometimes known in English, was a
Japanese novelist, poet, and a maid of honor
of the imperial court during the Heian
period. She is best known as the author of
The Tale of Genji, written in Japanese
between
about 1000 and 1008, one of the earliest and
most famous novels in human history.
"Murasaki Shikibu" was not her real name;
her actual name is unknown, though
some scholars have postulated that her given
name might have been Takako (for Fujiwara
Takako). Her diary states that she was
nicknamed "Murasaki" ("purple wisteria
blossom")
at court, after a character in The Tale of
Genji. "Shikibu" refers to her father's
position in
the Bureau of Ceremony (shikibu-shō).
Summary of the Prose
The Tale of Genji talks about the life of
Hikaru no Genji, a son of the Japanese
Emperor, also known as "Hikaru Genji"
("Shining Genji"). The tale concentrates on
Genji’s
romantic life and describes the customs of
the aristocratic society of the time.
Genji is depicted as being very handsome.
His most important personality trait is
the loyalty he shows to all the women in his
life; he never abandons any of his wives.
When
he finally becomes the most powerful man
in the capital, he moves into a palace and
provides for each of them. Genji is the
second son of a certain ancient emperor and
a low-
ranking concubine.
His mother died when Genji is three years
old, and the emperor cannot forget her.
The emperor then hears of a woman named
Lady Fujitsubo, a princess of the preceding
emperor, who resembles his deceased
concubine, and later takes her as one of his
wives.
Genji loves Lady Fuitsubo first as his
stepmother but comes to love her as a
woman. They
fall in love with each other, but their
relationship is forbidden.
Genji is frustrated because of his forbidden
love for the Lady Fujitsubo and is on
bad terms with his wife, Lady Aoi (Aoi no
Ue). He also engages in a series of
unfulfilling
love affairs with other women; in each
instance his advances are rebuffed, his lover
dies
suddenly during the affair, or he finds the
lover to be dull and unsatisfying. Genji visits
Kitayama, the northern rural, hilly area of
Kyoto, where he encounters a beautiful girl.
He is fascinated by this little girl, Murasaki,
and discovers that she is a niece of the
Lady Fujitsubo. He eventually kidnaps
Murasaki, brings her to his own palace and
educates
her to be his ideal lady, like the Lady
Fujitsubo. During this same period, Genji
secretly
meets the Lady Fujitsubo, and she bears his
son. Everyone except the two lovers believes
the father of this child to be the emperor.
Later, the boy becomes the crown prince and
Lady Fujitsubo becomes the empress,
but Genji and Lady Fujitsubo swear to keep
their secret. Genji and his wife Lady Aoi
reconcile, and she gives birth to a son, but
dies soon after. Genji is sorrowful, but finds
consolation in Murasaki, whom he marries.
Genji's father the emperor dies, and his
political
enemy seizes power in the court.
Then, another of Genji's secret love affairs is
exposed when Genji and a concubine
of his brother, the Emperor Suzaku, are
discovered meeting in secret. Genji is not
officially
punished but flees to the rural Harima
province. There, a prosperous man named
Akashi no
Nyūdō (Monk of Akashi) entertains Genji,
and Genji has a love affair with Akashi's
daughter Lady Akashi, who gives birth to
Genji’s only daughter, who later becomes
the
empress. Genji is forgiven by his brother
and returns to Kyoto.
His son by Lady Fujitsubo becomes the
emperor and Genji finishes his imperial
career. The new Emperor Reizei knows
Genji is his real father and raises Genji to
the
highest possible rank.
However, when Genji is 40 years old, his
emotional life begins to decline. He
marries another wife, the "Third Princess,"
(known as Onna san no miya in the
Seidensticker version, or Nyōsan in Waley's)
but she is taken advantage of by Genji's
nephew, and bears his son, whom she names
Kaoru. Genji's new marriage changes his
relationship with Murasaki.
Genji's beloved Murasaki dies. In the
following chapter, Maboroshi (“Illusion”),
Genji contemplates how fleeting life is.
Immediately after Maboroshi, there is a
chapter
entitled Kumogakure (“Vanished into the
Clouds”) which is left blank but implies the
death
of Genji.
Literary Analysis of the Prose
"The Tale of Genji" is a classic novel from
early 11th-century Japan, written by
Lady Murasaki Shikibu, who was part of the
imperial court herself. The story revolves
around Prince Genji, a charming and
talented young man, as he navigates the
complexities
of court life in Heian-era Japan,
characterized by romantic intrigues and
power struggles.
