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Social PSychology
and
human nature
about the cover
For the cover of the fourth edition, we selected a progressive rock music theme. Progressive rock is a form of
rock music that evolved in the late 1960s and early 1970s as part of a “mostly British attempt to elevate rock
music to new levels of artistic credibility,”1 in such bands such as Genesis, Yes, King Crimson, Pink Floyd, Jethro
Tull, and Emerson, Lake, and Palmer. One distinguishing feature of progressive rock is “concept albums that
made unified statements, usually telling an epic story or tackling a grand overarching theme.”2 Rather than a
collection of individual songs, the concept album used a unifying theme to weave the individual songs together.
That is exactly what we try to do in our textbook Social Psychology and Human Nature. The unifying theme is
that humans are cultural animals, and this underlying theme weaves the chapters of our textbook together.
Progressive rock bands also pushed “rock’s technical and compositional boundaries by going beyond the stan-
dard rock or popular verse-chorus-based song structures.”3 In our textbook, we also try to push the boundaries of
typical introductory social psychology textbooks. For example, most textbooks talk about how humans are similar to
other animals, whereas we talk about how humans are different from other animals. Likewise, most textbooks talk
about how different people from different cultures are, whereas we talk about how similar people from different cul-
tures are. In addition, most textbooks consider obedience to authority to be destructive. Of course, blind obedience to
malevolent authority figures is destructive, but most obedience to authority is constructive rather than destructive,
such as when people obey traffic laws. That is why we include obedience in our chapter on prosocial behavior.
Two progressive rock musicians, Steve Hackett and Patrick Moraz (friends of Bushman), have both re-
ceived copies of earlier editions of our textbook. Both have written concept albums, not only in the progressive
rock groups they were part of but also in their individual solo albums. Both have also pushed the technical
and compositional boundaries of music. In addition, both are compassionate and kind human beings. It is an
honor to have both of these progressive rock musicians endorse our textbook.
Steve Hackett was born in London, England. He played lead guitar for Quiet World (1969, with his younger
brother John Hackett on flute), Genesis (1970–1977), and GTR (1985–1987; co-founded with guitarist Steve
Howe from Yes and Asia). Hackett perfected the tapping technique, which has been copied by many other
guitarists (e.g., Eddie van Halen). He also plays classical guitar on several solo albums.
Patrick Moraz was born in Morges, Switzerland. He played keyboards for progressive rock groups Main-
horse (1968–1972), Refugee (1973–1974; with former members of The Nice—Lee Jackson and Brian Davison),
Yes (1974–1976), and The Moody Blues (1978–1990). He also recorded several solo albums in which he plays his
own jazz piano compositions or classical piano compositions. In 1976 he received the “Best Keyboard Album
of the Year” award from Contemporary Keyboard Magazine for his album “I” (a.k.a. “The Story of I”).
In addition, Steve Hackett and Patrick Moraz have each been involved in numerous projects with other
progressive rock musicians. Both Hackett and Moraz have recorded albums with drummer Bill Bruford (who
played with progressive rock bands Yes, King Crimson, Genesis, UK, and Gordian Knot and produced several
solo albums). Hackett has also played with several Yes musicians besides guitarist Steve Howe and drummer
Bill Bruford, including bassist Christopher Squire (indeed they formed a band together—Squackett), guitar-
ist Peter Banks, keyboardist Rick Wakeman, and keyboardist Geoffrey Downes (also of Asia). Patrick Moraz
played on Christopher Squire’s solo album “Fish out of Water.”
This is what they had to say about our social psychology textbook Social Psychology and Human Nature.
Steve Hackett said: “As a musician, when I work on an album I draw ideas and music from many different
genres and also from a variety of cultures. I find both the contrasts and similarities between cultures fascinating.
Completely different musical forms can connect perfectly, whilst each adds something new and exciting to the
whole. I also sometimes go for a theme that gives a framework and a sense of cohesiveness for all these linked ideas.
“In their textbook, Roy Baumeister and Brad Bushman tell a story using the important concept that hu-
mans are much more than social animals—they are cultural animals. They explore similarities and differenc-
es in the way I interplay contrasting and complementary musical cultures. Also, how they weave the concept
through the chapters resembles the way I weave a concept through an album.”
Patrick Moraz said: “This fascinating and important work by Roy Baumeister, Ph.D., and Brad Bushman,
Ph.D., is constructed in the same way I would research, elaborate, and compose the different movements felt
and chosen from the various and immense repository of artistic and musical ideas at my mind’s disposal to
create and produce a progressive rock album, or even a symphonic work.
“Social Psychology and Human Nature, in its entirety, will help the student analyze, understand and build a
formidable knowledge to run the gamut of cultural perspectives that humans strive to acquire and assist them
further in their explorations of ‘cognitive resonance’ to a point of utmost clarity and completeness.
“It will, most certainly, elevate its readers to the newest and highest levels of comprehension in the transcultural
studies of human nature and might even help them update, enhance and modify their social media behavior.
“As a creative artist, I feel strongly that what clearly differentiates humans from animals and machines,
is being inspired spontaneously by new emotional ideas, as opposed to only muscle memories, since the true
emotion of the soul is at the basis of our Art.”
4th
edition
Social PSychology
and
human nature
Roy F. Baumeister
Florida State University, USA
Brad J. Bushman
The Ohio State University, USA
& VU University
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Social Psychology and Human Nature, © 2017, 2014 Cengage Learning
Fourth Edition WCN: 02-200-203
Roy F. Baumeister and Brad J. Bushman
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Printed in Canada
Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015
WE DEDICATE THIS BOOK TO OUR MENTORS AND THEIR MENTORS,
in appreciation of the teaching of psychology through these relationships.
Roy F. BaumeisteR (1953– ) Brad J. Bushman (1960– )

Ph.D. 1978, Princeton University Ph.D. 1989, University of Missouri
edward e. Jones (1926–1993) Russell G. Geen (1932– )

Ph.D. 1953, Harvard University Ph.D. 1967, University of Wisconsin
Jerome s. BRuneR (1915– ) Leonard BeRkowitz (1926– )

Ph.D. 1941, Harvard University Ph.D. 1951, University of Michigan
Gordon aLLpoRt (1897–1967) Daniel katz (1903–1998)

Ph.D. 1922, Harvard University Ph.D. 1928, Syracuse University
herbert s. LanGFeLD (1879–1958) Floyd h. aLLpoRt (1879–1958)

Ph.D. 1909, University of Berlin Ph.D. 1919, Harvard University
Carl stumpF (1848–1936) hugo münsteRBeRG (1863–1916)

edwin B. hoLt (1873–1946)
Ph.D. 1868, University of Leipzig Ph.D. 1885, Leipzig University
Ph.D. 1901, Harvard University
M.D. 1887, Heidelberg University
Rudolf h. Lotze (1817–1881) wilhelm wunDt (1832–1920) william James (1840–1910)

M.D. 1838, University of Leipzig M.D. 1856, Harvard University M.D. 1869, Harvard University
Level One Head | v

about the authors
ROY F. BAUMEISTER holds the Eppes Eminent Professorship in Psychology at Florida State
University, where he is the head of the social psychology graduate program and teaches social
psychology to students at all levels. He has taught introductory social psychology to thousands
of undergraduate students. He received his Ph.D. from Princeton in 1978, and his teaching and
research activities have included appointments at the University of California at Berkeley, Case
Western Reserve University, the University of Texas at Austin, the University of Virginia, the Max
Planck Institute in Munich (Germany), the VU University Amsterdam (the Netherlands), King
Abdulaziz University (Saudi Arabia), and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral
Sciences at Stanford. Baumeister is an active researcher whose work has been funded by the
National Institutes of Health and by the Templeton Foundation. He has done research on the
self (including self-esteem and self-control), the need to belong, sexuality, aggression, and how
people find meaning in life. In 2005, the Institute for Scientific Information concluded from a sur-
vey of published bibliographies that he was among the most influential psychologists in the world
(the top 1%), and that status has been confirmed several times since then. According to Google
Scholar, his works have been cited more than 90,000 times in the scientific literature. In his (very
rare) spare time, he likes to ski and play jazz. In 2013 he received the William James Award, the
highest honor bestowed by the Association for Psychological Science in all of psychology, as rec-
ognition of his lifetime achievements and contributions to basic scientific research in psychology.
BRAD J. BUSHMAN is a professor of communication and psychology at The Ohio State

University, where he holds the Rinehart Chair of Mass Communication. He is also a profes-
sor of communication science at the VU University Amsterdam, the Netherlands, in the
summer. For more than 25 years he has conducted research on the causes, consequences,
and solutions to the problem of human aggression and violence. He co-chaired the National
Science Foundation youth violence advisory committee that was formed in the wake of the
shooting in Newtown, Connecticut. He also is a member of President Obama’s committee
on gun violence. He is ranked number 2 in citations among communication scholars. In 2014
he received the Distinguished Lifetime Contribution to Media Psychology and Technology,
American Psychological Association. His research has challenged several myths (e.g., violent
media have a trivial effect on aggression, venting anger reduces aggression, violent people
suffer from low self-esteem, violence and sex on TV sell products, warning labels reduce
audience size). One colleague calls him the “myth buster.” His research has been published
in the top scientific journals (e.g., Science, Nature, PNAS) and has been featured extensively in
the mass media (e.g., BBC, New York Times, NPR). He lives in Columbus, Ohio, with his wife,
Tam Stafford, and their youngest son, Branden. Their two oldest children, Becca and Nathan,
are students at The Ohio State University. In his spare time, he likes to ride his bicycle
(especially in Amsterdam), train in Tang Soo Do at J. Kim martial arts (where he currently
is Dan 2), and listen to progressive rock (e.g., Patrick Moraz, Steve Hackett, Yes, Genesis,
Pink Floyd) and jazz (e.g., Michiel Borstlap, Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Sonny Rollins).
vii
Brief contents
Preface xix
c haP t e rS
1 The Mission & the Method 1
2 Culture and Nature 33
3 The Self 67
4 Choices and Actions: The Self in Control 113
5 Social Cognition 147
6 Emotion and Affect 185
7 Attitudes, Beliefs, and Consistency 229
8 Social Influence and Persuasion 257
9 Prosocial Behavior: Doing What’s Best for Others 291
10 Aggression and Antisocial Behavior 331
11 Interpersonal Attraction and Rejection 371
12 Close Relationships: Passion, Intimacy, and Sexuality 403
13 Prejudice and Intergroup Relations 447
14 Groups 491
glossary G1
endnotes e1
references R1
name index n1
Subject index s1
ix
contents
Food For thought 15
the mission
1
Does Chicken Soup Reduce Cold
Symptoms?
& the method 1 tradeoFFS

Research Ethics
18
a Brief history of Social Psychology 3 Experimental Philosophy 11 how much of Social Psychology
Making the World Better 11
What do Social Psychologists do? 6 is true? 26
Social Psychology Is Fun! 12
Self-Correcting Nature of Science 26
Social Psychology’s Place in the World 7 how do Social Psychologists answer Reliance on Student Samples 26
Social Psychology’s Place in the Social
their own Questions? 13 Cultural Relativity 27
Sciences 8
Accumulated Common Wisdom 13 chaPter Summary 28
Social Psychology’s Place Within
Psychology 8 Overview of the Scientific Method 14
Scientific Theories 15
Why People Study Social Psychology 10 Research Design 17
Curiosity About People 10
money matterS 43
2
Nature, Culture, and Money
culture and nature 33 Food For thought

Virtuous Vegetarians
44
the Social Side oF Sex 46

Sex and Culture
nature and Social Behavior
35 Are People the Same Everywhere? 48
Explaining the Psyche 35 important Features of human tradeoFFS 60
Nature Defined 36 Political Tradeoffs
Evolution, and Doing What’s
Social life 50
Natural 36
The Duplex Mind 50 What makeS uS human? 63
The Long Road to Social Putting the Cultural Animal in
Social Animals 38
Acceptance 54 Perspective
The Social Brain 39
Built to Relate 55
culture and human Social life 40 Nature Says Go, Culture Says Stop 56
Putting People First 61
Social Animal or Cultural Animal? 40 Selfish Impulse Versus Social
Culture Defined 41 Conscience 57 chaPter Summary 64
Nature and Culture Interacting 44 Tradeoffs: When You Can’t Have It
All 58
What Makes Cultural Animals? 47
xi
Food For thought 77
3
Eating Binges and Escaping the
the Self 67 Self
money matterS 82
Doing It for Money, Not Love
tradeoFFS 86
What is the Self? 69 Self and information Processing 88 Self-Handicapping
The Self’s Main Jobs 69 Anything That Touches the Self... 88
Who Makes the Self: The Individual or Can the Self-Concept Change? 89
Society? 70 Self-Esteem and Saying No to Sex
Self-Awareness 73 Self-esteem, Self-deception, and Positive
Why Do We Have Self-Awareness? 76 illusions 92 What makeS uS human? 108
Self-Esteem 92 Putting the Cultural Animal in
Where Self-knowledge comes From 78 Reality and Illusion 94
Perspective
Looking Outside: The Looking-Glass How People Fool Themselves 95
Self 78 Making an Impression 104
Benefits of Self-Esteem 96
Looking Inside: Introspection 79 Self-Presentation and Risky
Why Do We Care? 98
Looking at Others: Social Behavior 106
Comparison 80
Is High Self-Esteem Always Good? 99
Self-Perception 81
Pursuing Self-Esteem 100 chaPter Summary 109
The Fluctuating Image(s) of Self 82 Self-Presentation 101
Why People Seek Self-Knowledge 84 Who’s Looking? 102
money matterS 117
4
How Money Can Trick You Into
choices and actions 113 Making Bad Decisions

