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11 Large- and Small-Group Reading Strategies
CREATING A LITERATE COMMUNITY
12 Literacy and Technology in a Balanced Classroom

EXPLORING TODAY’S RESOURCES
13 Assessment of Early Literacy Development

INFORMING INSTRUCTION
14 Home as Partner
THE SHARED CONNECTION
15 The Early Literacy Classroom

ORCHESTRATING A COMPREHENSIVE PROGRAM
Appendices
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
8
Contents
List of Activities
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
1 A Child Learns to Read

PROCESS AND PRODUCT
in the classroom
What Is Reading?
Theories of Reading Acquisition
Nonstage Theory ▪ Stage Theory
Cueing Systems
The Grapho-Phonological System ▪ The Syntactic (Sound Stream of Language) System ▪ The
Semantic System ▪ The Pragmatic System
The Reading Process
Skills Used in the Reading Process ▪ Characteristics of the Reading Process ▪ The Reading
Process and Learners Who Are Diverse
The Reading Product
Summary
questions FOR JOURNAL WRITING AND DISCUSSION
suggestions FOR PROJECTS AND FIELD ACTIVITIES
2 A Quest for Balance

MOVING FORWARD
in the classroom
Introduction
The History of Early Literacy
Skills-Based vs. Holistic Approach ▪ Standards-Based Education
Approaches to Teaching Reading
Phonics Instruction and the Transmission Model ▪ Holistic Instruction and the Transactional
Model ▪ A Quest for Balance: A Comprehensive Approach ▪ Balance and Teaching to Standards
The Impact of Technology on Literacy
Summary
9
3 Emergent Literacy
FROM BIRTH TO CONVENTIONAL LITERACY
in the classroom
Introduction
Language Acquisition: An Overview
Prebirth ▪ Infancy ▪ The Holographic Stage ▪ The Telegraphic Stage ▪ Preschool to Fluency ▪
Primary Grades
Literacy’s Beginnings
Reading Is Enjoyable ▪ Books Should Be Handled in Special Ways ▪ Book and Story Sharing
Involve a Routine ▪ Illustrations Represent Real Things ▪ Printed Words Have Meaning
Reading Readiness: A Retrospective
Overview of Emergent Literacy
Use of the Term Emergent Literacy ▪ Key Components of Emergent Literacy
Influences on Children’s Literacy Development
Continuing Literacy Development
BOX: Videos containing information for developing emergent literacy
Understanding of Literacy Concepts ▪ Developing Cognitive Skills ▪ The Role of Early
Childhood Educators, Parents, and Caregivers
Guidelines for Setting Up a Balanced, Comprehensive Literacy Program from Birth to Primary Years
Positive Practices to Foster Emergent Literacy
BOX: The CCSS and pre-K literacy education
Developing Concepts About Print ▪ Providing Direct and Vicarious Experiences ▪ Interactive
Story Writing ▪ Reading Aloud to Students: The Importance of Print and Books
BOX: Selecting a big book to read aloud
BOX: Classic read-alouds for young children
Using Drama
Emergent Literacy and Children with Special Needs
Strategies for English Learners
Summary
4 Phonemic Awareness
THE SOUNDS OF OUR LANGUAGE
in the classroom
Introduction
The Importance of Phonemic Awareness
10
The Components of Phonemic Awareness
BOX: The hierarchy of phonemic awareness competence
Developing Phonemic Awareness
General Guidelines ▪ From Research to Practice
Phonemic Awareness and English Learners
BOX: Helping non–English speakers
Phonemic Awareness and Students with Special Needs
Phonemic Awareness Activities
Recommendations for Teaching Phonemic Awareness
Summary
5 Phonics, Sight Vocabulary and Fluency

WHY AND HOW
in the classroom
Introduction
Why Phonics Instruction?
Beginning Phonics Instruction
Approaches to Sounding Out Words
A Sequence for Teaching Phonics
Teaching Sight Vocabulary Words
A Model Phonics Program
Phonemic Awareness ▪ Useful Phonics Generalizations ▪ Whole-Part-Whole Instructional
Sequence ▪ Coaching ▪ Minilessons ▪ Application of Phonics Skills ▪ Use of Different Types of
Literature ▪ Teachable Moments
General Suggestions for Phonics Instruction
CASE EXAMPLE: Mrs. Rodgers teaches a phonics lesson
Reading Fluency: Making Decoding Automatic Through Oral Reading
Why Is Fluency Important? ▪ A Brief History of Fluency Instruction ▪ What Can Be Done to
Improve Fluency? ▪ Interactive Reading with E-Books
Considerations for Students with Special Needs
Scope and Sequence Instruction ▪ Direct Instruction ▪ Multisensory Teaching ▪ Technology,
Phonics, and Special Needs
Summary
6 Spelling
11
A WRITER’S TOOL
in the classroom
Learning and Applying Spelling Skills
The Stages of Spelling Development
Gentry’s Stages ▪ Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, and Johnston’s Stages
Observing Experimental Spelling
CASE EXAMPLE: Tommy’s perspective on experimental spelling
Understanding Our Alphabetic System
Supporting Spelling Development
Early Phonetic/Early Letter-Name Stage
BOX: Ideas for meaningful spelling lists
Phonetic/Late Letter-Name and Within-Word Stage ▪ Transitional/Syllables and Affixes Spelling
Stage ▪ A Possible Week’s Study Plan
Contract Spelling
Considerations for Students with Special Needs
Reflecting on Spelling ▪ Word Lists and High-Frequency Words ▪ Portable Keyboards
Practices to Avoid
Summary
7 Acquiring Word Meanings

THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LITERACY
in the classroom
Introduction
Why Acquiring a Meaning Vocabulary Is Important
Principles of Effective Vocabulary Development
BOX: Teacher behaviors that enhance vocabulary learning
Motivating Students to Read Independently ▪ Listening to the Teacher Read ▪ Other Factors in
Vocabulary Development
Types of Vocabulary Instruction
Explicit Instruction in Meaning Vocabulary ▪ Strategies to Enhance Independent Meaning
Vocabulary Growth
BOX: Vocabulary development in the content areas
Activate the Schema of the Learners ▪ Focus on Understanding ▪ Scaffold Vocabulary Usage ▪
Use Multisensory and Multimedia Approaches ▪ Provide Opportunities to Share Home Language
▪ Focus on the Functional Use of Language
Vocabulary Development for Students with Special Needs
12
Modifying Traditional Approaches
Summary
8 Reading Comprehension
MAKING SENSE OF PRINT
in the classroom
What Is Comprehension?
An Ideal Climate for Critical Thinking
Knowledge ▪ Think Time ▪ Praise
Reading Strategies for Comprehending
Essential Strategies to Teach ▪ Teaching the Use of Comprehension Strategies
CASE EXAMPLE: Jane Waskeiwitz teaches visualizing
Instructional Activities for Teaching Comprehension
Components of a Successful Comprehension Program
Devote a Large Block of Time for Actual Text Reading ▪ Engage in Close Reading of Text ▪
Provide Opportunities for Reading in a Social Setting ▪ Give Students Access to Plenty of
Children’s Literature ▪ Provide Opportunities for Personal Response to Text ▪ Consider the
Language and Culture of All Learners
BOX: Selecting multicultural children’s literature
Improving Comprehension for English Learners
Reading Comprehension and Students with Special Needs
Summary
9 Writing-Reading Connections
RECIPROCAL PATHS TO LITERACY
in the classroom
Introduction
Writing Goals for Early Readers
Writing Workshop
Open Format Workshop ▪ Genre Study Workshop
The Writing Process
Prewriting (Exploring the Topic) ▪ Drafting (Getting Ideas Down) ▪ Sharing (Pre-revising,
Getting Feedback) ▪ Revising ▪ Editing (Making Corrections) ▪ Publishing (Polishing for
Presentation)
Writing Structures
Story Frames ▪ Literacy Scaffolds ▪ Prompts for Opinion Pieces ▪ Journal Writing ▪ Class
13
Newspaper
The Language Experience Approach
Steps in the LEA ▪ Variations on the Basic LEA
Online Experiences for Literacy and Learning
Writing and Students Who Are English Learners
Writing for Students with Special Needs
Summary
10 Informational Text in the Classroom

READING AND WRITING TO LEARN
in the classroom
Why Informational Text Is Important
Why Informational Text Is Challenging
Principles of Using Informational Text
Use Text Features for Previewing ▪ Establish an Authentic Context and Purpose for Reading ▪
Use in Conjunction with Other Forms of Text
Teaching Young Students to Read Informational Text
Teacher Think-Alouds ▪ Explicit Instruction of Organizational Patterns ▪ Minilessons ▪ Other
Instructional Strategies for Informational Text
Writing Informational Text
Structuring Informational Writing ▪ Instructional Strategies for Writing Informational Text
Strategies for English Learners and Reading and Writing Informational Text
Informational Text and Students with Special Needs
Summary
11 Large- and Small-Group Reading Strategies

CREATING A LITERATE COMMUNITY
in the classroom
Introduction
Shared Reading
Purposes for Shared Reading ▪ Procedures for Shared Reading
CASE EXAMPLE: A shared reading experience in Mr. Jimenez’s classroom
Guided Reading
Purposes for Guided Reading ▪ The Role of Questioning in Guided Reading ▪ Leveled Texts ▪
Procedures for Guided Reading
Grouping for Instruction
14
Leveled Groups ▪ Skill Groups ▪ Literature Circles
BOX: More about literature circles
Pairs (Buddy Reading) ▪ Peer-Editing Groups ▪ Cooperative Groups
Other Practices for Group Reading
Masking
Music
BOX: Linking literacy and lyrics
Multimedia Packages ▪ Pocket Charts ▪ Word Walls ▪ Cloze Activities
Small-Group Reading and English Learners
Large- and Small-Group Reading and Students with Special Needs
Making Text Accessible for All Learners
Selective Pairing ▪ Online Books ▪ Echo Reading ▪ Building Background ▪ Delaying Independent
Reading ▪ Encouraging a Variety of Responses
Summary

EXPLORING TODAY’S RESOURCES
in the classroom
Introduction
Visual Literacy
Viewing ▪ Visually Representing
Technology Applications for Literacy Learning
Writing Electronically
CASE EXAMPLE: Ms. Pfeifer’s class writes electronically
Creating Multimodal/Hypermedia Projects ▪ Online Reading and Researching ▪ Communicating
and Collaborating in Online Communities ▪ Interactive Reading: E-Books
BOX: Reading and writing workshops and technology
Choosing Technology Applications
Technology and English Learners
Technology and Students with Special Needs
Teacher Professional Development
Summary
13 Assessment of Early Literacy Development