Throughout the novel, Genji's character
evolves as he learns the consequences of
his actions on others. Initially somewhat
thoughtless in his pursuits, he gradually
becomes
more introspective, realizing the impact of
his behavior on those around him.
The novel also provides insights into Heian-
era court culture, which valued
beauty, nuance, and harmony. Despite
contact with other cultures, the court
remained
sophisticated and complex, with practices
like blackening teeth for beauty seeming
unusual
to modern readers.
Poetry plays a significant role in the novel,
with short poems conveying
characters' emotions alongside the prose.
Lady Murasaki skillfully blends natural
imagery
into both poems and prose, offering readers
a vivid depiction of the Heian world.
While many translations focus on Genji's
early years, the novel extends beyond his
life, offering a comprehensive portrayal of
life in the imperial court during 11th-century
Japan.
• CHARACTERS
- These characters help us explore themes
like love, desire, power, and identity in
old Japan. "The Tale of Genji" gives us a
peek into court life and the complexities
of human relationships.
1. Prince Genji: Genji is the main character,
a charming and talented man admired by
many.
He struggles with love and desire, but
throughout the story, he grows and becomes
more
understanding. His relationships with Lady
Aoi, Princess Wistaria, and Violet show us a
lot
about love, desire, and life in medieval
Japan.
2. Lady Aoi: Genji's first wife, Lady Aoi,
shows us the expectations on women in old
Japan.
Despite Genji's unfaithfulness, she stays
loyal and represents the limited choices
women
had.
3. Princess Wistaria: She's important to
Genji and reminds him of his late mother.
Princess
Wistaria is kind and stable, contrasting with
Genji's romantic adventures.
4. Violet: A young girl Genji adopts; Violet
represents innocence and vulnerability.
Genji's
relationship with her raises questions about
love and consent.
5. Lady Rokujō: She's an older woman who
becomes obsessed with Genji, showing how
passion can lead to madness.
• LITERARY DEVICES
- Themes
- Symbols
- Motifs
• THEMES
- These themes help us understand the
characters, their relationships, and the
society they live in within "The Tale of
Genji."
1. Defining—and Finding—the Ideal
Woman
The story focuses a lot on Prince Genji's
romantic adventures. He's always
looking for the perfect woman, but he's not
entirely sure what he wants. In one part,
Genji
and his friends talk about different types of
women and why they're not good enough.
Genji's idea of the perfect woman is
influenced by his late mother, Kiri-Tsubo,
and he sees
aspects of her in Princess Wistaria and
Violet.
2. The Power of Art
Art is a big deal in the story. The people in
the imperial court, where Genji lives,
are expected to be really good at things like
poetry, music, dance, and painting. Genji is
amazing at all of these. Poems are used a lot
to express feelings, and even Genji's son
gets
a poem from him before he leaves. Music
and painting are important too, with
characters
playing instruments and having competitions
to find the best paintings.
3. Status and How to Get It
The society in the story has a strict
hierarchy, meaning there are clear levels of
importance and power. Family connections
are super important and can even be a matter
of life or death. For example, Genji's mom,
Kiri-Tsubo, is treated badly because she
doesn't
have a powerful family. Marriage is a big
way to climb the social ladder, even for
those at
the top. The story doesn't explain much
about how the court actually works, but it's
clear
that status matters a lot. Lady Koki-den is a
powerful woman who can make big
decisions
because of her family connections and
intelligence. Even though she's a woman,
she's a
force to be reckoned with at court.
• SYMBOLS
- These symbols help us understand the
themes of beauty, power, and transience in
"The Tale of Genji." They add depth to the
story and give insight into the
characters and their world.
1. Storms represent chaos and unrest in the
story. When there's a storm, it's a sign that
things
are not peaceful. For example, when Genji is
exiled, there's a big storm, showing his inner
turmoil and longing to return home.
2. Silk represents power and beauty in
Genji's world. It's a valuable fabric used for
gifts and
art. Silk is special because it can hold color
and capture delicate details, making it
perfect
for scarves and screens. It's a symbol of
luxury and refinement.
3. Flowers and trees in bloom symbolize the
fleeting nature of beauty. They're often
associated with female characters like
Princess Wistaria and Violet, showing their
natural
grace and charm. Genji is drawn to flowers,
connecting his fascination with women to
the
beauty of nature.