Gender, Sex, and Decisions
Food For thought 135

What you do, and What it means 115 Self-regulation and habits
131 Dieting as Self-Regulation
Making Choices 116 Control and Willpower 131
Why People Don’t Choose 119 Standards: Ideas That Guide Self-
tradeoFFS 140
Regulation 132 Now versus Tomorrow: Delay of
Freedom to Change 121
Gratification
Monitoring: Watching What You’re
Freedom of action 122 Doing 133 What makeS uS human? 143
More or Less Free 123 Willpower for Change 134
Putting the Cultural Animal in
Free Action Comes from Inside 123 Willpower and Decision Fatigue 136 Perspective
Having an Out Versus No Escape 124 Habits 137
goals, Plans, intentions 125 irrationality and Self-destruction 138

Setting and Pursuing Goals 125 Self-Defeating Acts: Being Your Own
Hierarchy of Goals 127 Worst Enemy 138
Multiple Goals and Goal Suicide 141
Shielding 128
chaPter Summary 144
Reaching Goals: What’s the Plan? 129
Common Mistakes in Planning 130
xii | Contents
money matterS 156
5
Does Money Make a Difference?
Social cognition 147 tradeoFFS 158

Conscious and Unconscious
Thought

What is Social cognition? 149 heuristics: mental Shortcuts 164 It’s the Thought That Counts (or
Thinking About People: A Special Case? 149 Representativeness Heuristic 164 Doesn’t Count!) the Calories
Why People Think, and Why They Don’t 150 Availability Heuristic 165 the Social Side oF Sex 170
Automatic and Deliberate Thinking 151 Simulation Heuristic 166
Counting Sex Partners
Thought Suppression and Ironic Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic 166
Processes 157
Flawed or clever thinking? 168 What makeS uS human? 179
attributions and explanations: Why did that Putting the Cultural Animal in
happen? 159 (So-called) errors and Biases 169 Perspective
Confirmation Bias 171
It’s Not My Fault: Explaining Success and
Failure 160 Illusory Correlations 171 Illusion of Control 175
You Know I’m Right: The Actor/Observer Base Rate Fallacy 172 Counterfactual Thinking 176
Bias 161 Gambler’s Fallacy and the Hot Hand 173
False Consensus Effect 174
are most People really Just kind
Challenging Attribution Theory 163
Explaining Actions: A Different False Uniqueness Effect 174 of Stupid? 178
Approach 163 Perseverance of Theories 174 Reducing Cognitive Errors 178
Statistical Regression 175 chaPter Summary 180
6
Can People be Wrong about
emotion and affect 185 Whether They Are Sexually

Aroused?
tradeoFFS 199
Affect Intensity: Emotional Roller
Coaster or Even Keel?
What is emotion? 187 Emotions Cause Behavior—Sort Of 208
Conscious Emotion versus Automatic Emotions Guide Thinking and Food For thought 209
Affect 187 Learning 210 Mood and Food
(Anticipated) Emotion Guides Decisions and
emotional arousal 188 Choices 211 money matterS 213
James–Lange Theory of Emotion 188 Emotions Help and Hurt Decision Emotions and Prices
Schachter–Singer Theory of Emotion 190 Making 212
Misattribution of Arousal 190 Positive Emotions Counteract Negative
What makeS uS human? 223
Emotions 214 Putting the Cultural Animal in
Some important emotions 193 Other Benefits of Positive Emotions 214 Perspective
Happiness 194
Anger 199 group differences in emotion 215 affect regulation
220
Guilt and Shame 202 Are Emotions Different Across How to Cheer Up 220
Cultures? 215
Disgust 204 Affect Regulation Goals 221
Are Women More Emotional Than
Gender Differences in Emotion Control
Why do We have emotions? 207 Men? 215
Strategies 222
Emotions Promote Belongingness 207
arousal, attention, and Performance 217 Is Affect Regulation Safe? 222
Emotions Communicate Social
Information 208 emotional intelligence (ei or eQ) 218 chaPter Summary 224
Contents | xiii
tradeoFFS 233
attitudes, Beliefs, and
7
What Is the Real Attitude?
money matterS 240

consistency 229 Would You Sell Your Soul for $1?

Would You Eat a Bug or a Worm?
What are attitudes and Why do People have Is the Drive for Consistency Rooted in
them? 232
Nature or Nurture? 243 the Social Side oF Sex 245
do attitudes really Predict A–B Inconsistency and Erotic
Attitudes versus Beliefs 232
Plasticity
Dual Attitudes 232 Behaviors? 244
Why People Have Attitudes 232 Attacking Attitudes 245 What makeS uS human? 253
Defending Attitudes 246 Putting the Cultural Animal in
how attitudes are Formed234
Perspective
Formation of Attitudes 234 Beliefs and Believing 247
Polarization 237 Believing versus Doubting 247
Belief Perseverance 248
consistency 239
Belief and Coping 249
Cognitive Dissonance and Attitude
Change 239 Religious Belief 251
Justifying Effort 239 Irrational Belief 252
Justifying Choices 241 chaPter Summary 254
Advances in Dissonance Theory 243
money matterS 265

Social influence and
8
Even a Penny Will Help

Persuasion 257 Convert Communicators and Health
Messages
tradeoFFS 274
two types of Social influence 260 Persuasion 270 Should Speakers Talk Fast or Slow?
Being Liked and Accepted: Normative Who: The Source 271
Influence 260 Says What: The Message 275
Being Correct: Informational Scared into Safe Sex?
To Whom: The Audience 278
Influence 261 Two Routes to Persuasion 280 What makeS uS human? 286
techniques of Social influence 263 resisting Social influence Putting the Cultural Animal in
Techniques Based on Commitment and Perspective
Consistency 263
techniques 282
Attitude Inoculation 283
Techniques Based on
Reciprocation 266 Forewarned Is Forearmed 284
Techniques Based on Scarcity 268 Stockpile Resources 284
Techniques Based on Capturing and chaPter Summary 287
Disrupting Attention 269
xiv | Contents
tradeoFFS 303
9
The Prisoner’s Dilemma
Prosocial Behavior 291 money matterS

Money, Prosocial Behavior, and
305
Self-Sufficiency

is helping contagious? 293 Evolutionary Benefits 311 Restaurants, Rules, and the Bad
Two Motives for Helping: Altruism and Taste of Nonconformity
What is Prosocial Behavior? 294 Egoism 313
Born to Reciprocate 295 Is Altruism Possible? 314 the Social Side oF Sex 317
Born to Be Fair 296 Helping, Sex, and Friends
Who helps Whom? 316
morality 298 Helpful Personality 316 What makeS uS human? 327
Similarity 316 Putting the Cultural Animal in
cooperation, Forgiveness, obedience, Gender 316 Perspective
conformity, and trust 301 Beautiful Victims 317
Cooperation 301
Belief in a Just World 318
Forgiveness 304 how can We increase helping? 324
Emotion and Mood 318
Obedience 306 Getting Help in a Public Setting 324
Conformity 309 Bystander helping in emergencies 319 Provide Helpful Models 325
Trust 309 Five Steps to Helping 320 Teach Moral Inclusion 325
Too Busy to Help? 323 chaPter Summary 328
Why do People help others? 311

aggression & antisocial
10
Sexual Aggression

Behavior 331 Is There a Link Between Diet and
Violence?
tradeoFFS 362
defining aggression, Violence, and interpersonal causes of aggression 347 Creativity and Cheating
antisocial Behavior 334 Selfishness and Influence 347
money matterS 363
Is the World More or Less Violent Now Domestic Violence: Hurting Those We
Love 347 Money and Antisocial Behavior
Than in the Past? 335
is aggression innate or learned? 338 external causes of aggression 350 What makeS uS human? 366
Instinct Theories 338 Weapons Effect 350 Putting the Cultural Animal in
Mass Media 351 Perspective
Learning Theories 339
Nature and Nurture 340 Unpleasant Environments 352
Chemical Influences 353 other antisocial Behavior 360
inner causes of aggression 342
Lying 360
Frustration 342 Self and culture 356
Cheating 361
Being in a Bad Mood 342 Norms and Values 356
Stealing 363
Hostile Cognitive Biases 343 Self-Control 356
Littering 364
Age and Aggression 345 Wounded Pride 357
Gender Differences in Aggression and Culture of Honor 358 chaPter Summary 366
Violence 345
Contents | xv
tradeoFFS 374
interpersonal attraction
11
Testosterone—A Blessing and a
Curse
and rejection 371 money matterS 384

Is Manhood Measured in Dollars or
Inches?
the need to Belong 373 You Again: Mere Exposure 382 the Social Side oF Sex 386
Belongingness as a Basic Need 373 Looking Good 383 What Is Beauty?
Attraction in the 21st Century: Online
Two Ingredients to
Belongingness 376 Dating 385 Food For thought 391
Social Rejection and the Jar of
Not Belonging Is Bad for You 377 rejection 388 Cookies
Best Friends, Lovers, and Groups 377 Effects of Rejection: Inner
attraction: Who likes Whom? 378
Reactions 390 What makeS uS human? 399
Behavioral Effects of Rejection 392 Putting the Cultural Animal in
Similarity, Complementarity,
Loneliness 394 Perspective
Oppositeness 378
Social Rewards: You Make Me Feel What Leads to Social Rejection? 395
Good 380 Romantic Rejection and Unrequited
Tit for Tat: Reciprocity and Love 397
Liking 380 chaPter Summary 399
tradeoFFS 409
12
Sex In and Out of Marriage
close relationships 403 Food For thought

Eating in Front of a Cute Guy
432
money matterS 439

Mating, Money, and Men
What is love? 405 Investing in Relationships That
Passionate and Companionate
Last 419 What makeS uS human? 443
Love 406 Thinking Styles of Couples 421 Putting the Cultural Animal in
Love and Culture 406 Being Yourself: Is Honesty the Best Perspective
Policy? 423
Love Across Time 407
Sternberg’s Triangle 408 Sexuality 425
Theories of Sexuality 426
different types of relationships
412
Sex and Gender 428
Exchange Versus Communal 412
Homosexuality 431
Attachment 413
Extradyadic Sex 433
Loving People Who Love
Themselves 416 Jealousy and Possessiveness 436
Culture, Female Sexuality, and the
maintaining relationships 417 Double Standard 440
I Love You More Each Day(?) 418
chaPter Summary 444
xvi | Contents
money matterS 450
Prejudice and intergroup
13
Racial Discrimination in Sports:
Paying More to Win
relations 447 Food For thought

Prejudice Against the Obese
457

aBcs of intergroup relationships: Prejudice and Self-Esteem 468 Roots of Anti-Gay Prejudice
Prejudice, discrimination, and content of Prejudice and tradeoFFS 465
Stereotypes 449 Stereotypes 470 Competition Versus Cooperation
Are Stereotypes Always Wrong, Mostly
common Prejudices and targets 453 Wrong, or Mostly Right? 470 What makeS uS human? 487
Muslims 454
Are Stereotypes Always Negative? 471 Putting the Cultural Animal in
Atheists 455 Perspective
People Who Are Overweight 456 inner Processes 472
Homosexuals 457
overcoming Stereotypes, reducing Stigma and Self-Protection 482
Why Prejudice exists 461 Prejudice 475 Stereotype Threat 484
Us Versus Them: Groups in Conscious Override 476 Are Social Psychologists Biased? 486
Competition 462 Contact 479 chaPter Summary 488
Ignorance? The Contact Superordinate Goals 480
Hypothesis 466
Rationalizations for Oppression 467 impact of Prejudice on targets 480
Stereotypes as Heuristics 467 Self-Fulfilling Prophecies 481
Social Side oF Sex 495
14
Is a Marriage a Group?
groups 491 tradeoFFS