INFORMING INSTRUCTION
in the classroom
15
Introduction
Why Assess?
Principles of Assessment
The Core of Assessment Is Daily Observation ▪ Students Are Actively Engaged in the Assessment
Process ▪ Assessment Takes Many Different Forms ▪ Assessment Avoids Cultural Bias
Types of Assessment
Skills-Based Assessment ▪ Curriculum-Based Assessment ▪ Process-Oriented Assessment
Formal Assessment Procedures
BOX: An assessment program
Achievement Tests ▪ Criterion-Referenced Tests ▪ Diagnostic Reading Tests
Informal Assessment Procedures
Informal Reading Inventory ▪ Running Record ▪ Anecdotal Notes ▪ Sight Words
BOX: Observable behaviors for anecdotal notes
Cloze Tests ▪ Interest and Attitude Inventories ▪ Story Retelling
Assessing Specific Components of Literacy
Assessing Phonemic Awareness ▪ Assessing Phonics Skills
BOX: Assessing phonemic awareness
Assessing Fluency
BOX: Phonics assessment inventory
Assessing Vocabulary and Writing
Response to Intervention: Blending Assessment and Intervention
Compiling and Summarizing Assessment Information
CASE EXAMPLE: RTI in action: Literacy success for Landon
Portfolios ▪ Group Profiles
Using Assessment to Inform Instruction
CASE EXAMPLE: From diagnosis to intervention to avid reader: Chelsea’s journey
Summary
14 Home as Partner
THE SHARED CONNECTION
in the classroom
Introduction
Research on Home Literacy
Understanding Differences in Home Practices
Helping Parents Who Cannot Read
Communicating with Parents
Conferences
BOX: Guidelines for effective parent–teacher conferences
16
Parent Workshops ▪ Other Communication with Parents
Reading Aloud To and With Children
Other Suggestions for Parents
Family Literacy Programs
BOX: Reading aloud to infants and toddlers
Troubleshooting
Flexible Scheduling ▪ Home Visits ▪ Common Language
Summary
15 The Early Literacy Classroom

ORCHESTRATING A COMPREHENSIVE PROGRAM
in the classroom
Introduction
A Classroom Climate Conducive to Literacy
Print Saturation ▪ Demonstrations ▪ High Expectations ▪ Teacher Feedback ▪ Instructional
Modifications and Differentiation
Organizing the Classroom Environment
Room Arrangement ▪ Literacy Materials
Devising an Instructional Plan
CASE EXAMPLE: A day in Mrs. Ramon’s classroom
Summary
APPENDICES
A Children’s Literature Resources
B Recommended Books for Teachers
C Websites for Early Literacy
D Commercial Assessment Instruments
E Informal Checklists and Assessment Devices
F Rimes and Common Words Containing Them
G Fry’s List of “Instant Words”
H Phonics Terms and Orthography Chart
17
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
18
List of Activities
4 Phonemic Awareness
Rhyming
Word Beginnings (Onsets)
Comparing and Contrasting Sounds
Blending Sounds
Substituting Sounds
Segmenting Sounds
Manipulating Phonemes
5 Phonics, Sight Vocabulary and Fluency

Also see the Case Example “Mrs. Rodgers teaches a phonics lesson” (pp. 92–95) for phonics activities
Sound Switch
Roll Call Variation
Activities for Increasing Fluency
Word Building
6 Spelling
Also see the section “supporting spelling development” (pp. 117–122) for spelling activities
Spelling in Parts (SIP)

Think, Pair, Share
7 Acquiring Word Meanings

A Word Map
A Semantic Map
Context-Relationship Procedure
Semantic Gradient
Possible Sentences
Using the Context Think-Aloud
Contextual Redefinition
Divide and Conquer
Word Hunts
Class Dictionary
Learning New Words
Reader-Selected Vocabulary Procedures (RSVP)
19
Word Aerobics
8 Reading Comprehension
Directed Listening–Thinking Activity and Directed Reading–Thinking Activity
Structured Listening Activity (SLA)
Dyad Reading
Story Prediction
Think-Aloud
Think-Aloud Mysteries
Reciprocal Teaching
The Knowledge Chart
Experience–Text Relationship
Question–Answer Relationships
9 Writing-Reading Connections
Also see the section “writing structures” (pp. 191–198) for writing activities
A Simple Literacy Scaffold

Imagine What Happens!
10 Informational Text in the Classroom

Expectation Grid
Making Predictions from Artifacts
Retelling Informational Texts
Using Expository Frames
Writing Persuasive Pieces
Partner Reading and Content, Too (PRC2)