• MOTIFS
- These motifs add depth to the themes of
the story and offer insight into the
characters' motivations and interactions.
They contribute to the rich tapestry of
"The Tale of Genji" by exploring elements
of human nature, societal norms, and
the complexities of court life.
1. Obscurity
In the story, things are often hidden or
unclear, both literally and figuratively.
Women, in particular, are often depicted
behind screens or in dimly lit rooms,
reflecting
the cultural norms of seclusion for women
during that time. The meaning of the text
itself
can be elusive, with veiled references and
indirect language. This adds layers of
complexity
to the narrative, inviting readers to interpret
and unravel its hidden meanings.
2. Nature
Despite the focus on court life, nature plays
a significant role in the story. Genji's
experiences in nature reflect his emotional
state, with scenes of beauty and tranquility
often
mirroring his inner feelings. The natural
world offers moments of peace and
harmony,
especially during dawn, dusk, and under the
moonlight. Whether in enclosed gardens or
vast seas, nature serves as a backdrop for
expression and reflection, enriching the
narrative
with its symbolic significance.
3. Competition
Despite the emphasis on harmony,
competition is prevalent throughout the tale.
Characters vie for status, romantic partners,
and recognition through various contests and
challenges. This competition is not only
politically driven but also arises in personal
relationships. Genji and Tō-no-Chūjō, for
instance, engage in friendly rivalry and
sometimes serious competition, highlighting
the dynamics of ambition and rivalry within
the courtly setting.
• WRITING STYLE
"The Tale of Genji" is renowned for its
elegant and lyrical prose,
characteristic of classical Japanese literature.
Lady Murasaki Shikibu employs a
sophisticated narrative structure, intricate
character development, and poetic language
to create a rich tapestry of courtly life during
the Heian period. The prose is marked by
its attention to detail, nuanced descriptions
of emotions and environments, and the use
of symbolism and metaphor to convey
deeper layers of meaning. Murasaki's
writing
style reflects the aesthetic sensibilities of the
time, emphasizing beauty, refinement, and
subtlety in both form and content.
• SIGNIFICANCE IN JAPANESE
LITERATURE
1. Cultural Insight
The book gives us a peek into what life was
like in ancient Japan, particularly
among the aristocracy. It helps us understand
their customs, beliefs, and social structure
during the Heian period.
2. Literary Innovation
This story is like a pioneer in Japanese
storytelling. It introduced new ways of
writing novels, focusing on characters'
feelings and experiences rather than just
events. It's
a bit like how modern TV shows delve into
characters' lives and emotions.
3. Cultural Impact
"The Tale of Genji" has become a part of
Japan's cultural identity. It's been retold
in various forms like plays, movies, and
even manga. Many Japanese phrases and
ideas in
the book have become common in everyday
language.
4. Language Influence
The book has also influenced the Japanese
language itself. It introduced new
words and phrases, and its poetic style
shaped how people wrote and spoke in Japan
for
centuries.
KOREAN LITERATURE
VIETNAMESE LITERATURE
History and Background of Vietnam
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF VIETNAM
Vietnam, located in Southeast Asia on the
South China Sea, is a small country
acknowledged for its beaches, rivers,
Buddhist pagodas, and lively cities like
Saigon.
The Asian country has 310,070 square
kilometers of land and 21,140 square
kilometers of sea, making it the 66thlargest
nation in the world.
Vietnam's national language is Vietnamese,
although it was used to rule by Chinese
powers. Overall, Vietnam is a small, dense,
and attractive country.
VIETNAM’S LITERARY HISTORY
During the millennium before the 10th
century, Vietnam was ruled by various
Chinese dynasties, leading to a significant
amount of written material in Chữ Hán (Văn
ngôn). ChữNôm, developed around the 10th
century, enabling writers to produce in
Vietnamese using local characters inspired
by Chinese characters. In the 18th century,
many Vietnamese writers and poets used chữ
nôm, and it temporarily became the nation’s
official written script.
The Chữ Quốc ngữ script was developed in
1631, however it was not widely used
outside of missionary organizations until the
early 20th century, when the French colonial
rulers ordered its use in French Indochina.
By the mid-20thcentury, almost all
Vietnamese masterpieces of literature were
written in quốc ngữ. Several critics believe
Francophone Vietnamese and English-
speaking Vietnamese as the most significant
contributors to the ongoing history of
Vietnamese literature.