Diversity in Groups
496

Is Binge Eating Socially
What groups are and do 494 Brainstorming, and the Wisdom of Contagious?
Groups 506
groups, roles, and Selves 497 Why Do People Love Teams? 508 money matterS 522
Transactive Memory: Here, You Money, Power, and Laughter
group action 499 Remember This 509
Social Facilitation 500
Groupthink 509 What makeS uS human? 523
Social Loafing 501 Putting the Cultural Animal in
Foolish Committees 510
Punishing Cheaters and Free Perspective
Group Polarization and the “Risky
Riders 503
Shift” 511
Deindividuation and Mob Preserving Power 521
Violence 504 Power and leadership 513
Effects of Power on Followers 521
Shared Resources and the Commons Leadership 513
Legitimate Leadership 522
Dilemma 504 Toxic Leaders 514
What Is Power? 517 chaPter Summary 524
how groups think 506
Effects of Power on Leaders 517
Contents | xvii
Glossary G1
endnotes e1
References R1
name index n1
subject index s1
xviii | Contents
Preface
This textbook is simultaneously an expression of love and rebellion. The love is our feel-
ing toward our field. We followed different paths into social psychology, but over the years
we have developed an affectionate appreciation for it. We agreed to write this textbook
partly because we thought we could contribute to the field by covering what we love about
it. The process of writing strengthened those positive feelings, by helping us see the re-
markably diverse and creative work that our fellow psychologists have produced over the
past several decades. We are also both very active social psychological researchers and
teachers. We love doing social psychology research, and we love teaching students about
the field of social psychology.
The rebellion part begins with the title. Maybe social psychology has sold itself short
by clinging to the message “it’s all about situations!” We think it’s partly about situations,
but to us, social psychology is very much about people. We think students sign up for
social psychology courses because they want to learn about people. And we think social
psychologists actually have plenty to tell them about people. Hence the “human nature”
part of our title.
In other words, we are rebelling against the old dogma that social psychology’s truth
requires treating people as blank slates who just respond to situations. Instead, we see
people as highly complex, exquisitely designed, and variously inclined cultural animals
who respond to situations. Our textbook will tell students plenty about the power of situ-
ations, but it also seeks to tell them about the people in those situations.
To us, the most exciting aspect of this project has been the attempt to “put the per-
son back together,” in the phrase that got us started on the book. We believe that social
psychology can offer a remarkably new, coherent, and accurate vision of human nature.
In fact, this new vision of human nature was central to the story behind the book.
Both of us had been approached many times by various publishers about possibly
writing a social psychology textbook, and both of us had repeatedly brushed them
off as quickly and thoroughly as possible. Back then we thought that writing a text-
book sounded like a tedious, uncreative set of chores requiring reading and describing
every part of the field, regardless of how interesting. Both of us loathe anything that
is boring.
The turning point came when one of us spent a year at an interdisciplinary institute
and embraced the task of trying to package what social psychology has learned that could
be useful to other fields. Scholars in those fields mostly want to know about people and
why they act as they do. The response to this took the form of a book for general audiences
called The Cultural Animal (Baumeister, 2005), but the realization slowly dawned that this
new, more integrated understanding of the human being might provide a powerful basis
for a social psychology textbook.
We have used many different textbooks in our own social psychology courses. Many
of them are quite good. One dissatisfaction with them, however, and indeed one that we
have heard echoed by many other instructors and students, is that they end up being just
narrative lists of findings grouped by topic, rather like a handbook or encyclopedia. We
wanted more. We wanted an integrated, coherent vision. And now we had a basis in the
form of a new understanding of human nature that put together the results of thousands
Preface | xix
of social psychology studies. So this time when publishers asked us about writing a text-
book, we thought it over. And then we decided to do it.
Some might think that explaining human nature isn’t the job of social psychology
and should be left to the personality psychologists. In our view, personality’s claim to
that question is not naturally any stronger than social psychology’s. After all, person-
ality psychologists mainly study differences between people, and so understanding
the patterns common to all people isn’t any more likely to arise from those data than
from social psychology’s data. Au contraire, learning about how people in general will
respond to ordinary social dilemmas and events is at least as promising as study-
ing individual differences in terms of being able to point toward general patterns of
human nature.
Most general theories about human nature agonize over the competing explanations
based on evolution and cultural influence. Our synthesis is based on the question “What
sort of picture of the human being emerges from the results of thousands of social psy-
chology experiments?” The answer is novel: Nature “made” human beings for culture.
That is, we think human beings evolved specifically to belong to these complicated, in-
formation-using social systems that we call culture. It is interesting that the Merriam-
Webster word of the year for 2014 was “culture” (based on online searches).
Our book has many themes that are mentioned occasionally in the various chapters to
tie things together, and these are mostly derived from the central theme of human beings
as cultural animals. The theme of putting people first is a subtle way of conveying what is
biologically unique about humans: whereas most animals get what they need from their
physical environment, people get what they need from each other. This message was im-
plicit even in the classic Asch conformity experiments, in which people would disregard
the direct evidence of their physical senses in order to go along with what other people
(even a collection of strangers!) were saying.
Another central theme is that inner processes serve interpersonal functions. The
conventional wisdom in psychology, going back to its Freudian roots, has been more
or less that what happens to people is a result of what’s inside them. We think the
research in social psychology points toward the need to turn that on its head. What is
inside people is a result of what happens between them. Even in terms of what evolu-
tion has built into the human psyche, what is there inside the person is there to help
people thrive in their social and cultural groups. People are built to relate to other
people. Even the “self,” much discussed and invoked throughout social psychology, is
designed to cultivate social acceptance and other forms of success that are valued in
human cultures.
This is not a book about evolution, nor is it a book about cultural differences. It is a
book about people. Toward that end, we occasionally use insights that emerge from cul-
tural and evolutionary studies. But those remain mostly on the sidelines. We differ from
the evolutionists in that we focus more on how humans are different from other animals
rather than how they are similar to other animals. We differ from the cultural psycholo-
gists in that we focus more on what cultures have in common than on how they differ.
These are differences of emphasis, but they are fundamental and large ones.
The bottom line, for us, is a very positive view of human nature. Over the years, many
of the major theories about people have emphasized the negative. They have depicted
people as dominated by violent, destructive urges or by strivings for power, as souped-up
rats in societal Skinner boxes, as spineless beings at the mercy of giant social forces or
willy-nilly situational influences. We have been persuaded partly by the positive psychol-
ogy movement that psychology loses much of its value when it focuses overly on the
negative side. And, heck, we like people. So the integrated picture we offer is a generally
positive one, though we give the dark side of human nature its due.
Hence one important feature of this book is that every chapter ends with a brief
section entitled “What Makes Us Human? Putting the Cultural Animal in Perspec-
tive” that provides a quick review of what answers have emerged in that chapter. These
were easy to write because we really do see that human social life is remarkably and
importantly different from that of other animals. We do not shrink from discussing the
flaws and biases in humanity, and we acknowledge humankind’s vast capacity for petty
xx | Preface
malice and occasional capacity for great evil. But we think the final picture is mostly
favorable. These end-of-chapter sections offer a brief reflection on what is special about
human nature.
➠ concept Features
When we embarked on this book we listened long and hard to the complaints that fellow
teachers of social psychology had regarding their textbooks and the way the field was
taught. We also listened to the feedback from many students. Several features of our
textbook are directly influenced by this feedback. We have sought to offer a new, positive
alternative to existing textbooks.
The most common complaint, of course, was the lack of integration. Many instructors,
and even those who liked their particular textbook, still felt that textbooks merely hopped
from one finding and one phenomenon to another without any broad vision. Hence at
the end of the term, as one colleague put it, the take-home message was “Social psychol-
ogy is a large, interesting, and diverse field of study.” Our overarching goal of putting
the person back together was a direct response to this complaint and is, in our view, the
defining feature of our book. The themes that run through the book help to flesh this out.
These are developed in Chapter 2, “Culture and Nature,” which we regard as the theoreti-
cal foundation of the book. We recommend that instructors assign this chapter early in
the semester. That is why we put it early in our textbook. The subsequent chapters can be
taught in almost any order. Thus, the book is not a linear sequence in which each chapter
builds on the preceding one. We deliberately rejected that approach because we know
many instructors like to adapt the sequence of topics to their own schedules, goals, and
plans. Instead, the design of this book is like a wheel. Chapters 1 and 2 are the center, and
all the other chapters are spokes.
Our chapters contain four box feature inserts. Although many textbooks have box-
es, we are especially pleased with our set. In the first edition, they proved to be student
favorites. We began with a fairly long list of possible boxes and gradually, based on
input and feedback from students and instructors, trimmed these down to the list of
four that run through the chapters. For the second edition, we kept three of the four
boxes from the first edition. The fourth set, devoted to the broad theme that “Bad is
stronger than good,” was also well received, but reluctantly we deleted that set to make
room for an even more exciting set called “Money Matters.” Our readers liked this
set of boxes so much that we retained them for the third and fourth editions, but we
updated them, replaced some with new ones, and added some. Some of the modules
also contain boxes.
One box in every chapter has to do with eating. One

Food ForThought of us recalls a conversation years ago with Peter Her-
man, who observed, “Eating is the perfect social psy-
chology variable, because it is connected to almost
every social variable or process you can think of!” As we researched the various chapters
and thought about the findings, we came to see he was right, and so each chapter has a
box that covers some findings showing how the chapter’s topic influences or is influenced
by eating. We thought this would be especially appealing to today’s students, for whom
college often presents a novel set of challenges and opportunities for eating, dieting,
drinking, and related concerns. Eating is a microcosm of social processes. Following are
the Food for Thought topics included in the book:
● Does Chicken soup Reduce Cold symptoms? (Chapter 1)
● Virtuous Vegetarians (Chapter 2)
● eating Binges and escaping the self (Chapter 3)
● Dieting as self-Regulation (Chapter 4)
Preface | xxi
● it’s the thought that Counts (or Doesn’t Count!) the Calories (Chapter 5)
● mood and Food (Chapter 6)
● would You eat a Bug or a worm? (Chapter 7)
● Convert Communicators and health messages (Chapter 8)
● Restaurants, Rules, and the Bad taste of nonconformity (Chapter 9)
● is there a Link Between Diet and Violence? (Chapter 10)
● social Rejection and the Jar of Cookies (Chapter 11)
● eating in Front of a Cute Guy (Chapter 12)
● prejudice against the obese (Chapter 13)
● is Binge eating socially Contagious? (Chapter 14)
the Social Side of Sex

The same can be said for sex, and so most chapters
include a box applying social psychology to sexuality.
We suspect that few people leave college with their
sexual selves unchanged since arrival, and so stu-
dents’ natural and personal interest in sexuality can be useful for illuminating many
perspectives and patterns in social psychology. Our emphasis is, of course, not on the
mechanics or techniques of sex but rather on the social context and influences, which the
field of sexuality has often underappreciated. It is also helpful that human sexual behav-
ior is a vivid, dramatic example of something that shows powerful influences of both
nature and culture. Following are The Social Side of Sex topics included in the book:
● sex and Culture (Chapter 2)
● self-esteem and saying no to sex (Chapter 3)
● Gender, sex, and Decisions (Chapter 4)
● Counting sex partners (Chapter 5)
● Can people Be wrong about whether they are sexually aroused? (Chapter 6)
● a–B inconsistency and erotic plasticity (Chapter 7)
● scared into safe sex? (Chapter 8)
● helping, sex, and Friends (Chapter 9)
● sexual aggression (Chapter 10)
● what is Beauty? (Chapter 11)
● Roots of anti-gay prejudice (Chapter 13)
● is marriage a Group? (Chapter 14)
There is no The Social Side of Sex box in Chapter 12 because half of that chapter is about
sex.
A third box presents tradeoffs. In this box we attempt to stimulate critical

thinking. Many students come to social psychology wanting to find ways to
change the world and solve its problems. We applaud that idealism, but we
also think that many problems have their origin in the basic truth that solv solv-
trade ing one problem sometimes creates another. Many social psychology find-
Offs ings highlight tradeoffs in which each gain comes with a loss. Indeed, in
other writings, we apply that principle to assorted issues, not least including
gender differences: if men are better than women at something, they are
probably worse at something else, and the two are interlinked. We hope that
students will come away from these boxes with a heightened integrative
capacity to see both sides of many problems and behaviors. Following are the
Tradeoffs topics included in the book:
xxii | Preface
● Research ethics (Chapter 1)
● political tradeoffs (Chapter 2)
● self-handicapping (Chapter 3)
● now versus tomorrow: Delay of Gratification (Chapter 4)
● Conscious and unconscious thought (Chapter 5)
● affect intensity: emotional Roller Coaster or even keel? (Chapter 6)
● what is the Real attitude? (Chapter 7)
● should speakers talk Fast or slow? (Chapter 8)
● the prisoner’s Dilemma (Chapter 9)
● Creativity and Cheating (Chapter 10)
● testosterone—a Blessing and a Curse (Chapter 11)
● sex in and out of marriage (Chapter 12)
● Competition versus Cooperation (Chapter 13)
● Diversity in Groups (Chapter 14)
We replaced the “Bad is stronger than good” boxes

moneyMatters in the first edition of our book with a series of box-
es on money for the second, third, and fourth edi-
tions. This set was stimulated in part by listening
to Paul Rozin, a thoughtful contrarian who has criticized psychology for being out of
step with the interests of most people. He would hold up a copy of USA Today, “the
nation’s newspaper,” and note that its four sections (politics/crime, money, sports,
and life/style) are presumably what American citizens are most interested in
reading—yet these topics are scarcely even mentioned in the indexes of most psychol-
ogy textbooks.
Money is highly relevant to our theme of humans as cultural animals. Money is
often spent on getting things that nature makes us want: food, shelter, warmth, com-
fort, and even health and sex. Social events, such as war, can greatly influence the
value of money. Yet money is undeniably a cultural phenomenon. Thus, money shows
how humankind has found cultural means of satisfying natural inclinations. Social
psychologists (like intellectuals across the ages) have often been skeptical and critical
of money, and especially of the desire for money. Although the Bible says “the love
of money is the root of all evil” (1 Timothy 6:10), money is a fact of life and an almost
indispensable ingredient to the good life in modern society. We hope that this brand-
new series of boxes will stimulate students to see money through the prism of social
psychology’s diverse interests.
Following are the Money Matters topics included in the book:

