Continuation

…continuation for lecture 3

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 Recap

Schulson, E.M. and Duval, P. (2009)

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 Isotropy and anisotropy

What is?
- Isotropy: this means the
response of the material or
crystal is independent from
the loading direction.

- Anisotropy: the response of

the material etc. depends on
the loading direction

- Orthotropy (special case of

anisotropic material): the
response of the material
depends on the loading
direction and differs along
three orthogonal axes e.g.
like the Cartesian
coordinate system
- What kind of material is
ice?

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 Isotropy and anisotropy

Single and polycrystals

Single crystals:
• The mechanical behavior depends on loading directions
(anisotropic material). At temperatures near the melting point,
Young's modulus of single crystals varies by less than 30%
(Schulson 1999)
NB: Ice properties are temperature dependent
– E = 12 GPa along the least compliant direction
(parallel to the c-axis)
– Down to 8.6 GPa along the most compliant direction (inclined to both the c- and a-
axes).
– Along directions within the basal plane Young's modulus is 10 GPa.

Polycrystals:
– For randomly oriented poly-crystals, typical values of Young's modulus and Poisson's
ratio are 9.0 MPa. Inelastic behavior is markedly anisotropic.
– The crystal axes have also an impact on the growth of crystals as in e.g. sea ice.
Crystals have sort of a directed orientation and consequently directed properties –
Schulson, E.M. (1999),
we will address this later again
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 Excursus: What is the Elastic modulus?

Single and polycrystals

Single crystals:
– E = 12 GPa along the least compliant direction
(parallel to the c-axis)
– Down to 8.6 GPa along the most compliant direction
(inclined to both the c- and a-axes).
– Along directions within the basal plane Young's modulus
is 10 GPa.

Elastic modulus / Young’s modulus:

- It is a measure for the deformability of a material and also:
- Elastic means: “the deformation can be fully restored”
- The elastic modulus is the ratio of stress and strain
=> let us explain it on the deformation of an ice core

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 Excursus: critical stress

– The elastic deformation does not go

to infinity
– It is limited by a change in behavior
or the critical stress, i.e. its strength

– Small calculation exercise:

you have a core of sea ice with 9cm
diameter and 200 mm in length. The
elastic modulus is 7 GPa and the
compressive strength is 5 MPa.
• How much force is needed to
fail the ice?
• How much does the ice need to
be deformed to fail?

Schulson, E.M. (1999),

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 Ice as a poly-crystal material

• C-axis = optical axis (determines light

refraction)

• With the help of polarized filters the single

grains can be made visible

Horizontal thin section (Shestov, A. ,2018)

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 Ice as a poly-crystal material

• How do those grains form?

– Various nuclei
– Growing by attaching atoms form
grains
– The different colors in the figure
indicate that the crystals have different
orientations and this is the reasons
why they „cannot growth together“ -
see atomoic order
(Blackboard-sketch)

– Where the grains collide the form

boundaries

• Between the grains are grain boundaries

Horizontal thin section (Shestov, A. ,2018)

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 Example for elect. Backscatter orientation
Iliescu, D., Baker, I. and Chang, H. (2004), “Determining the orientations of ice crystals
using electron backscatter patterns”, Microscopy Research and Technique, Vol. 63 No. 4,
pp. 183–187.

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 Grain boundaries

• We have now established:

– The growth of crystals
– The significance of their
orientation for the mechanical
behavior

• Single crystals meet at grain

boundaries forming a polycrystal

• Grain boundaries are line

dislocations

• Interfaces between individual ice

crystals, usually referred to as grain
boundaries

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 Grain boundaries

• Dislocations are emitted from stress

concentrations at grain boundaries, caused by
strain misfits and/or grain boundary sliding

• It is indicated that there is an increased

probability of molecular surface disorder in the
vicinity of a grain boundary (Faria et al. 2014)

• Grain boundaries are important features in

polycrystalline ice:
– Sinks and sources for dislocations
– Give rise to stress concentrations that might
lead to crack nucleations
– Source of anelastic relaxation

• Brine and other components are usually stored

in the grain boundary
(multiple states @GB)

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 Stress-strain relationships

• Stress and strain are two of the most

important parameters in mechanics
• All materials have a critical stress
beyond which they transform, break,
change state

• Units:
– Force [N]
– Stress = Force / Area [N/mm²], axial
loading
– Strain [1, sometimes mm/m] (relative
deformation)
– Strain rate [1/s], usually presented in
log scale 10-3, 10-2, …

Moslet, 2006
• Example with a cylindircal body (ice
compression tests)

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 Brief intro to macroscopic stress-strain

Introduction
(more after tech.
Mechanics)

• Definition of stress
(tens., comp.)