Vietnam has an extensive, rich history in
relation to its literature, so a single
paragraph would not do it proper justice.
There are three main types of literature
present in Vietnam:
Truyen (traditional oral literature),
Han Viet (Chinese- Vietnamese literature)
and
Quoc Am (modern literature with
Romanised characters).
When the French took over Vietnam in the
19th century, they promoted “quoc ngu.”
Ironically, Vietnamese nationalists
encouraged uneducated people to learn the
simple writing style so they could be handed
anti-French political publications. Another
major development in the early twentieth
century was the increasing popularity of
quoc nguin the northern half of the country,
which resulted in an abundance of new
publications written in that script. There had
been quoc ngu publications in Cochinchina
since 1865, but in 1898, a decree of the
colonial administration prohibited
publishing without permission in the
authority areas of magazines in quoc ngu or
Chinese that were not published by a French
citizen.
Since coming into existence, Vietnamese
literature has been rich in folklore and
proverbs; tales that have been handed down
from generation to generation, gradually
becoming valuable treasures.
Vietnam has always admired its literary
accomplishments, particularly poetry, and
the initial appearances of literary works in
Vietnam can be traced back to the Ly period
(1009-1225), when theatre was first
introduced, particularly by a prisoner
captured by the Mongols known as Ly
NguyenCat, who contributed significantly to
its success.
A short time later, the Tran Dynasty (1225-
1400) was mostly viewed as the beginning
of Vietnam’s national literature. It was the
period when Vietnam was regaining its
independence, which allowed for a
significant development in writing. During
this period, popular pieces of literature were
developed and passed down through
generations, including one by a monk named
Van Hanh, who penned “. / Greatness and
decline: why should we care?/ The fate of
people and empires is like a drop of dew on
a grass leaf.
This literary achievement and progress can
also be attributed to the birth of one of
Vietnam’s earliest national languages, a
Chinese variety converted into a script for
Vietnamese use. Because of this creation
throughout their reign, the Tran Dynasty
promoted Chinese literacy, making
Buddhists the first authors of Chinese-
Vietnamese literature. Following this rapid
surge of literary triumphs, the Vietnamese
went on to create great pieces to gratify
future generations, such as the Water Buffalo
folk legends, the Iconic Dragon Legends,
and The Legend of the Watermelon.
INDONESIAN LITERATURE
Geographical Background and
Archipelago
Southeast Asian nation of Indonesia,
formally known as the Republic of
Indonesia, is located between the Pacific
and Indian oceans. Its five main islands are
Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Jawa,
and Papua. It is made up of more than
17,000 islands, however, only an estimated
6,000 of the nation's many islands are home
to its people, despite its vast number.
Population and Resources
With an area of 1,904,569 square
kilometers, Indonesia is the largest
archipelagic state in the world and the
fourteenth largest nation by land area
(735,358 square miles). There are 38
provinces in all, nine of which are
particularly autonomous. The second-most
populated metropolitan region in the world
is Jakarta, the capital of the nation. In
addition to sharing marine borders with
Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand, the
Philippines, Australia, Palau, and India,
Indonesia also shares land borders with
Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and the
eastern portion of Malaysia. Even with its
sizable population and heavily populated
areas, Indonesia preserves sizable wilderness
areas with the second-highest levels of
biodiversity in the world, only to Brazil.
Religion
Religious freedom is protected by
the nation's constitution, even though the
government only formally recognizes six
religions for administrative purposes: Islam,
Protestantism, Roman Catholicism,
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and
indigenous religions. As of 2018, Indonesia
has the largest Muslim-majority
population in the world, with 231 million
adherents (86.7%).
Historical Background of Indonesia
The Netherlands East Indies, often
known as the Dutch East Indies, was the
previous name for Indonesia. A German
geographer first used the name Indonesia in
1884; it is believed to have originated from
the Greek words indos, which means
"India," and nesos, which means "island."
Following a Japanese occupation of the
country from 1942 to 1945 during World
War II, Indonesia declared its independence
from the Netherlands in 1945. Nonetheless,
Indonesia's independence movement
persisted until 1949, when the Dutch
formally acknowledged Indonesian
sovereignty. The country did not take on its
current form until 1969, when the United
Nations (UN) recognized the western
portion of New Guinea as a part of
Indonesia. The former Portuguese territory
of East Timor (Timor-Leste) was
incorporated into Indonesia in 1976.
Following a UN-organized referendum in
1999, however, East Timor declared its
independence and became fully sovereign in
2002.