● nature, Culture, and money (Chapter 2)
● Doing it for money, not Love (Chapter 3)
● how money Can trick You into making Bad Decisions (Chapter 4)
● Does money make a Difference? (Chapter 5)
● emotions and prices (Chapter 6)
● would You sell Your soul for $1? (Chapter 7)
● even a penny will help (Chapter 8)
● money, prosocial Behavior, and self-sufficiency (Chapter 9)
● money and antisocial Behavior (Chapter 10)
● is manhood measured in Dollars or inches? (Chapter 11)
Preface | xxiii
● mating, money, and men (Chapter 12)
● Racial Discrimination in sports: paying more to win (Chapter 13)
● money, power, and Laughter (Chapter 14)
Other themes run through the book without being formally reflected in specific boxes.
The “duplex mind,” divided into the automatic/deliberate and the controlled/conscious
sets of processes, has become a powerful theme in the field’s thinking about a great many
issues, and we want students to appreciate it. It is a profound insight into how the human
mind is organized. “The long road to social acceptance” reflects how much work humans
have to do to gain and keep their places in their social networks. “Nature says go, culture
says stop” was not on our original list of themes but kept coming up as we wrote, and so
we went back to revise our earlier chapters to recognize this common way that nature and
culture interact to shape human behavior.
➠ Pedagogical Features
Our book has also benefited from input and suggestions for what can help students mas-
ter the material. We have kept what has worked well in other textbooks, such as including
glossaries, tables, graphs, and illustrations. Each chapter begins with a set of “Learning
Objectives” and ends with a “Chapter Summary,” where we present lists of bullet points
summarizing key content in the chapter.
A more novel feature of our textbook is the inclusion of many self-quizzes. Each
major header in each chapter ends with a series of multiple-choice questions. These
were wildly popular with students in the first three editions. We can understand why
many books don’t include them—they were an immense amount of work to prepare,
and we wrote them ourselves rather than hiring them out to someone less familiar with
the content—but we think the effort was worth it. Every time students finish reading
a section of a chapter, they can get a quick check on how well they understood it by
answering those questions and verifying whether their answers are correct. Research
shows that taking quizzes is one of the best ways to learn new material,4 far more effec-
tive than other techniques such as highlighting and underlining textbooks, rereading,
and summarization.5
Another exciting feature of this book is the set of five application modules that can be
assigned according to instructor preference. It is possible to get the book printed with or
without these modules, or indeed with any combination of them. The five modules are:
(Module A) Applying Social Psychology to Consumer Behavior, (Module B) Applying
Social Psychology to Health, (Module C) Applying Social Psychology to the Workplace,
(Module D) Applying Social Psychology to Law, and (Module E) Applying Social Psychol-
ogy to the Environment. These modules enable an instructor to tailor a course that can
encompass some of the most important applied fields of study that have had long, close
relationships with social psychology.
For the third and the fourth editions we added six to eight learning objectives for each
chapter and module. A learning objective describes what students should know at the
end of the chapter that they didn’t know before they read it. Learning objectives should be
useful for both instructors and students. They also set our book apart from other social
psychology books that do not include learning objectives.
➠ more With less

When we embarked on this textbook, we made “doing more with less” one of our guiding
mottos. As we saw it, social psychology was approaching a turning point. The early text-
books often went into lively detail about many specific studies. That was possible because
back then there wasn’t a great deal of material to cover. Since then, the body of knowledge
in the field has expanded year by year, with new findings being continuously documented
xxiv | Preface
in established journals along with new journals popping up all the time. It is no longer
possible to cover all the influential studies in great detail.
Some textbooks have responded to information overload by packing more and more
findings into the same amount of space. This plainly cannot go on forever. Either text-
books have to get longer and longer, or they have to become more and more selective.
We chose the latter course. As things turned out, we were able to cover most of what
has become standard in textbooks, but we do not claim or pretend to be exhaustive.
Our model for this is introductory psychology. Once upon a time, perhaps, introduc-
tory textbooks could provide a comprehensive overview of psychology, but it has by
now become standard practice for them merely to select a few topics for each chapter
to illustrate rather than fully cover what that field has to offer. We think social psychol-
ogy is reaching the same point and that the way forward is to accept the impossibility
of covering it all.
To be sure, the review process did push us to be more thorough. One thing experts
are very good at is saying, “Well, you could also cover topic X,” and we heeded many such
comments from our expert reviewers. But our goal all along has been to offer students an
in-depth look at some information, with all its implications and connections highlighted,
rather than to make sure to cite every relevant study. We hope instructors will add their
personal favorites to the lectures, to augment what we have included. But to keep the
book to a manageable length and still do justice to our goals, we had to leave out many
important and worthy studies. Even some large topics ended up getting short shrift. Most
notably, we devote fairly little space to the social neuroscience work that has become an
important theme in the field. We don’t dispute its importance. We simply think it is not
what is best for introductory students. Our recommendation is that universities offer a
subsequent course that can focus on brain processes and their link to social behavior.
For the first course, we think students would prefer to learn about the more familiar and
more readily understood questions about how people think, feel, and act in recognizable
social situations.
➠ What’s new in the Fourth edition?

We were delighted with the positive reception of the first three editions of our textbook.
We are full of gratitude toward all who have used the book. We heard from many instruc-
tors and students who made suggestions for material to cover, noticed typos or other
things to fix, or simply wanted to express their liking for the book. Thanks to all.
In that happy spirit we set to work on the fourth edition. Our goals were to keep it
current, to retain its core vision and best features, and to make substantial, targeted im-
provements in a few areas where we felt there were promising opportunities or recent
developments in the field.
All chapters have come in for revision, especially updating their coverage with the ad-
dition of some recent research findings. Still, some chapters underwent more sweeping
changes than others. We added a Social Side of Sex box to Chapter 14 called Is Marriage a
Group? We also replaced the Tradeoffs box in Chapter 10 with a new one called Creativity
and Cheating. The old Tradeoffs box called Gun Ownership no longer seemed much like
a tradeoff, because it has become increasingly obvious, based on statistical and research
evidence, that most people are much safer if they do not own a gun than if they do own
a gun.
We added new opening vignettes to Chapter 5 on social cognition, Chapter 9 on pro-
social behavior, and Chapter 13 on prejudice. We begin Chapter 5 by talking about why
some people believe that vaccinations cause autism even though numerous reputable
organizations have denied a link between vaccinations and autism (e.g., Centers for Dis-
ease Control and Prevention, American Academy of Pediatrics, Institute of Medicine,
U.S. National Academy of Sciences, U.K. National Health Service, Cochrane Library). We
begin Chapter 9 by discussing “pay it forward,” where a person does an unexpected good
deed for someone, and asks the recipient to repay it to others instead of to the original
benefactor. Chapter 9 also includes a new section on morality. We begin Chapter 13 by
Preface | xxv
discussing human zoos, in which Africans and indigenous peoples are put on display
like animals. All modules were also revised and updated.
For the fourth edition, like the third edition, we use the endnote reference style used
in the top scientific journals (e.g., Science, Nature, Proceedings of the National Academy
of Science). This is not a cosmetic change. This makes the text much more readable to
students. It also changes the emphasis from who did the research to what the research
found. The references in the endnotes are formatted according to the guidelines of the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) so interested students
can become familiar with APA formatting.
We hope you will enjoy the fourth edition of our book. If you have suggestions for
improvement or discover errors in the text, please let us know by dropping us an e-mail
(baumeister@psy.fsu.edu or bushman.20@osu.edu). Again, we are deeply grateful for
the opportunity to share our love of social psychology with students and teachers around
the world.
➠ content overview
CHAPTER 1
The Mission & the Method
The opening chapter explains what social psychologists do and why students may want to
learn about it. It explains social psychology’s place among the different fields that study
human behavior. It offers a brief introduction to the methods social psychologists use to
tell the difference between right and wrong theories.
CHAPTER 2
Culture and Nature
Chapter 2 sets up the big picture. How do we explain people? Departing from the old
and tired battle of nature against nurture, this book follows a newly emerging under-
standing: nature and culture worked together, such that nature designed the human
being to be capable of culture. The stock notion of “the social animal” is shown to be
correct but far too limited, whereas the “cultural animal” captures what is special about
human beings.
This chapter then sets up many of the integrative themes that will run through the
book to help make sense of the many facts and findings that will be covered.
CHAPTER 3
The Self
The human self is a complex and marvelous participant in the social world. This chapter
provides a coherent understanding of the human self that is based on both classic and
recent research in social psychology.
CHAPTER 4
Choices and Actions: The Self in Control
The self is not just an idea but also a doer. This chapter covers key social psychology top-
ics of choice, decision-making, self-regulation, and the psychology of action. The remark-
able recent progress in this work lends extra excitement to this material.
CHAPTER 5
Social Cognition
Social cognition revolutionized social psychology in the 1980s. Now it has settled into
a core basis for understanding many spheres of social life. Cognition is vital to cultural
xxvi | Preface
animals, because cultures operate on the basis of information. This is a showcase for
many of the great achievements of social psychology.
CHAPTER 6
Emotion and Affect
Studying emotion has proven much harder than studying cognition, and so Chapter 6
cannot compare with Chapter 5 in being able to point to a solid body of accepted knowl-
edge. Despite that, much has been learned, and the “work-in-progress” flavor of the social
psychology of emotion—combined with the natural human interest in emotion that stu-
dents can readily share—should make this chapter an appealing read.
CHAPTER 7
Attitudes, Beliefs, and Consistency
The study of attitudes has a long and distinguished history in social psychology. This
chapter brings together the influential early, classic studies with the latest advances.
CHAPTER 8
Social Influence and Persuasion
Social influence and attempted persuasion are deeply woven into the fabric of human
social life, and indeed it is the rare social interaction that has absolutely none. As informa-
tion-using cultural animals, humans often find themselves wanting to influence others
or being the targets of influence. This chapter covers how people exert that influence, why
they do—and how sometimes people manage to resist influence.
CHAPTER 9
Prosocial Behavior: Doing What’s Best for Others
In this chapter, we look at what people do in order to make possible the success of
their cultural and social groups. Many textbooks have a chapter on helping. We cover
helping in this chapter, but the broad focus is on all prosocial behavior. The inte-
grative focus helps resolve some long-running debates, such as whether helping is
genuinely altruistic and prosocial or merely egoistic and selfish. We also break with
the Milgram tradition of depicting obedience and conformity as bad, because culture
and thus human social life would collapse without them. This chapter also discusses
morality.
CHAPTER 10
Aggression & Antisocial Behavior
Just as Chapter 9 replaced the traditional, narrow focus on helping with a broader focus
on prosocial behavior, this chapter replaces the traditional focus on aggression with a
broader treatment of antisocial behavior. Aggression is treated here as a holdover from
the social animal stage—which is why cultures mainly struggle to reduce and prevent
aggression, favoring nonviolent means of resolving conflicts. Other antisocial behaviors
covered include cheating, lying, stealing, and littering.
CHAPTER 11
Interpersonal Attraction and Rejection
This chapter combines two very different but complementary sets of findings. The study
of interpersonal attraction has a long history and, despite the occasional new finding, is a
fairly well-established body of knowledge. The study of interpersonal rejection is far more
recent but has become a thriving, fast-moving area. Together they constitute the two sides
of the coin of people trying to connect with each other.
Preface | xxvii
CHAPTER 12
Close Relationships: Passion, Intimacy, and Sexuality
In its first decades, social psychology mainly studied interactions among strangers—but
most social life involves ongoing relationships. The study of close, intimate relationships
blossomed in the 1980s from a small, underappreciated corner into a profound and ex-
citing enterprise that changed the field. This chapter covers this work, much of it quite
recent. It emphasizes romantic and sexual relationships, showcasing what social psychol-
ogy has contributed to understanding of these grand, perennial human dramas. Human
romance and sex are eternal problems that reveal our evolutionary background but also
highlight the many striking ways in which humans are unique.
CHAPTER 13
Prejudice and Intergroup Relations
Prejudice occurs all over the world, often contributing to violence and oppression and
other forms of misery. This chapter examines the many forms and faces of prejudice,
ranging from the standard topics of racism and sexism to the less remarked prejudices
against obese people, Arabs and Muslims, atheists, and homosexuals. Special emphasis
is given to the emerging and uplifting work on how people overcome prejudice.
CHAPTER 14
Groups
All over the world, human beings live in small groups. This chapter takes a fresh and excit-
ing look at the social psychology of groups. The first part addresses one often overlooked
but basic question, namely why are some groups more and others less than the sum of
their parts? Classic material on group processes is mixed with new and exciting research.
➠ mindtap for Baumeister and Bushman’s Social