Creating a Video
Digital Storytelling
Website Exploration
WebQuest
14 Home as Partner
Questioning
Parent Think-Aloud
Dyad Reading
20
21
Preface
like its predecessors, this edition of Approach to Early Literacy fully explores a comprehensive program of
balanced literacy instruction. In such a program, young children can learn the basics of cracking the code of
reading and writing through systematic explicit instruction; in addition, with caring teachers and well-chosen
strategies, they will enjoy learning to become literate through ample practice with authentic literacy
experiences. The need for balance is especially critical in early literacy, and this edition continues to emphasize
why both decoding (or word identification) and meaning making (or comprehension) act as the foundation of
beginning literacy instruction. In keeping with the current consensus in the field of literacy, we believe that
students are best served when they receive direct skill and strategy instruction in conjunction with motivating
contexts for reading.
Exactly what needs to be “balanced” in early literacy instruction to provide a comprehensive program? This
book highlights the need to offer instruction that focuses on the affective dimension of learning and on the
cognitive dimension of early literacy. The book balances attention to reading quality literature for enjoyment
and reading for information, and it balances narrative and informational writing. It stresses balancing time
spent teaching reading and writing and time allowed for students to actually practice these skills. It recognizes
the need to nurture the other language arts (speaking, listening, viewing, and visually representing) as valid
alternative ways of receiving and expressing information, and it provides myriad opportunities to integrate
these processes. The book underscores the importance of explicit instruction, modeling, and scaffolding
coupled with the gradual withdrawal of teacher support to encourage student independence. It stresses
spelling, vocabulary, and phonics skills, but always in the larger context of authentic literacy experiences. A
comprehensive and balanced approach takes all aspects of literacy into account.
Since the prior edition was published, emphasis on aligning instruction with standards has continued to
gather momentum, and the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and state standards play an important
role in many school districts across the country. Educators differ in their opinions about the content and
implementation of educational standards; however, it seems that most educators recognize that standards do
provide helpful roadmaps for instruction and that it simply makes sense to select teaching practices shown to
be effective through replicable research. Thus, we have included in this book only strategies that are
compatible with CCSS and the majority of state standards for the early grades. Additionally, the selected
strategies and activities are limited to those found to be effective through empirical research.
The CCSS and related state standards reflect the essence of a truly balanced and comprehensive approach
to literacy. Aimed at better preparing students for 21st-century college course work and career choices, the
standards (and now this text) emphasize critical thinking and analysis, and they include a greater emphasis on
reading and writing informational text. Such standards strive to teach students to research, document, explain,
and defend ideas and information. Striking a Balance emphasizes a transactional approach to teaching, in
which the teacher and students negotiate meaning collaboratively, rather than a transmission model, where
22
the teacher simply tells students what skills should be learned. Since this has always been the underlying
philosophy of this text, this edition is able to seamlessly integrate the CCSS and related standards with the
critical thinking that they are designed to support.
In this fifth edition, we have expanded content addressing the needs of diverse learners. All classrooms are
diverse. Some children come to school speaking home languages other than English; others are academically
gifted. Other children experience a variety of physical and/or neurological challenges such as autism, cerebral
palsy, or cognitive learning disabilities. Still others manifest behavioral challenges or health issues that affect
their ability to learn. Nearly all of these students have academic, behavioral, physical, or social needs that
require instructional adaptations within the early childhood classroom. While many of the instructional
strategies offered in this text are effective for all learners, each content chapter now includes sections that
focus exclusively on differentiating instruction based on the particular learning needs of today’s diverse
learners, with additional information threaded throughout the text.
Also new to this edition is the input of two coauthors, Dr. Susan Baker and Dr. Albert Lozano, both
literacy professors at CSU, Sacramento, who specialize in the needs of English learners. Their combined
experience and knowledge about second language acquisition and its impact on all facets of literacy bring a
robustness to the many discussions of the needs of these learners.
Educators have access to a wealth of programs, techniques, and instructional strategies—online, in teacher
workshops, and in a host of texts—targeting the needs of learners in pre-K through third grade. Choosing just
the right resources can be challenging for all teachers, regardless of experience level. In text discussions, in
marginal WWW features, and in the appendices, this edition offers information about a variety of effective
options, selected based on research and teacher testimonials. These resources reflect the best literacy practices
that align with the comprehensive, transactional philosophy of this text.
23
SPECIAL FEATURES
some of this book’s special features help readers understand new concepts and vocabulary. Other features are
designed to foster reflection on and mastery of the material, and to encourage readers to try out ideas in the
field. The following features are particularly noteworthy:
▪ The book’s revised and updated chapter on reading and writing informational text. Research on
informational text indicates that even young children enjoy this mode of discourse, and today’s
educational standards emphasize the need for greater emphasis on it. This chapter gives teachers the
tools to introduce students to informational text early in their academic lives, which will prepare them
to succeed in later encounters with content area material.
▪ “In the Classroom” feature. Each chapter begins with a vignette in which readers observe an authentic
classroom setting and see how a practicing teacher handles the subject addressed in the chapter. These
small glimpses of literacy instruction build background and trigger the reader’s prior knowledge about
the chapter’s topic. Throughout the chapter and in some of the activities, we refer to the vignette and
help the reader connect chapter concepts and real classroom instruction.
▪ Activities. Most chapters include activities designed for use in the classroom. These specific
procedures allow readers to put the chapter’s ideas and strategies into practice, either in their field
placements or future classrooms.
▪ Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion. Questions at the end of each chapter help readers
reflect on and internalize key chapter ideas. These questions are suitable for response in journal form
and for stimulating lively discussion.
▪ Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities. This section makes the connection between research and
theory and real classroom practice. At the end of each chapter, the reader is offered several suggestions
for surveying, interviewing, or observing local classroom teachers to compare strategies presented in
the chapter with actual practice. Other activities ask the reader to try out a strategy or activity with a
small group of primary school children. These activities will be useful as assignments for students in
their field placement experiences.
▪ Case Examples. To help readers further apply chapter concepts, these boxed features provide a close
look at a teacher’s instructional practice or efforts to address an individual student’s learning needs.
▪ A concluding chapter on “orchestration,” or putting it all together. In the final chapter of the book,
we provide an intimate view of the urban classroom of an exemplary first-grade teacher who
demonstrates many of the procedures, strategies, and ideals presented in the rest of the book. The
reader receives a valuable perspective on how a seasoned teacher makes decisions about classroom
climate, materials, and room arrangement, and how to best utilize the limited available instructional
time.
▪ Glossary. An extensive book-end glossary is included, allowing readers to review vocabulary they’ve
encountered throughout the text (key terms are bolded in text and appear in the book’s margins).
▪ Appendices. This valuable section of the text includes references for children’s literature by genre,
teacher resources for early literacy, a variety of literacy checklists and other informal assessment tools
24
for classroom use, and a list of widely used commercial evaluation instruments. An additional appendix