Ethnic Groups
"Bhinneka tunggal ika," or "Unity
in diversity," is the national motto of
Indonesia, and it alludes to the remarkable
diversity of the Indonesian people that has
resulted from the continuous blending of
peoples, languages, and cultures. The nation
is home to over 300 distinct ethnic groups,
over twice as many different languages, and
a vast array of indigenous religions in a. Syair - traditional narrative
addition to the majority of the world's major poetry.
religions. Examples:
- Syair Bidasari
The majority of Indonesians are
- Syair Raja Siak
descended from Austronesian peoples,
- Syair Ken
presumably from Taiwan, whose languages
Tambuhan
started in Proto-Austronesian. The
- Syair Raja
Melanesians, who live in eastern Indonesia,
Mambang Jauhari
are another significant group. At present,
with 40.2% of the population, the Javanese
b. Pantun - quatrains made up
are currently the largest ethnic group and
of two seemingly
have a majority in politics. They can be
disconnected couplet.
found in significant quantities throughout
Example:
the majority of provinces as well as in the
Buah cempedak di luar
central to eastern regions of Java.
pagar,
ambil galah tolong jolokkan,
saya budak baru belajar,
Language
kalau salah tolong
The official language of the nation is tunjukkan.
Indonesian, a Malay dialect derived from
its prestige dialect that served as the lingua English translation:
franca for centuries throughout the Outside the fence lies the
archipelago. Under the name Bahasa cempedak fruit,
Indonesia, it was officially recognized in please use a pole to retrieve
1945 after being pushed by nationalists in it,
the 1920s. It developed from a literary I am a novice just starting
Malay language used in the eastern Sumatra out,
region's royal families in Riau-Jambi, but it if I make a mistake, please
also has many characteristics with other point it out.
Malay dialects that have long been utilized
as local lingua francas. The main areas of c. Gurindam – brief
distinction between standard Malay and aphorisms.
standard Indonesian are their idioms and Example:
specific language items. Jika hendak mengenal orang
berbangsa,
Lihat kepada budi dan
Periods of Indonesian Literature Bahasa

1. Pujangga Lama: "Literates of

English Translation:
Olden Times”
If the well born you would
- Pujangga lama or "the old
identify,
poets" was written before
Look for their kindness and
the 20th century.
courtesy
- A lively oral tradition using
traditional Malay-language
d. Hikayat - stories, fairy-
literature.
tales, animal fables,
Genres in Pujannga Lama: chronicles.
Example: The Parrot's
Seventy Tales, an Indian
 work in which a parrot tells - SanusiPane
70 stories to keep a
woman from going astray.
5. Angkatan 1945: the "Generation
of 1945"
2. Sastra Melayu Lama: "Older - Dominated by the
Malay Literature" thoughts of
- The works from this independence and
period were predominantly political manner
popular among the people - Inspiration and
in Sumatra, the Chinese leaders are:
and the Indo- - Chairil Anwar -
Europeans(1870-1942). the great poet
- The first works were - Pramoedya
dominated by syair, Ananta Toer -
hikayat and, translations of most prominent
western novels. writer

3. Angkatan Balai Pustaka: 6. Angkatan 1950 - 1960-an: the

"Generation of the [Colonial] "Generation of the 1950s"
Office for Popular Literature" - characterised by the
(1908) Kisah magazine,
- National consciousness established by H. B.
emerged among educated Jassin.
Indonesians. - dominated by
- Balai Pustaka is a Dutch collections of short
government-supervised stories and poetry.
publisher.
- Themes: forced marriages,
adat (traditional law), 7. Angkatan 1966 - 1970-an: the
modernization and "Generation of 1966 into the 1970s
adventure. Rrising the Horison
- In 1928, "Bahasa magazine led by
Indonesia" became the Mochtar Lubis.
National Language. - Dozens of writers
previously
associated with
4. Angkatan Pujangga Baru: the Lekra or leftist
"New Literates" (1933) groups went into
- National consciousness exile overseas.
among young Indonesian
intellectuals was well-
developed. 8. Angkatan 1980-an: the "Decade of
the 1980s"
Greatest Poets were:
- dominated by
- Sutan Takdir romance novel
Alisjahbana - poets explored ideas
- Amir Hamzah such as femininity
- Armijn Pane
 - Lupus - a popular premarital
story written by sex.