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xxviii | Preface
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acknowledgments
manusCRipt ReVieweRs
We thank our colleagues for their diligent and thoughtful fourth edition pre-revision
surveys, as well as to those who reviewed earlier editions of Social Psychology and Human
Nature. Their suggestions pointed the way to make this a better book.
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Preface | xxix
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xxx | Preface
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Preface | xxxi
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eDitoRiaL BoaRD
We are grateful to the members of the first Marc Kiviniemi,
edition editorial board for their guidance University of Nebraska–Lincoln
and suggestions. Daniel Molden,
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University of Missouri Richard Ryan,
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The Ohio State University
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xxxii | Preface
Jean Twenge, Kathleen Vohs,
San Diego State University University of Minnesota
Content aRea expeRt ReVieweRs

We thank our colleagues for providing their expertise on specific chapters. Their com-
ments sharpened and improved these chapters.
Craig A. Anderson, Todd D. Nelson,
Iowa State University James R. Averill, California State University–Stanislaus
University of Massachusetts–Amherst Laurie O’Brien,
Donal E. Carlston, University of California–Santa Barbara
Purdue University B. Keith Payne,
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University of Southern California
ContRiButoRs oF appLYinG soCiaL psYChoLoGY moDuLes

Special thanks go to our colleagues who wrote the application modules. These are spe-
cialized topics outside our own expertise, and we could not have done these ourselves
even half as well. These modules add to the breadth and flexibility of what can be taught
with this textbook.
Module A: Applying Social Psychology to Module D: Applying Social Psychology to
Consumer Behavior the Law
Curtis Haugtvedt, Margaret Bull Kovera,
The Ohio State University John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City
Module B: Applying Social Psychology to University of New York
Health Module E: Applying Social Psychology to
Regan A. R. Gurung, the Environment
University of Wisconsin–Green Bay Richard L. Miller,
Module C: Applying Social Psychology to University of Nebraska at Kearney
the Workplace
Kathy Hanisch,
Iowa State University
Preface | xxxiii
CenGaGe team
This book would not have been possible without the excellent in-house team at Cengage.
Thanks to the following people for your belief in our vision for this book: Melissa Gena,
Product Manager; Jon-David Hague, Publisher; Tangelique Williams-Grayer, Sr. Content
Developer; Kimiya Hojjat, Product Assistant; Michelle Clark, Content Project Manager;
Vernon Boes, Senior Art Director; and Megan Knight, Project Manager for Graphic
World Publishing Services.
We acknowledge our appreciation and debt to this full team, but we must single out
one person who has had the most direct contact with us and who, at least from where
we have sat for these several years, has made the most difference. Jeremy Judson was
a patient, thoughtful, intelligent, and diplomatic editor who was remarkably effective
at steering the manuscript through the nuts and bolts of the revision process. Often
he would manage to sort through a dozen or more reviews, boiling the chaotic mass of
suggestions down into the key targets for improvement and managing the process with
reason and good humor.
xxxiv | Preface
The Mission &
The MeThod
1
Learning Objectives
Food For ThoughT
1 Define social psychology.
Does Chicken Soup
Reduce Cold Symptoms?
2 Name the early influences and key ideas that had a lasting
influence on the field. 15
◆
3 Describe the ABC triad of social psychology.
TradeoFFs
4 Explain how social psychology relates to other fields of study.
Research Ethics
18
5 Assess the different methods of data collection in social psychology.
Christian Mueller/Shutterstock.com
1
You are a member of
he had it. The woman
was so happy to get her
a social world on a planet ring back that she set
containing more than seven up a website seeking
donations for him,
billion people. This social and over 6,000 people
world is filled with paradox, responded.2
Jason Alden/Bloomberg/Getty Images

Another ironic
mystery, suspense, and
case involved a U.S.
outright absurdity. Recently, Air Force officer
one man spent $70,000 in who oversaw the Air
Force Sexual Assault
an auction for eight stuffed
Prevention and
squirrels wearing boxing Response unit. He was
After making 19,000 decisions, you can end up with a cup of
gloves.1 In many parts of the charged with groping a
coffee that costs over $50! The Sexagintuple Vanilla Bean
woman in a parking lot. 3
world less than $50 can feed a Mocha Frappuccino has 60 shots and comes in a 128-ounce
The Air Force website
(3.75 liter) glass.
person for a year, which means states, “Sexual assault
is criminal conduct. It
1,400 people could be fed for
falls well short of the standards America customer who walks into a Starbucks shop
an entire year for the price paid expects of its men and women in uniform.” for a morning drink is confronted with
for just eight dead squirrels. Can social psychology help us make more than 19,000 choices. After making
sense of the baffling diversity of human 19,000 decisions, you can end up with a
behavior? The answer to this question is a cup of coffee that costs over $50! It is called
Or consider that a homeless man in Kansas resounding “Yes!” social psychology the Sexagintuple Vanilla Bean Mocha
City, Missouri, went from having no money is the scientific study of how people affect Frappuccino. It has 60 shots and comes in
to having $145,000 after he returned an and are affected by others. Whether you a 128-ounce (3.79-liter) glass. Isn’t having
engagement ring that a woman accidentally know it or not, social psychology can help so many choices just a way to frustrate
dropped in his panhandling cup along with you make sense of your own social world. people? How does Starbucks make money?
some spare change. He returned it to her The material discussed in this book is Why don’t their customers protest? More to
the next day when she returned to see if intensely relevant to your life. For example, the point (at least for a social psychologist),
have you ever asked yourself questions how do people get by in a world that offers
such as these: “How can I get them thousands of options at every turn,
him to go along with my plan?” even for the simplest decisions? In Chapter
“Should I ask her right up front 5 we discuss some of the heuristics people
to do this big favor, or is there a use to manage such information overload.
better way to get her to say yes?” Chances are, something in this book
“How can I bring them around will prove helpful to you in the future.
to my way of thinking?” Social This is not to say that social psychology
psychology can also help you is a cookbook for how to influence and
understand simpler things, such manipulate others. Social psychology,
as taking a coffee break. If your however, can help you understand basic
boss told you to make 10,000 principles of social influence, as well as
decisions before you got your many other principles of social behavior.
first cup of coffee, you’d probably It is also just plain interesting to learn how
think you had a cruel boss! and why people act the way they do.
The Starbucks chain of coffee The point is that there are plenty of
shops, however, has advertised reasons why you ought to be interested in
that they offer 19,000 beverage social psychology. As you learn more, you
Arcaid Images/Alamy
options, if you count the different can profit more and get more enjoyment
coffees, teas, cold drinks, and from what social psychology has to offer.
all the things you could add to Let’s begin by looking at how social
them. In a sense, therefore, the psychology became the field it is. ●
2 | chapter 1 The Mission and the Method
a Brief history of social Psychology
It is hard to know what the first social psychology experiment was, but consider a few
of the earliest ones we know about. Indiana University professor Norman Triplett con-
ducted one of the first social psychology experiments in 1897.4 While examining the
cycling records for the 1897 season, he noticed that bicycle riders who competed against
others performed better than those who competed against the clock. Triplett proposed
that the presence of another rider releases a competitive instinct, which increases
“nervous energy” and thereby enhances individual performance. Triplett tested his
hypothesis by building a “competition machine.” He had 40 children wind up a reel,
alternating between working alone and working parallel to each other. Winding times
were faster when children worked side by side than when they worked alone. Thus, the
mere presence of another person enhanced performance on this simple task.
Another early social psychological experiment was conducted in the 1880s by a French
professor of agricultural engineering named Max Ringelmann.5 He had men pull on
a rope alone and as part of a group, and he measured the amount of effort exerted by
each participant. He found that as group size increased, individual effort decreased. This
study can explain why people tend to slack off when working on group projects.
These two seminal studies started a long chain of subsequent studies. Note, though,
that the two studies pointed in opposite directions—one found that people worked harder
in the presence of others, and the other found that people slacked off in the presence of social psychology the scientific study
others. Chapter 14 will try to resolve this seeming contradiction, but for now the point is of how people affect and are affected by
to get used to the idea that social behavior is complicated. others
Reprinted with permission of University of Illinois Press
The competition machine (pictured above), created by Triplett to

test whether the presence of others affects individual performance,
is one of the first social psychology experiments. Triplett found
that children wound the fishing reel faster in the presence of other
children than when they were alone. Ringelmann found that people
exert less effort in groups, such as in a tug-of-war (pictured left),
than as individuals.
DGB/Alamy
A Brief History of Social Psychology | 3

The introduction of textbooks is an important milestone in the development of a field.
In 1908, the first two books to bear the title Social Psychology were published, one by
the psychologist William McDougall6 and the other by the sociologist Edward Ross.7 In
1924, Floyd Allport8 published another early social psychology book. Your own current
textbook is another in a long line of social psychology textbooks. It addresses many of the
same issues as those early ones—but of course it has much more information, thanks to
the toils of researchers all over the world.
During the early part of the 20th century, many thinkers began to ponder where
human society was going and why it had changed so much. Two world wars, the rise
of communism and fascism, the spread of automobiles, the rapid changes in sexual
behavior, the rise of advertising, popular fads, the population shift from farms to cities,
and shocking economic events such as the Great Depression all challenged intellectu-
als to wonder what were the basic laws of how people relate to each other. They began
to toss about various new and big ideas, including some that would shape the thinking
of early social psychologists. One idea was that modern life makes people vulnerable to
alienation and exploitation by giant social systems. Another idea was that we learn who
we are from other people and our interactions with them. Still another idea was that
modern humans act less on the basis of firm inner moral principles than on the basis
of following the crowd.
Two ideas from this period had a lasting influence on social psychology. One was
Gordon Allport’s observation in 1954 that attitudes were “the most distinctive and indis-
pensable concept in contemporary American social psychology” (p. 43).9 The study of at-
titudes dominated social psychology research for decades and is still centrally important
today (see Chapter 7). (Gordon Allport also observed that the study of the self was going
to be recognized as increasingly important in the coming years, and on that prediction he
was also quite correct; see Chapter 3.)
The other key idea was Kurt Lewin’s formula that behavior is a function of the person
and the situation.10 Thus, if you want to predict whether Nathan will finish his school
paper on time, you need two kinds of information. First, you must know something about
Nathan: Is he lazy? Does he like the topic of the paper? Is he smart enough to get the job
done? Is he punctual? Second, you must know something about his situation: Is the task
hard? Are other people bothering him? Is there a penalty for being late? Is his printer
broken? Knowing only one kind of information without the other is an inadequate basis
for predicting what will happen.
World War II stimulated a great deal of research in the social sciences, and in social
psychology in particular. Several factors contributed to this rise in research. Some in-
volved grand theoretical questions: Why did millions of citizens in a modern, civilized
nation with a long tradition of religion, morality, and philosophy
follow the cruel dictator Adolf Hitler in his policies that included
systematic mass murder and violent invasion of neighboring coun-
tries? Other factors were more practical: Why did soldiers seem to
have so many psychological problems with stress? What exactly
motivates soldiers to continue doing their duty on modern battle-
fields where they could be killed at any moment? World War II
also caused many researchers to leave Europe and migrate to the
United States. The influx of influential thinkers (including Kurt
Lewin, whom we already mentioned) swelled the ranks of Ameri-
can thinkers and helped make the United States a world leader
in social psychology. This European “brain drain” helped social
psychology flourish in the United States.
In fact, the terrible events during World War II in Nazi
Historical/Corbis
Germany were the impetus for the most well-known social