describes almost 100 websites of special interest to literacy teachers.
▪ Ancillaries. A PowerPoint presentation and an Instructor’s Manual are available to adopters of this
text. The Instructor’s Manual provides several valuable tools: each chapter offers a summary of key
concepts, a list of key vocabulary, suggestions for in-class discussions and activities, and a range of
assessment devices, including objective and subjective questions.
▪ A companion website and study guide: www.routledge.com/cw/cecil Available to students, this site
offers features such as chapter objectives, key concepts review, questions and projects, teaching
activities, and relevant website links.
25
Acknowledgments
many outstanding professionals, friends, family members, and former students have helped us bring this
vision to fruition. As before, we would like to thank the extraordinary primary teachers who graciously
allowed us to attend their classrooms and share the amazing ways they are balancing skills-based and holistic
instruction to teach children to joyfully read, write, and think. The voices of many of these fine teachers
permeate this book. We especially wish to thank Maria Ramon, Janet Rodgers, Rita Lehman, Linda Bernard,
and Maria Oropeza, the classroom teachers who allowed us to observe how they bring to life the concept of a
comprehensive literacy program. We also wish to extend a special thanks to the Phase I and II students in San
Juan Center for reading the manuscript and providing suggestions.
Present and prior reviewers of the manuscript offered critical feedback that we welcomed and incorporated
into the final book. We are grateful for their help. Our sincere thanks to Sherron Killingsworth Roberts,
University of Central Florida, for her insightful and constructive comments at various stages of the project’s
creation. We also want to thank the reviewers of this edition for their assistance: Marcie Belgard, Washington
State University–Tri-Cities; Krystal Bishop, Southern Adventist University; Linda Chapa, University of
Texas–Pan American; Maggie Chase, Boise State University; Carl Ferguson, California State University,
Monterey Bay; Jameha Gardner, Athens State University; Linda Jukes, St. Vincent College; Andrea Karlin,
Lamar University; Holly Lamb, Tarleton State University; Peggy Mason, Lakehead University; Rita
Meadows, The University of South Florida; Michael Mott, The University of Mississippi; Lynda Robinson,
Cameron University; Wilma Robles-Melendez, Nova Southeastern University; Jennifer Sennette, Texas A &
M–Commerce; Bweikia Steen, Trinity Washington University; and Margaret Voss Howard, Salem State
University.
Finally, our continued thanks to reviewers of earlier editions for their help: Merry Boggs, Maureen P. Boyd,
Pamela Campbell, Lois Catrambone, Jeanne Clidas, Deborah Farrer, E. Sutton Flynt, Kathy Froelich, Jesse
Gainer, Ingrid Graves, Dana L. Grisham, Stephanie A. Grote-Garcia, Susan Harnden, Jennifer Hathaway,
Bonnie Henderson, T. Tana Herchold, Barbara Hershberger, Anita Holmes, Dee Holmes, Jennifer Lee
Johnson, Timothy L. Krenzke, Stephen B. Kucer, Priscilla M. Leggett, Susan Davis Lenski, David Lund,
Linda Marriott, Patricia Mulligan, Edward T. Murray, Judy Naim, Angela Raines, Kathy Rosebrock, Laura
Schein, and Rebecca Swearingen.
During work on all editions of this book, everyone at Holcomb Hathaway, Publishers has been supportive
and helpful beyond words. Editor Colette Kelly shared our vision of a balanced, comprehensive literacy
program that creates readers who can read and who want to read.
From Nancy Cecil: I extend heartfelt gratitude to my husband, Gary, who was ever patient as I took time
away from him and family activities to write and edit this new edition. Without his unceasing love, support,
and unwavering belief in me, I would have given up long ago.
26
From Susan Baker: I am deeply grateful to Nancy Cecil for offering me this wonderful opportunity to learn
from her about literacy practices and to develop my knowledge of the field. I would also like to extend my
gratitude to my son, Max, for his patience while I worked on the revision of this book, and for his endless love
of reading, his thought-provoking ideas, and his frank advice about what works and what doesn’t in terms of
teaching a love for reading and writing.
From Albert Lozano: First and foremost I would like to thank Nancy Cecil for giving me the opportunity to
help with this edition. I’ve used this textbook since coming to Sacramento State and am honored to be able to
put my name on this latest edition. I would also like to thank my family and friends for their support while I
was working on this project. And finally, thanks to many of my former students who are now working as
classroom teachers: Much of what I’ve learned about good literacy practices comes from what they’ve taught
me.
27
About the Authors
NANCY LEE CECIL has had a rich and varied background in education, as an elementary school teacher
and a literacy specialist in New York, urban Savannah, Georgia, and in the public schools in the U.S. Virgin
Islands. As a result of these experiences, she is especially attuned to the needs of linguistically and culturally
diverse children. Cecil received her doctorate from the University of Buffalo and currently teaches in the
Department of Teacher Credentialing at California State University, Sacramento, where she was awarded the
prestigious Outstanding Educator Award. She has written nineteen books on literacy, most recently Phonemic
Awareness and Music: A Feast of Rhyme, Rhythm, and Song, and received the Teacher’s Choice award for an
earlier book, For the Love of Language: Poetry for All Learners. Cecil also has had many articles published in
major literacy journals. She has spoken about literacy to groups of educators on local, national, and
international levels.
SUE BAKER has taught in public schools at the kindergarten through high school levels in Soledad,
Watsonville, and Los Angeles, California; Arlington, Virginia; and Mexicali, Mexico. She has worked
primarily in bilingual settings with students who are English learners, and has taught literacy in English and
Spanish. Baker earned her doctorate from Stanford University and currently teaches in the Department of
Teacher Credentialing at California State University, Sacramento. Her research interests include the
development of biliteracy, the use of culturally sustaining pedagogy in teacher education, and the fostering of
teacher/parent relationships across social class, cultural, racial, and linguistic boundaries. She is currently the
Principal Investigator for the CSU, Sacramento branch of the California Reading and Literature Project.
ALBERT LOZANO has been a third-grade bilingual teacher in San Bernardino, and has a Bilingual
Crosscultural Language and Academic Development (BCLAD) credential and a Master of Arts degree from
California State University, San Bernardino, and a doctorate from Stanford University. He teaches courses on
elementary literacy, English language development (ELD), and specially designed academic instruction in
English (SDAIE) in the Department of Teacher Credentialing at CSU, Sacramento, as well as thesis writing
and education research in the Graduate and Professional Studies in Education program. His current research
focuses on the effectiveness of credential programs in preparing teachers to instruct English learners; fostering
the oral English proficiency of English learners; and helping to develop bilingualism/biliteracy.
28
A Child Learns to Read 1
PROCESS AND PRODUCT
29
focus questions
What are the fundamental processes of reading?
Why is it important for teachers in the field to understand all aspects of the reading process?
How is reading defined by researchers and practitioners in the field?
in the classroom
although this vignette is titled “In the Classroom,” in actuality the learning-to-read process begins long
before 4-year-old Lydia ever enters school. She has developed certain concepts about the function of
print from the numerous signs in her urban environment and by observing how readers in her home
interact with books, magazines, newspapers, and other reading material. For example, when she sees her
older brother scan the fast-food menu and then order a hamburger and fries, she is discovering that those
black squiggles carry meaning. When she asks her mother to write her name and her mother sounds it
out in front of her, she observes that words are composed of a string of letters and that those letters are
composed of sounds that hold meaning.
When she snuggles in her grandma’s lap and “reads” the fairy tale she has memorized after hearing it
nearly a hundred times, Lydia demonstrates her understanding that many words together can tell a story.
She asks for a second story and Grandma complies. She puts a chubby finger on the words as Grandma
says them. Lydia is again revealing her understanding of the matching of spoken and written word.
Lydia Knows A Lot About Reading, But Can She Actually Read?
30
WHAT IS READING?
at first glance, it would hardly seem worth the trouble to answer the basic question of what reading is
because, in a sense, everybody knows perfectly well what it is: most people do it in one form or another every
single day! Reading is:
▪ devouring a book from cover to cover.