Hilman Hariwijaya
KOREAN LITERATURE
9. Angkatan Reformasi: the post (Historical Background)
Suharto"Reformation Period"
-produced in Korea or by Korean writers.
- And The War Is
Written in classical chinese and Korean.
Over ( 1977 )
- Author: Ismail -first using transcription systems idu and
Marahimin gugyeol, to finally using Korean script
hangul.
Set in Indonesia
following the Japanese  King Sejong (1446)
invasion, this book was
-created the new language and writing
awarded the Pegasus
system, the hangul.
Prize for Literature in
1984. Originally titled: -but that time, chinese characters were
Dan Perang Pun Usai essential in philosophy and literature, so
hangul remained neglected in literature and
useful only for women and low class people.
10. Angkatan 2000-an: the
 Japanese Occupation (1910-1945)
"Generation of 2000s"
-korean scholars aimed recovering what was
Dewi Lestari (Dee Lestari) - is one of the
purely Korean in language and literature
front runners in the modern Indonesian book
scene -today, a common agreement to accept
both hangul and works in chinese
Eka Kurniawan –
characters
first Indonesian
writer nominated for -Korean literature was first orally
the Man Booker transmitted and written much later in mixed
international for his form, hyangchal or hangul.
novel, Man Tiger,
TWO TRANSCRIPTS
translated by
Labodalih Sembiring. (1) HANJA
(2) HANGUL
- Ayu Utami -
wrote the most
 Korean Modern Literature
talk about book
Saman. -first literary form was literature poetry
- Saman - -korean always loved to sing and dance
dealt with and first poems were sung
subjects that
-Sirhak scholars played a role infusing
until that time
new ideas through satirical short stories
had been
opening people to modernity
taboo:
political, -Korean excelled in Sijo poetry and
repression, short novel that express more mind and
prejudice emotion
towards the
Korean Classical Literature
Chinese, and
  Roots in folk beliefs and folk tales of 2 Yeonjanche – extended form, several
the Korean peninsula stanzas
 Influences from Confucianism,
 Sijo and Gasa
Buddhism, and Taoism.
-early Joseon period
 Hyangga
-sijo word is made of time and harmony
-hyangga means “native songs,” from
- sijo reflected in Confucian thought
korea in opposition to chinese songs
-theme of loyalty, regrets about aging ,
-idu means “clerk’s writings”. The
sorrow over spurned love, loss of power and
variety of idu used to write hyangga and
honor
sometimes called hyangchal.
-sijo is characterized by three stanzas, 1st
-hyannga was the first uniquely Korean
foot- 3 syllables
form of poetry , 25 poems survived
2nd foot- as many as seven syllables
-characterized by number of formal rules
-Gasa is a simple form of verse with twinned
-consist or four,eight, or ten lines. Ten-
feet of three or four syllable. Some regard
line poems are most developed, three
gasa as essay
sections; four, four, and two lines
respectively and written by Buddhist -gasa theme: nature, virtues of gentlemen,
monks love between man and woman

-Buddhist theme and inspiration that are The evolution of Korean Literature
reflected in poems, folk songs, elegies to
New Literary Genres
heroic hwarang knights, shaman
exorcism or Buddhist prayer-poem Besides poetry other genres were taking
shape durin Koryo period, during the age of
 Goryeo (Koryo) songs Changga
military under dictatorship of the family
-songs of goryeo are called long poems Ch’oe
in contrast with later period Sijo that
Historical writing: Kim Pu-sik – samguk
included only three lines. Only 21 poems
sagi with a Confucian view ,and later on
have been transmitted
Iryon , history of three kingdoms
-hyangga had religious tones but
Biographical works like the Tongmunson,
changga mostly secular songs
Eastern Korean Anthology of Literature
expressing the life of ordinary people
(1478-1518)
-transmitted orally and later on written
-various text such as memorials,
down at end of 15th century and
inscriptions, and critical writings
beginning of 16th century
-Tongmunson is an anthology with an
 Koryo songs are considered as
ecyclopedic dimension going back as far as
oldest Korean songs
koguryo but written during Koryo period
Theme of poem: life close to nature,
-Chuk puinjon, story of madame bamboo of
ordinary love, mother’s love
yi kok (1297-1351) speaks of objects if they
-poetic form of of goryeo songs is known as were human beinga
byeologok
-it makes us think of fables of Aesop in
TWO FORMS Greece or La Fontaine in France.

1 Dallyeonche – shorter, single stanza