psychology studies ever conducted. It was shortly after Adolf
Eichmann (a high-ranking Nazi and SS officer) was captured,
World War II stimulated a great deal of social tried, and hanged by an Israeli court that Stanley Milgram con-
psychological research. ducted his studies on obedience. During his trial, Eichmann
did not dispute the facts of the Holocaust but said he was only
“following orders.” He testified that he “never did anything, great or small, without
obtaining in advance express instructions from Adolf Hitler or any of my superiors.”
Milgram asked, “Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the
Holocaust were just following orders? Could we call them all accomplices?”11 In
summarizing his findings, Milgram said, “I set up a simple experiment at Yale
University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person
simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was
pitted against the subjects’ strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with
the subjects’ ears ringing with the screams of the victims, authority won more often
than not.”12 In Chapter 9, we describe Milgram’s original study and subsequent stud-
ies in detail. We point out, however, that although obedience to malevolent authority is
detrimental, obedience to nonmalevolent authority is often very beneficial to society
(e.g., when motorists obey traffic laws).
Social psychology began to come into its own as a field in the 1950s and 1960s. At
the time, psychology was divided between two camps. One camp, known as behavior-
ism sought to explain human behavior in terms of learning principles such as reward
and punishment. (Countless studies were conducted with white laboratory rats in or-
der to establish these principles.) Behaviorists were opposed to talking about the mind,
thoughts, emotions, or other inner processes, focusing instead on observable actions
that could be studied experimentally using the scientific method. The other camp was
Freudian psychoanalysis which preferred elaborate interpretations of individual expe-
riences (especially from clinical practice) instead of experimental studies that counted
behaviors. Social psychology was not really compatible with either camp. Social psychol-
ogy was more congenial to the behaviorist camp, in that it favored experiments and the
scientific method, but it was also sympathetic to the Freudian camp with its interest in
inner states and processes. For a while it sought to steer a middle course. Eventually (by
the 1970s and 1980s), social psychology found its own way, using scientific approaches to
measure not only behavior but also thoughts, feelings, and other inner states.
What about the more recent past? Historians are generally uncomfortable writing
about recent times because main themes are easier to see from a distance than from up
close. Still, we can make a few broad statements about the recent history of social psychol-
ogy. The study of simple cognitive (mental) processes, such as attribution theory (attribu-
tions are explanations people come up with to explain the behavior of others), evolved in
the 1970s and 1980s into a large and sophisticated study of social cognition (how people
think about people and the social world in general). This area of interest has continued
up to the present.
Another huge development from the 1990s onward was a growing openness to biology.
The influx of biology was boosted by evolutionary psychology, which sought to extend and
© Craig Swanson/perspicuity.com
apply the basic ideas of evolution to understanding human social behavior. It gained fur-
ther momentum as some social psychologists began to study the brain in order to learn
how its workings are related to social events. Today, social neuroscience is an interdis-
ciplinary field of study that investigates how biological systems influence social thought
and behavior. Sophisticated instruments allow researchers to directly manipulate (e.g.,
transcranial direct current stimulation, tDCS) and measure (e.g., functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging, fMRI) brain processes.
The study of the self has been another central theme of social psychology since the Behavioral psychologists conducted
1970s. It is hard to realize that in the 1960s people hardly ever used the term self-esteem countless studies using white rats.
or cared about it. In recent decades, social psychologists have explored many different
aspects of the self—not only self-esteem but also self-control, self-concept, and self-
presentation. We discuss these topics in Chapters 3 and 4.
The field continues to change and evolve. In the 1980s, the conflict between the so- behaviorism theoretical approach that
seeks to explain behavior in terms of
called free world and communist totalitarian systems was the dominant conflict in the
learning principles, without reference to
world and the main focus of conflict studies. When the Soviet empire abruptly collapsed inner states, thoughts, or feelings
in 1989, the study of conflict between groups refocused on racial and ethnic conflict,
Freudian psychoanalysis theoretical
which in the United States meant a sharp rise of interest in prejudice and stereotyping. approach that seeks to explain behavior
Today, the same theories have been applied to understand stereotyping, prejudice, and by looking at the deep unconscious forces
discrimination of other stigmatized groups. inside the person
A Brief History of Social Psychology | 5

1. the earliest social psychological experiments were conducted in the
Quiz YourselF late 1800s by researchers such as Max ringelmann and norman triplett.
What was the topic of these early studies?
a Brief history of
a b c d
Aggression Attitude change Presence of others Prosocial behavior
social Psychology
on individual
performance
2. according to gordon allport, what was the most central concept in
social psychology?
a b c d
Aggression Altruism Attitudes Attributions
3. according to Kurt Lewin’s formula, behavior is a function of what two
variables?
a b c d
Affect and cognition Appraisals and Attitudes and beliefs Person and
attributions situation
4. in the 1950s and 1960s, psychology was divided between what two
camps?
a b c d
Behaviorist and Behaviorist and Cognitive and Cognitive and
cognitive camps psychoanalytical comparative camps psychoanalytical
answers: see pg 30 camps camps
What do social Psychologists do?

Social psychology aims for a broad understanding of the social factors that influence
how human beings think, act, and feel. It focuses particularly on normal adult human
B
beings, though some social psychologists do study children and people who suffer from
Photos: (a) Ryan McVay/Photodisc/Getty Images; (b) Chris Clinton/Photo
mild mental illness (such as depression). Very little of what people do, other than those
Behavior with severe mental illness, is off-limits to social psychology. Clinical psychologists study
people with severe mental illness.
Social psychology is concerned with the effect of other people (real or imagined) on
our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These three dimensions or building blocks of so-
A C
disc/Getty Images; (c) UpperCut Images/Alamy
cial psychology are known as the ABC triad (FIGURE 1.1). The A stands for
Affect (pronounced ‘AF-ekt; note that this word is a noun, not a verb, which
Affect
Cognition is pronounced ‘∂-’fekt)—how people feel inside. Social psychologists are in-
terested in how people feel about themselves (e.g., self-esteem), how they feel
about others (e.g., prejudice), and how they feel about various issues (e.g.,
attitudes). The B stands for Behavior—what people do, their actions. Social psy-
chologists are interested in all the various behaviors people engage in, such as
joining groups, helping others, hurting others, loving others, working, playing,
praying, and relaxing. The C stands for Cognition—what people think about.
Social psychologists are interested in what people think about themselves (e.g.,
Figure 1.1
self-concept), what they think about others (e.g., forming impressions), and what they think
Affect, Behavior, and Cognition are the about various problems and issues in the social world (e.g., protecting the environment).
ABCs of what social psychologists study. Social psychologists study the effects of personal and situational influences on these
ABCs—especially the power of situations. That is, when trying to explain some pat-
tern of behavior, the first place social psychologists generally look is to the situation.
In this focus, social psychology departed from two powerful traditions in psychology.
ABC triad Affect (how people feel inside),
Freudian psychoanalysis sought to explain behavior by looking at the deep unconscious
Behavior (what people do), Cognition (what forces inside the person, whereas behaviorist learning theory sought to explain behavior
people think about) by looking at reinforcement histories (e.g., what behaviors were previously rewarded or
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CHAPTER XXV.
A bove the fountain is a building which contains some paintings of

Polygnotus, it is the votive offering of the people of Cnidos, and
is called The Lounge by the people of Delphi, because they used to
assemble there in old times and discuss both serious and trifling
subjects. That there were many such places throughout Greece
Homer has shown in Melantho’s reviling of Odysseus:
“For you will not go to sleep at a smithy or at some lounge, but you
will keep talking here.”[118]
On the right as you enter the building is a painting of the capture of
Ilium and the return of the Greeks. And they are making preparations
for Menelaus’ hoisting sail, and his ship is painted with boys and
sailors all mixed up together on board: and in the middle of the ship
is Phrontis the pilot with two punting poles. Homer[119] has
represented Nestor among other things telling Telemachus about
Phrontis, how he was the son of Onetor, and pilot of Menelaus, and
most able in his art, and how he died as he sailed past Sunium in
Attica. And Menelaus, who was up to this time sailing with Nestor,
was now left behind, that he might discharge all due funeral rites for
Phrontis. Beneath Phrontis in the painting of Polygnotus is
Ithæmenes carrying some garment, and Echœax descending the
gangway-ladder with a brazen water-pot. And Polites and Strophius
and Alphius are represented taking down the tent of Menelaus,
which is not far from the ship. And Amphialus is taking down another
tent, a boy is sitting at his feet, but there is no inscription on him, and
Phrontis is the only person with a beard. His was the only name in
the group that Polygnotus got out of the Odyssey: the others I
imagine he invented. There too stands Briseis, and Diomede near
her, and Iphis in front of them both, they all appear to be gazing at
Helen’s beauty. And Helen is seated, and near her is Eurybates, who
has no beard, and was I suppose the herald of Odysseus. And
Helen’s handmaids are by, Panthalis standing at her side, and
Electra fastening her sandals: these names are different however
from those Homer gives in the Iliad, when he describes Helen and
her maids going on to the walls.[120] And above Helen sits a man
clothed in purple, looking very dejected: before reading the
inscription one would conjecture that it is Helenus the son of Priam.
And near Helenus is Meges, who is wounded in the shoulder, as he
is described by Lescheos of Pyrrha, the son of Æschylinus, in his
Capture of Ilium, he was wounded he says by Admetus the son of
Augeas in the night-attack of the Trojans. And next to Meges is
Lycomedes the son of Creon, who is wounded on the wrist, as
Lescheos says he was by Agenor. It is manifest that Polygnotus
must have read Lescheos’ poem, or he would not have painted their
wounds so accurately. He has also depicted Lycomedes with a third
wound in the ankle, and a fourth on the head. Euryalus also the son
of Mecisteus is represented as wounded in the head and wrist. All
these are above Helen in the painting: and next Helen is Æthra the
mother of Theseus with her head shaven, and Theseus’ son
Demophon apparently wondering whether he could save her. And
the Argives say that Melanippus was the son of Theseus by the
daughter of Sinis, and that he won the prize in the race, when the
Epigoni restored the Nemean games which were originally
introduced by Adrastus. Lescheos has stated that Æthra escaped
when Ilium was taken, and got to the Greek camp, and was
recognized by the sons of Theseus, and Demophon asked her of
Agamemnon. And he said he would willingly gratify Demophon, but
could not do so before he obtained the consent of Helen, so a
messenger was sent to Helen and she gave her consent. I think
therefore the picture represents Eurybates coming to Helen on this
errand, and delivering the message of Agamemnon. And the Trojan
women in the painting look in sad dejection as if they were captives
already. There is Andromache, with a babyboy at her breast.
Lescheos says that this babyboy was hurled from a tower, not in
consequence of any decree of the Greeks, but simply from the
private hatred of Neoptolemus. There too is Medesicaste, one of the
illegitimate daughters of Priam, of whom Homer says that she dwelt
in the town of Pedæum, and married Imbrius the son of Mentor.[121]
Andromache and Medesicaste are represented veiled: but Polyxena
has her hair plaited after the manner of maidens. The Poets
represent her to have been slain at the tomb of Achilles, and I have
seen paintings both at Athens and Pergamus beyond the river
Caicus of her death. Polygnotus has also introduced Nestor into the
same painting, with a hat on his head and a spear in his hand: and a
horse near seems to be rolling in the dust. Near the horse is the sea-
shore, and you can see the pebbles, but the rest of the scene does
not resemble a sea view.
[118] Odyssey, xviii. 328, 329. See Dr. Hayman’s admirable note
on this passage.
[119] Odyssey, iii. 276 sq.
[120] Iliad, iii. 144. Their names there are Æthra and Clymene.
[121] Iliad, xiii. 171-173.
CHAPTER XXVI.
A bove the women between Æthra and Nestor are the captives,
Clymene, and Creusa, and Aristomache, and Xenodice.
Clymene is enumerated among the captives by Stesichorus in his
Fall of Ilium: Aristomache likewise is represented in the poem called
The Return from Ilium as the daughter of Priam, and wife of Critolaus
the son of Hicetaon: but I do not remember either poet or prose-
writer making mention of Xenodice: and as to Creusa, they say that
the Mother of the Gods and Aphrodite rescued her from slavery to
the Greeks, and that she was the wife of Æneas, though Lescheos
and the author of the Cyprian Poems represent Eurydice as the wife
of Æneas. Above these are painted Deinome Metioche Pisis and
Cleodice reclining on a couch: Deinome is the only one of these
mentioned in the poem called The Little Iliad, so I think Polygnotus
must have invented the other names. Here too is Epeus naked
knocking down the walls of Troy, and above the walls is the head
only of the Wooden Horse. Here too is Polypœtes, the son of
Pirithous, with his head bound by a fillet, and near him Acamas, the
son of Theseus, with a helmet on his head, and a crest on the
helmet. Here too is Odysseus with a coat of mail on. And Ajax the
son of Oileus is standing near the altar with a shield in his hand,
taking his oath in connection with the violation of Cassandra:
Cassandra is seated on the ground and holding fast the wooden
statue of Athene, for she tore it from its base, when Ajax dragged her
away from the altar. And the sons of Atreus are painted with their
helmets on: and on Menelaus’ shield is a representation of the
dragon that appeared to him as an omen during the sacrifice at Aulis.
They are administering the oath to Ajax. And near the painting of the
horse by Nestor’s side[122] is Neoptolemus killing Elasus, whoever
he was;[123] his dying agony is well depicted: and Astynous, who is
mentioned by Lescheos, has fallen on to his knee, and Neoptolemus
is in the act of smiting him with the sword. And Polygnotus has
represented Neoptolemus alone of all the Greeks continuing to
butcher the Trojans, that the painting should correspond with the
scenes depicted on the tomb of Neoptolemus. Homer indeed calls
Achilles’ son everywhere by the name of Neoptolemus, but the
Cyprian Poems say he was called Pyrrhus by Lycomedes, and that
the name Neoptolemus was given him by Phœnix, because he[124]
was very young when he first went to the wars. Here too is the
painting of an altar, and a little boy clinging to it in dire fear: a brazen
coat of mail lies on the altar, such as was worn in old times, for in our
days we seldom see such. It consisted of two pieces called Gyala,
one a protection for the breast and belly, the other for the back, both
joined together by clasps. And such coats of mail would afford
sufficient protection without a shield: and so Homer represented
Phorcys the Phrygian without a shield, because he was armed with
this kind of coat of mail.[125] In Polygnotus’ painting I recognize a
coat of mail of this kind: and in the temple of Ephesian Artemis
Calliphon of Samos has painted some women fitting this kind of coat
of mail on Patroclus. And Polygnotus has represented Laodice
standing on the other side of the altar. I do not find her name
mentioned by any poet among the captive Trojan women: and it
seems probable enough that the Greeks let her go. For Homer has
represented in the Iliad that Menelaus and Odysseus were
entertained by Antenor, and that Laodice was the wife of Antenor’s
son Helicaon.[126] And Lescheos states that Helicaon was wounded
in the night-engagement, and recognized by Odysseus, and rescued
out of the battle alive. It follows therefore, from the affection of
Menelaus and Odysseus for the family of Antenor, that Agamemnon
and Menelaus would have offered no violence to Helicaon’s wife.
What Euphorion of Chalcis therefore has written about Laodice is
very improbable. And next Laodice is a stone prop, and a bronze
laver on it. And Medusa sits on the ground holding this prop with
both her hands. Whoever has read the Ode of Himeræus will include
her among the daughters of Priam. And near Medusa is an old
woman closely shaven, (or possibly a eunuch), with a naked child in
his or her arms: the child’s hand is before its eyes for fear.
[122] See ch. 26 nearly at the end.
[123] An Elasus is mentioned in Iliad, xvi. 696.
[124] He (i.e. Neoptolemus). Siebelis very ingeniously suggests ὁ
Ἀχιλλέως. I accept that suggestion as necessary to the sense.
[125] See Iliad, xvii. 314. Pausanias goes a little beyond Homer
methinks.
[126] See Iliad, iii. 205-207. Also 122-124.
CHAPTER XXVII.
O f the dead in the painting are Pelis naked,[127] lying on his back,
and underneath him Eioneus and Admetus both in their coats of
mail. According to Lescheos Eioneus was slain by Neoptolemus, and
Admetus by Philoctetes. And above these are others, near the laver
Leocritus, the son of Polydamas, who was killed by Odysseus, and
near Eioneus and Admetus Corœbus the son of Mygdon. This
Mygdon has a famous tomb on the borders of the Stectorenian
Phrygians, and poets have given those Phrygians the name of
Mygdones after him. Corœbus came to wed Cassandra, and was
killed by Neoptolemus according to the prevalent tradition, but by
Diomede according to Lescheos. And above Corœbus are Priam
and Axion and Agenor. Lescheos says that Priam was not slain at
the altar of Household Zeus, but was torn away from the altar and
killed by Neoptolemus with no great difficulty at the doors of the
palace. As to Hecuba, Stesichorus in his Fall of Ilium has stated that
she was taken to Lycia by Apollo. And Lescheos says that Axion was
the son of Priam, and killed by Eurypylus the son of Euæmon. The
same poet states that Agenor was killed by Neoptolemus. And
Echeclus, Agenor’s son, seems to have been slain by Achilles. And
Sinon, the companion of Odysseus, and Anchialus are carrying out
the corpse of Laomedon for burial. There is another dead person in
the painting, Eresus by name; no poet, so far as my knowledge
goes, has sung either of Eresus or Laomedon. There is a painting
also of the house of Antenor, and a leopard’s skin hung up over the
porch, as a sign to the Greeks not to meddle with the family of
Antenor. And Theano, Antenor’s wife, is painted with her sons,
Glaucus seated on his armour, and Eurymachus seated on a stone.
Near him stands Antenor with his daughter Crino, who is carrying her
baby boy. All these are depicted with sorrowful countenances. The
servants are placing a chest and other articles on the back of an ass,
on which a little boy also sits. And under this painting is the following
Elegiac couplet by Simonides.
“Polygnotus of Thasos, the son of Aglaophon, painted
these incidents in the capture of Ilium.”
[127] Naked here, and in connection with Epeus in ch. 26,
probably only means without armour on. Cf. “Nudus ara, sere
nudus.” Virg. Georg. i. 299.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
T he other part of the painting, that on the left, represents