▪ exploring the repair manual so you can fix your (car, computer, dishwasher).
▪ looking at a tweet.
▪ following a blog.
▪ discovering a message found floating in a bottle off the coast of Kauai.
But true definitions underlie all intellectual endeavors. Definitions contain assumptions that determine future
educational activities. In other words, what teachers do to teach beginning reading will be determined, in large
part, by what they believe reading is.
To define reading, we must know exactly what is involved in this activity that sets it apart from other
similar activities. It is not enough, for example, to define reading as “a thought-getting process,” because we
can get thoughts just as easily from a lecture, a conversation, or a film. To put it another way, there are many
similarities between reading a printed page (whether the printed page appears on paper or on an electronic
screen) of difficult text and hearing the same text read to us by another person. The issue of comprehension is
paramount for both reader and listener.
No one would deny that a major purpose of reading is to get information or enjoyment of some sort from
the written words. But since we get information in the same way from spoken words, the purpose of getting
information does not define reading in a way that distinguishes it from engaging in conversation. As soon as
we understand this point, the problem of definition begins to resolve itself. If we see that meaning is a
function of the relationship between the language and the receiver, we might then ask how the written words
(which we read) are related to the spoken words (which we hear). If a language composed of sounds carries
the meanings, then what is writing? Writing is a device, or a code, for representing the sounds of a language
in visual form. The written words of a language are, in fact, just symbols for the spoken words, which are
sounds.
So reading, then, becomes the process of turning these printed symbols back into sounds again whether or
not audible vocalization of the sounds actually occurs. The moment we say this, however, some reasonable
soul is bound to ask, anxiously, “But what about meaning? Can we propose to define reading as just
deciphering the words without regard to the meaning?”
The answer is yes, but only partly. Reading is, first of all, the mechanical skill of turning the printed
symbols into the sounds of our language. Of course, the reason we turn the printed words into sound—in
other words, the reason we read—is to get at the meaning. We decode the printed symbols to get what the
author is attempting to say, and then, more importantly, we make some meaningful connection to the world
as we know it (Pearson, 1993).
reading
31
But there is even more to it than that. Reading entails both reconstructing an author’s message and
constructing one’s own meaning using the words on the page as a stimulus. We can think of it as a
transaction, or an exchange, among the reader, the text, and the purposes and context of the reading situation.
A reader’s reconstruction of the ideas and information intended by the author is somewhat like a listener’s
reconstruction of ideas from the combination of sounds a speaker makes. An artist creates a masterpiece that
means one thing to him and a host of different things to different admirers of his piece. Likewise, the reader,
like the listener, may create meanings that are different from those intended by the author. What a reader
understands from the reconstructed and constructed meanings depends on that reader’s prior knowledge, prior
experiences, maturity, and proficiency in using language in differing social contexts (Afflerbach, Pearson, &
Paris, 2008).
In addition to these traditional descriptions of what reading is, other considerations arise from the
ubiquitous new technologies of the twenty-first century. Educators now talk about new literacies (Kist, 2005;
Kress, 2003) that consist of ways not only to read and write but also to view and visually represent texts in new
and exciting ways—especially texts related to technology. These texts are often in electronic rather than
conventional printed paper format and can be viewed on many devices, such as computers, mobile devices,
tablets/e-readers, and interactive whiteboards. They may also use a variety of enhancements, including video
and/or audio clips, computer graphics, and digital photos. This type of reading and writing has many unique
characteristics, including the way it is organized and discrete features that allow students to interact with the
text. These new literacies will require students to be proficient in the six language arts (reading, writing,
speaking, listening, viewing, and visually representing); in accessing and synthesizing information from a
variety of sources—especially the Internet; and in evaluating the information’s accuracy, relevance, and
authenticity (Castek, Bevans-Mangelson, & Goldstone, 2006).
new literacies
32
THEORIES OF READING ACQUISITION
two theories regarding how we learn to read are at the heart of the question about how reading should be
taught. Each of these theories offers us important insights about how students think about reading.
Nonstage Theory
The earlier theory is a nonstage theory, which holds that unskilled and skilled readers essentially use the same
strategies to figure out unknown words. This theory, revisited by Goodman in 1997, posits that readers use
predictions based on the context of sentences, as well as the letter-sound correspondence, to determine
unknown words. They depend mostly, however, on the grammar (syntax) and semantics (underlying meaning)
to decipher the message. In this process, the reader uses strategies to sample and select from the information
in the text, makes predictions, draws inferences, confirms or rejects, and regresses when necessary to make
corrections in reading. Visual and aural features of the words—the graphophonic information—are usedas
necessary. Such a theory suggests that certain apparent “errors” that studentsmake while reading, such as
saying the word dad for the key word father, offer observers an actual “window into the child’s brain”; such
miscues are not errors at all, according to the theory, but merely deviations from text, occurring because the
child is trying to make sense of print.
nonstage theory
graphophonic information
miscues
Stage Theory
A seminal study by Juel (1988) indicated that unskilled and skilled readers use different strategies to unlock or
decipher unknown words. Unskilled readers become “stuck” with strategies such as guessing or trying to