• Definition of strain
and strain rate

• Strain modulus /
elastic modulus /
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%E2%80%93strain_curve
Young‘s modulus

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 Stress-strain curve of ice ductile vs brittle
Ice can fail ductile and brittle

Definition of brittle and ductile behavior

What is?
• Brittle behavior / failure:
This occurs, when the material cracks or ruptures suddenly
without prior plastic deformation. Brittle failing materials absorb
relatively little energy prior to failure (compared to ductile
material).
Crack propagation, once initiated, continues spontaneously and
unstable without an increase in stress level. Cracks propagate
rapidly / Transgranular cleavage

• Ductile behavior:
Ductile material will deform more than brittle material and show
large deformation before fracture. In ductile fracture, extensive
https://material-properties.org/
plastic deformation takes place before fracture.

Whether one or the other occurs depends on various factors such as:
- The material itself
- The loading rate (strain rate)
- Grain size
- Temperature
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 Stress-strain curve of ice ductile vs brittle

How does ice behave?

The behavior of ice in tension and

compression differs (as it does e.g. also
for concrete).

Additionally, the behavior depends various

parameters such as temperature, but also
much on the strain rate Note that the compressive stress-strain curve at intermediate strain
rates displays a peak owing, probably, to crack-induced localized flow.

Schulson, E.M. (1999)

In the ductile regime ice can undergo large deformations

Based on Schulson 1999:

• At low rates of deformation, cracks do not form, and the material is ductile (curves I).
• At intermediate strain rates, cracks also develop, and the material is brittle under
tension (curve TII) but ductile under compression (curve CII).
• At high rates, cracks do initiate, and the material is brittle (curves III) independent of
stress state.

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 Ductile to brittle transition

• Measurements from axial compressive

strength tests (Böhm et al, 2022)
BA Schiweck, ductile ice deformation

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 Ductile to brittle behavior in compression

• Some recent research on influencing factors for ductile and brittle failure
• Analysis of more than 2000 experiments with machine learning algorithms
• Results are only as good as the data - parameters not recorded do not appear –
general issue
Kellner, L., Stender, M., Von Bock Und Polach, R.U.F., Herrnring, H., Ehlers, S., Hoffmann, N. and Høyland, K. V. (2019),
“Establishing a common database of ice experiments and using machine learning to understand and predict ice behavior”, Cold
Regions Science and Technology, Elsevier, available at:https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COLDREGIONS.2019.02.007.

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 What have we learned?

You:
- Got to know the atomic structure of ice

- Understand how ice forms on a micro-scopic level

- Understand how ice deforms on a micro and macro-scale

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 References
• Bernal, J.D. and Fowler, R.H. (1933), “A Theory of Water and Ionic Solution, with Particular Reference to Hydrogen and
Hydroxyl Ions”, The Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 1 No. 8, pp. 515–548.
• Wilson and Marmo (2021) https://www.tectonique.net
• Schulson, E.M. and Duval, P. (2009), Creep and Fracture of Ice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, available
at:https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511581397.
• Explanation video on defects and dislocations https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kx37U4ahyec
• Shestov, A. (2018). Birefringence in Ice Crystals. Principles and Application in Sea Ice Microstructure Studies.
• Faria, S.H., Weikusat, I. and Azuma, N. (2014), “The microstructure of polar ice. Part II: State of the art”, Journal of Structural
Geology, Vol. 61, pp. 21–49.
• Baker, R.W. (1978), “The Influence of Ice-Crystal Size on Creep”, Journal of Glaciology, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 21
No. 85, pp. 485–500.
• Schulson, E.M. (1999), “The Structure and Mechanical Behavior of Ice”, JOM - Journal of Materials, Vol. 51 No. 2, pp. 21–
27.
• Cole, D.M. (2001), “The microstructure of ice and its influence on mechanical properties”, Engineering Fracture Mechanics,
Vol. 68 No. 17–18, pp. 1797–1822.
• Bergmann (2000), Werkstofftechnik, Teil 1: Grundlagen
• Fletcher, N. H. (1973). Dendritic growth of ice crystals. Journal of Crystal Growth, 20(4), 268–272.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0248(73)90090-0
• Higashi, A. (1978), “Structure and Behaviour of Grain Boundaries in Polycrystalline Ice”, Journal of Glaciology, Cambridge
University Press, Vol. 21 No. 85, pp. 589–605.
•

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