Odysseus descending to Hades, to consult the soul of Tiresias
about his return home. In the painting is a river, which is obviously
Acheron, and there are some reeds growing in it, and some fishes so
indistinct that they look like the ghosts of fishes. And there is a boat
on the river, and a ferryman with his oars. Polygnotus has followed (I
think) here the description, in the poem called the Minyad, about
Theseus and Pirithous.
“Unwillingly did old Charon admit these living persons into his boat
meant for the use of the dead.”
Polygnotus has accordingly represented Charon as old. The persons
on board are not very easy to trace. But there is Tellis, looking like a
youth, and Cleobœa still a virgin, with a cist on her knees such as
they use in the worship of Demeter. Of Tellis I know nothing more
than that Archilochus was his greatgrandson. And Cleobœa they say
first introduced the mysteries of Demeter from Paros to Thasos. And
on the bank of the Acheron near Charon’s boat a son, who had not
treated his father well, is being strangled by his father. For the
ancients reverenced fathers exceedingly,[128] as one may infer
among other things from the conduct of those called Pious at
Catana, who, when Catana was consumed by fire from Mount Ætna,
took no account of silver or gold, but the one took up his mother, the
other his father, and fled for their lives. And as they advanced with
great difficulty for the flame gathered on them, (but they would not
for all that set their parents down), the flames they say divided so as
to let them pass without hurt. These young men are still honoured at
Catana. And in Polygnotus’ painting near the man who ill-treated his
father, and has consequently a bad time of it in Hades, is a
sacrilegious wretch suffering punishment. The woman[129] who is
punishing him seems well acquainted with poison, and other things
that can do man harm. Men were also in those days remarkable for
piety to the gods, as the Athenians shewed when they captured the
temple of Olympian Zeus at Syracuse, for they removed none of the
votive offerings, and left the former priest still in charge. Datis the
Mede also showed the same piety both in word and in deed, in word
to the Delians, and in deed when, finding a statue of Apollo on a
Phœnician ship, he gave it back to the people of Tanagra to take to
Delium. In those days all men honoured the deity, and so Polygnotus
introduced into his painting the sacrilegious wretch suffering
punishment. Above those I have described is Eurynomus, who
according to the Antiquarians at Delphi is a demon in Hades, and
eats the flesh of the dead clean to the bones. No such person
however is mentioned in the Odyssey, or in the Minyad, or in The
Return from Ilium, though these poems contain accounts of Hades
and its horrors. I shall therefore describe Eurynomus’ appearance in
this painting. His colour is a blueish-black, like that of the flies that
infest meat,[130] and he shows his fangs, and sits on a vulture’s skin.
And next him are Auge and Iphimedea from Arcadia. Auge came to
Teuthras in Mysia, and, of all the women who consorted with
Hercules, bare a son most like him. And Iphimedea is treated with
very great honour by the Carians who dwell at Mylasa.
[128] See for example Hesiod, Works and Days, 331, 332, with
context.
[129] Boettiger takes this woman to be Punishment personified.
[130] Our “bluebottles.”
CHAPTER XXIX.
A bove those I have already mentioned are Perimedes and

Eurylochus,[131] the comrades of Odysseus, with the victims
which are black rams. And next them is a man seated, whom the
inscription states to be Ocnus. He is representing rope-making, and
a she-ass near him eats the rope as fast as he makes it. This Ocnus
they say was an industrious man, who had an extravagant wife: and
whatever he got together by industry was very soon spent by her.
This picture therefore of Polygnotus is supposed to be a skit on
Ocnus’ wife. And I know that the Ionians, when they see anyone
labouring hard to no profit, say that he is weaving Ocnus’ rope.[132]
However those who divine by the flight of birds give the name of
Ocnus to a very rare kind of heron, both large and handsome. Tityus
too is in the picture, no longer being tortured, but worn out by his
continuous punishment to a mere shadow. And if you look at the next
part of the picture, you will see Ariadne very near the man who is
ropemaking: she is sitting on a rock, and looking at her sister
Phædra, who is suspended to a rock by a rope which she holds in
both hands. She is so represented to make her end appear more
decorous. And Dionysus took Ariadne from Theseus either by some
chance, or purposely preparing an ambush for him, sailing against
him with a larger armament. This was the same Dionysus, I take it,
who was the first to invade India, and the first to throw a bridge over
the river Euphrates; the place where he built this bridge was called
Zeugma, and a rope is preserved to this day, wreathed with tendrils
of the vine and ivy, which was used in the construction of the bridge.
Both Greeks and Egyptians have many legends about Dionysus.
And below Phædra Chloris is reclining on the knees of Thyia: no one
will err who states that there was a great friendship between these
two women in their lifetime: and both came from the same
neighbourhood, Orchomenus in Bœotia.[133] There are other
traditions about them, as that Poseidon had an intrigue with Thyia,
and that Chloris was married to Poseidon’s son Neleus. And next
Thyia is Procris the daughter of Erechtheus, and next her, with her
back towards her, is Clymene, who is represented in The Return
from Ilium to have been the daughter of Minyas, and the wife of
Cephalus the son of Deion, and mother by him of Iphiclus. All the
poets agree that Procris was Cephalus’ wife before Clymene was,
and that she was murdered by her husband. And beyond Clymene in
the interior of the painting is the Theban Megara, who was Hercules’
wife, but eventually repudiated by him, because he lost all his
children by her, and so did not think his marriage with her a lucky
one. Above the head of those women I have mentioned is the
daughter of Salmoneus sitting on a stone, and beside her Eriphyle is
standing, lifting her fingers through her dress to her neck. You may
conjecture that she is holding the famous necklace in the hand which
is concealed by the folds of her dress. And above Eriphyle is
Elpenor, and Odysseus kneeling, holding his sword over a ditch: and
Tiresias the prophet is approaching the ditch, and near Tiresias is
Anticlea, the mother of Odysseus, sitting on a stone. And Elpenor is
wearing the coarse plaited coat usual among sea-faring men. And
below Odysseus Theseus and Pirithous are seated on the
enchanted rock, Theseus has both his own sword and that of
Pirithous, and Pirithous is looking at his like one indignant that
swords are useless for their present venture. Panyasis has
represented Theseus and Pirithous as not fastened to their seat, but
that the rock grew to them instead of fetters. The friendship between
Theseus and Pirithous has been alluded to by Homer both in the
Iliad and Odyssey. In the latter Odysseus says to the Phæacians,
“I then perhaps had seen the heroes of former times,
whom I fain would have seen, as Theseus and Pirithous,
the famous sons of the gods.”[134]
And in the Iliad, in his chiding of Agamemnon and Achilles, Nestor
uses the following words:[135]
“I never before saw such heroes nor shall I e’er again, as Pirithous,
and Dryas shepherd of his people, and Cæneus and Exadius and
divine Polyphemus, and Theseus son of Ægeus like to the
Immortals.”
[131] Odyssey, xi. 23 sq.
[132] Propertius has an allusion to this, v. iii. 21, 22.
[133] It will be seen that I adopt the suggestion of Siebelis. The
reading is doubtful.
[134] Odyssey, xi. 630, 631. The last line is in brackets in modern
editions.
[135] Iliad, i. 262-265. The last line here is in brackets in modern
editions.
CHAPTER XXX.
P olygnotus has painted next the daughters of Pandareus, as to