memorize every new word and therefore are not as successful as learners who have internalized a wide range of
helpful strategies. The stage theory holds that children go through three stages in acquiring literacy: During
the first stage, the selective cue stage, children might use only the context of surrounding words and illustrations
to predict possible meaning for unknown words or might focus on limited components of words to decode
them; for example, recognizing only the first and last letters in words. At the second stage, the spelling-sound
stage, they listen for known sounds and letters to determine the meaning of new words. When children have
arrived at the final stage, called the automatic stage, they have reached the fluent or automatic level of reading.
At this sophisticated stage, they almost subconsciously scan every feature of a word and compare it
instantaneously to patterns with which they are familiar. Very little mental effort needs to be directed toward
decoding unknown words, and most of the reader’s attention can be focused on obtaining personal meaning
from text.
stage theory
33
34
CUEING SYSTEMS
perhaps in an attempt to better understand just how literacy happens, some researchers then suggested that
four systems make communication possible: (1) the grapho-phonological system, (2) the syntactic system, (3)
the semantic sys-tem, and (4) the pragmatic system. Skilled readers must use all four systems at once as they
read, write, listen, and speak (Clay, 1991). These cueing systems help children create meaning by using
language in a way that most English speakers accept as “standard.” Effective teachers of beginning literacy are
aware of these systems and model and support students’ use of them in all areas of communication. The four
cueing systems are described briefly in the following sections.
cueing systems
The Grapho-Phonological System
There are roughly 44 to 48 sounds (or phonemes) in the English language, and children learn to pronounce
these sounds in many different combinations as they begin to speak. Teachers support experimentation with
how these sounds cor-respond to letters (graphemes) by teaching children how to use temporary or
experimental spellings to sound out words; modeling how to pronounce words; calling attention to rhyming
words and alliterations; and directly teaching other decoding skills, such as showing how to divide words into
syllables. For example, by pointing out the rhyme scheme in “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star,” the teacher
shows children how the words are and star have similar ending sounds but different beginning sounds.
phonemes
graphemes
The Syntactic (Sound Stream of Language) System
The syntactic system, which includes but is not limited to grammar, governs how a language is structured or
how words are combined into sentences. Teachers support this cueing system by showing students how to
combine sentences; add affixes to root words; use punctuation and inflectional endings; and write simple,
compound, and complex sentences. To begin, a teacher might use the nonsensical group of words, “boy fell
the down,” to show students the importance of order in language. Further, a teacher might show students how
to combine the two sentences “The boy fell down” and “The boy was not watching where he was going” to
become “The boy fell down because he was not watching where he was going.”
The Semantic System
The major components of the semantic system are meaning-making and vocabulary. An even smaller unit of
meaning-making is the morpheme, the smallest unit of meaning in English words, highlighted when we use
the s to make cats plural, or the prefix re to make do into redo. Teachers support the semantic system by
providing meaningful literature and relevant reading topics; focusing students’ attention on the meanings of
words; discussing multiple meanings of words; and introducing synonyms, antonyms, and homonyms. For
35
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no related content on Scribd:
Standard Table of Weights and Measures
All measurements are made level.
A teaspoon of regulation size holds sixty drops.
Three teaspoons of liquid equal one tablespoon.
Four tablespoons of liquid equal one-half gill or one-quarter cup.
Two gills equal one cup.
Two cups equal one pint.
Two pints (four cups) equal one quart.
Four cups of liquid equal one quart.
Four cups of flour equal one pound or one quart.
Two cups of butter packed solidly equal one pound.
One-half cup of butter packed solidly equals one-quarter pound, or
four ounces.
Two cups granulated sugar equal one pound.
Two and one-half cups powdered sugar equal one pound.
Two cups of milk or water equal one pound.
Two cups chopped meat packed solidly equal one pound.
Nine to ten eggs (without shells) equal one pound.
Two tablespoons butter (solid and level) equal one ounce.
Four tablespoons butter (solid and level) equal two ounces, or
one-quarter cup.
Two tablespoons granulated sugar equal one ounce.
Four tablespoons flour equal one ounce.
Four tablespoons coffee equal one ounce.
One tablespoon liquid equals one-half ounce.
Tbsp.—Tablespoon.
Tsp.—Teaspoon.
F. G.—Few grains.
The Refrigerator
For the preservation of food before cooking, and for the left-overs
after a meal, there is no appliance placed in the home that is of so
much importance as the refrigerator. It should be a McCray
Refrigerator, a perfectly beautiful, practical, convenient and entirely
sanitary accession to the needs of the kitchen, the chief essential of
its furnishings. It should be large and well adapted to the wants and
necessities of the household, with an ice capacity of at least one
hundred pounds. It is the best made refrigerator, offered for sale and
for the consumers comfort, in the world to-day. When planning your
kitchen, be sure you have a place, well-selected, for one of these
refrigerators. Its drain pipes should never be connected directly with
the sewer, and if possible locate it so that the ice compartment may
be reached from the outside from a rear porch—that is opening out
of doors. This will save much annoyance from the iceman, with
soiled shoes, trailing dripping ice across the clean kitchen floor. The
refrigerator should be easy of access for the cook, for plain as well
as fancy cooking, demands many steps. Much time and energy is
saved by a little judicious planning in locating the kitchen appliances.
Remember the old adage, “Let your head save your heels.”
Care of the Refrigerator