whom Homer says, in a speech of Penelope, that their parents
died through the wrath of the gods when they were still maidens, and
that as they were orphans they were brought up by Aphrodite, and
received gifts from other goddesses, as from Hera prudence and
beauty, from Artemis tallness of stature, from Athene an education fit
for women. But when Aphrodite went up to heaven to obtain a good
match for the girls from Zeus, they were carried off in her absence by
the Harpies and given by them to the Furies. Such at least is
Homer’s account about them.[136] And Polygnotus has painted them
crowned with flowers, and playing with dice. Their names were
Camiro and Clytie. Pandareus was you must know a Milesian from
Cretan Miletus, and an associate of Tantalus both in his theft and
perjury. And next the daughters of Pandareus is Antilochus with one
of his feet on a stone, and his head on both his hands. And next him
is Agamemnon, leaning on his sceptre under his left arm, and with a
staff in his hands. And Protesilaus and Achilles are seated, and
looking at one another. And above Achilles is Patroclus standing.
None of these have beards except Agamemnon. And above them is
painted the stripling Phocus, and Iaseus with a beard, who is trying
to take a ring from Phocus’ left hand. The circumstances are as
follows. When Phocus, the son of Æacus, crossed over from Ægina
to the country now called Phocis, and obtained the sovereignty over
the men in that part of the mainland, and meant to dwell there,
Iaseus was most friendly with him, and offered him various presents,
as was very natural, and among others a stone signet-ring set in
gold: and when Phocus not long after sailed back to Ægina, Peleus
contrived his death: and so in the painting, as a memorial of their
friendship, Iaseus is represented as wishing to look at the signet-
ring, and Phocus letting him take it. Above them is Mæra sitting on a
stone: in The Return from Ilium she is said to have died a virgin, and
to have been the daughter of Prœtus, the son of Thersander and
grandson of Sisyphus. And next Mæra is Actæon, (the son of
Aristæus), and his mother, both seated on a deerskin and holding a
fawn in their hands. And a hound for hunting is near: these are
emblems of the life and death of Actæon. And in the lower part of the
painting next to Patroclus is Orpheus sitting on a hill, with a harp in
his left hand, and with his right hand he is touching the branches of a
willow-tree, and he leans against the tree: the scene looks like the
grove of Proserpine, where Homer tells us poplars and willows grew.
[137] And Orpheus’ dress is Greek, no part of his attire is Thracian,
not even his hat. And Promedon is leaning against the other side of
the willow-tree. Some think Polygnotus introduced Promedon’s name
into legend. Others say he was a Greek who was passionately fond
of music, and especially of that of Orpheus. In the same part of the
painting is Schedius, who led the Phocians to Troy, with a dagger in
his hand, and a garland of grass on his head. And next him sits
Pelias, with beard and head all hoary, gazing at Orpheus. And
Thamyris sitting near Pelias is blind and dejected in mien, with thick
hair and beard, his lyre is broken and the strings torn asunder. Above
him is Marsyas, seated on a stone, and near him Olympus, a
handsome boy, learning to play on the pipe. The Phrygians at
Celænæ represent that the river flowing through their town was
formerly this piper Marsyas, and that the piping in honour of Cybele
was his invention: they say also that they repulsed the army of the
Galati through his aid, as he assisted them both with the water of the
river and his melody.
[136] Odyssey, xx. 63 sq.
[137] Odyssey, x. 509, 510.
CHAPTER XXXI.
I f you look again at the upper part of the painting, you will see next
Actæon Salaminian Ajax Palamedes and Thersites playing with
dice, which were the invention of Palamedes. And the other Ajax is
looking at them playing: he looks like a shipwrecked man, and his
body is wet with the foam of the sea. Polygnotus seems to have
purposely collected together the enemies of Odysseus. And Ajax the
son of Oileus hated Odysseus, because he urged the Greeks to
stone him for his rape of Cassandra. And I have read in the Cyprian
Poems that Palamedes going a fishing was drowned by Diomede
and Odysseus. And a little above Ajax the son of Oileus is Meleager
painted, looking at Ajax. All these except Palamedes have beards.
As to the death of Meleager, Homer informs us that a Fury heard
Althæa cursing him, and that this was the cause of his death. But the
poems called the Great Eœæ and the Minyad agree in stating that
Apollo assisted the Curetes against the Ætolians, and killed
Meleager. As to the famous tradition about the firebrand; how it was
given to Althæa by the Fates, and how Meleager was fated not to die
till it was consumed by fire, and how Althæa set it on fire in a rage,
all this was first described by Phrynichus, the son of Polyphradmon,
in his play called Pleuroniæ:
“He escaped not dread fate, but was consumed by the swift flame,
as soon as the ill-contrived firebrand was set on fire by his stern
mother.”
Phrynichus does not however seem to introduce the legend as his
own invention, but only to allude to it as one well-known throughout
Greece.
In the lower part of the painting next Thracian Thamyris sits Hector,
like a man oppressed with sorrow, with both his hands on his left
knee. And next him is Memnon seated on a stone, and close to
Memnon Sarpedon, who is leaning his head on both his hands, and
one of Memnon’s hands is on Sarpedon’s shoulder. All of these have
beards, and some birds are painted on Memnon’s cloak. These birds
are called Memnonides, and every year the people near the
Hellespont say they come on certain days to Memnon’s tomb, and
sweep all the parts round the tomb that are bare of trees or grass,
and sprinkle them with their wings which they wet in the river
Æsepus. And near Memnon is a naked Ethiopian boy, for Memnon
was king of the Ethiopians. However he did not come to Ilium from
Ethiopia, but from Susa in Persia and the river Choaspes, after
vanquishing all the tribes in that neighbourhood. The Phrygians still
shew the road by which he marched his army, the shortest route
over the mountains.[138]
Above Sarpedon and Memnon is Paris, as yet a beardless youth. He
is clapping his hands like a rustic, apparently to attract the notice of
Penthesilea, who looks at him, but by the toss of her head seems to
despise him, and jeer at him as a boy. She is represented as a
maiden with a Scythian bow, and a leopard’s skin round her
shoulders. Above her are two women carrying water in broken
pitchers, one still in her prime, the other rather advanced in life.
There is no inscription on either of them, except a notification that
they are both among the uninitiated. Above this pair are Callisto the
daughter of Lycaon, and Nomia, and Pero the daughter of Neleus,
from every suitor of whom her father asked the kine of Iphiclus.[139]
Callisto has a bear-skin for her coverlet, and her feet are on the
knees of Nomia. I have before stated that the Arcadians consider
Nomia one of their local Nymphs. The poets say the Nymphs are
long-lived but not immortal. Next to Callisto and the other women
with her is a hill, up which Sisyphus the son of Æolus is laboriously
rolling a stone. There is also a winejar in the painting, and an old
man, and a boy, and two women, a young woman under a rock, and
an old woman near the old man. Some men are bringing water, and
the old woman’s water-pot appears to be broken, and she is pouring
all the water in the pitcher into the winejar. One is inclined to
conjecture that they are people making a mock of the Eleusinian
mysteries. But the older Greeks considered the Eleusinian mysteries
as much above all other religious services, as the gods are superior
to heroes. And under the winejar is Tantalus, undergoing all those
punishments mentioned by Homer,[140] and also terrified lest a stone
overhanging his head should fall on him. It is plain that Polygnotus
followed the account of Archilochus: but I do not know whether
Archilochus invented the addition to the legend about the stone, or
merely related what he had heard from others.
Such is a full account of the various details in this fine painting of the
Thasian painter.
[138] So Corayus. The meaning and reading is very obscure.
[139] See Homer’s Odyssey, xi. 287 sq. Neleus refused the
matchless Pero’s hand to any suitor who would not bring as a
wedding-present these kine of Iphiclus.
[140] Odyssey, xi. 582-592.
CHAPTER XXXII.
N ear the temple precincts is a handsome theatre. And as you

ascend from the precincts you see a statue of Dionysus, the
offering of the men of Cnidos. In the highest part of the city is a
stadium made of the stone of Mount Parnassus, till the Athenian
Herodes embellished it with Pentelican marble. I have now
enumerated the most remarkable things still to be seen at Delphi.
About 60 stades from Delphi on the road to Mount Parnassus is a
brazen statue, and from thence it is an easy ascent for an active
man, or for mules and horses to the Corycian cavern. It got its name,
as I pointed out a little back,[141] from the Nymph Corycia, and of all
the caverns I have seen is best worth a visit. The various caverns on
sea-coasts are so numerous that one could not easily enumerate
them: but the most remarkable whether in Greece or in foreign lands
are the following. The Phrygians near the river Pencala, who
originally came from Arcadia and the Azanes, show a round and lofty
cavern called Steunos, which is sacred to the Mother of the Gods,
and contains her statue. The Phrygians also, who dwell at
Themisonium above Laodicea, say that when the army of the Galati
harried Ionia and the neighbouring districts, Hercules and Apollo and
Hermes came to their aid: and showed their chief men a cavern in a
dream, and bade them hide there their women and children. And so
in front of this cavern they have statuettes of Hercules and Hermes
and Apollo, whom they call The Cavern-Gods. This cavern is about
30 stades from Themisonium, and has springs of water in it, there is
no direct road to it, nor does the light of the sun penetrate into it, and
the roof in most of the cavern is very near the ground. The
Magnesians also at a place called Hylæ near the river Lethæus have
a cavern sacred to Apollo, not very wonderful for size, but containing
a very ancient statue of Apollo, which supplies strength for any
action. Men made holy by the god leap down rocks and precipices
unhurt, and tear up huge trees by the roots, and carry them with
ease through mountain passes. But the Corycian cavern excels both
of these, and through most of it you can walk without needing
torches: and the roof is a good height from the ground, and water
bubbles up from springs, but still more oozes from the roof, so that
there are droppings from the roof all over the floor of the cavern. And
those that dwell on Mount Parnassus consider it sacred to Pan and
the Corycian Nymphs. It is a feat even for an active man to scale the
heights of Parnassus from it, for they are higher than the clouds, and
on them the Thyiades carry on their mad revels in honour of
Dionysus and Apollo.
Tithorea is about 80 stades from Delphi viâ Mount Parnassus, but
the carriage road by a way less mountainous is many stades longer.
Bacis in his oracles and Herodotus in his account of the invasion of
Greece by the Medes differ as to the name of the town. For Bacis
calls the town Tithorea, but Herodotus calls it Neon, and gives the
name Tithorea to the summit of Parnassus, where he describes the
people of the town fleeing on the approach of the Medes. It seems
probable therefore that Tithorea was originally the name for the
entire district, but as time went on the people, flocking into the town
from the villages, called it Tithorea and no longer Neon. And the
people of the place say it got its name from the Nymph Tithorea, one
of those Nymphs who according to the legendary lore of poets were
born of trees and especially oak-trees.[142] A generation before me
the deity changed the fortunes of Tithorea for the worse. There is the
outline of a theatre, and the precincts of an ancient market-place, still
remaining. But the most remarkable things in the town are the grove
and shrine and statue of Athene, and the tomb of Antiope and
Phocus. In my account of the Thebans I have shewn how Antiope
went mad through the anger of Dionysus, and why she drew on her
the anger of the god, and how she married Phocus the son of
Ornytion, of whom she was passionately fond, and how they were
buried together. I also gave the oracle of Bacis both about this tomb
and that of Zethus and Amphion at Thebes. I have mentioned all the
circumstances worth mention about the town. A river called
Cachales flows by the town, and furnishes water to its inhabitants,
who descend to its banks to draw water.
At 70 stades distance from Tithorea is a temple of Æsculapius, who
is called Archegetes, and is greatly honoured both by the Tithoreans

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Social Psychology and Human Nature,

Brief 4th Edition Baumeister

Social Psychology and Human Nature, Brief 4th Edition,

Social Psychology: First South African Edition Roy F.

On Human Nature. Biology, Psychology, Ethics, Politics,

Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge About

Positive Psychology: The Scientific and Practical

Nature Swapped and Nature Lost: Biodiversity

Critical Social Psychology of Social Class Katy Day

The Ethics of Killing. Life, Death and Human Nature 1st

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Roy F. BaumeisteR (1953– ) Brad J. Bushman (1960– )

edward e. Jones (1926–1993) Russell G. Geen (1932– )

Jerome s. BRuneR (1915– ) Leonard BeRkowitz (1926– )

Gordon aLLpoRt (1897–1967) Daniel katz (1903–1998)

herbert s. LanGFeLD (1879–1958) Floyd h. aLLpoRt (1879–1958)

Carl stumpF (1848–1936) hugo münsteRBeRG (1863–1916)

Rudolf h. Lotze (1817–1881) wilhelm wunDt (1832–1920) william James (1840–1910)

Level One Head | v

BRAD J. BUSHMAN is a professor of communication and psychology at The Ohio State

& the method 1 tradeoFFS

culture and nature 33 Food For thought

the Social Side oF Sex 46

the Self 67 Self

money matterS 117

choices and actions 113 Making Bad Decisions

the Social Side oF Sex 119

Food For thought 135

goals, Plans, intentions 125 irrationality and Self-destruction 138

Social cognition 147 tradeoFFS 158

Food For thought 159

the Social Side oF Sex 191

emotion and affect 185 Whether They Are Sexually

money matterS 240

Food For thought 242

money matterS 265

Food For thought 272

Prosocial Behavior 291 money matterS

Food For thought 310

the Social Side oF Sex 348

Food For thought 355

and rejection 371 money matterS 384

close relationships 403 Food For thought

money matterS 439

relations 447 Food For thought

the Social Side oF Sex 460

Social Side oF Sex 495

groups 491 tradeoFFS