In giving the proper attention to the care of the refrigerator, there
are three very essential points to observe; the first, and most
important, the location of the refrigerator, then the waste pipe, and
last but not least a full supply of ice. If economy is an item in the
management of the house, then special attention will be given the
place in which refrigerator is placed—a cool, dry, well ventilated
room, conveniently near the kitchen that steps may be saved and
where the direct rays of the sun do not fall on it, and where the
iceman can gain access to it without “tracking up” the
kitchen with his soiled shoes.
The compartments in which the food is kept
should be wiped out carefully once a week. If
anything is spilled within the refrigerator it should be
removed immediately. All crumbs, drops of liquid or
small particles of food should be carefully and
instantly removed.
Once a week the supply of ice may be allowed to
run low; the ice may then be removed and the ice
chamber thoroughly washed, the rack upon which
the ice stands washed and rinsed with a solution of
sal soda, the drain pipe and the trap also thoroughly
swabbed out with a brush attached to a long wire
handle, made for this purpose. Pour the solution
through the drain pipe as far as it can be reached
and then rinse with clear boiling water.
The ice compartment should be kept filled with
ice. A large piece of ice keeps better than a small
one and insures much better circulation of air. The
door to the ice compartment should be kept tightly
closed at all times save when it is being filled with
BRUSH FOR
REFRIGERATOR
ice. The fact is that all the doors should be opened
DRAIN PIPE and closed as quickly as possible.
The most scrupulous cleanliness in all its parts
should be found in the refrigerator. Food such as meat, potatoes,
etc. should never be laid on the shelves of the refrigerator, and the
habit of filling the ice chamber with meat, fish, fowl and vegetables is
most unsanitary and unhealthful.
The Care of Food in the Refrigerator

When the food is placed on the table in the kitchen by the
tradesman, the care of it at once falls upon the one who is in charge
of the household and she must know just how to take care of each
article.
All meat should be removed from the paper at once; wiped with a
piece of cheese cloth wrung from cold water, placed on a plate,
another plate turned over it and placed in the position indicated, in
frontispiece, on page 2. The butter should be put in a jar, covered
and placed on the shelf of the refrigerator immediately under the ice
chamber. A space should be left on this shelf for eggs, milk and
cream. Cheese should be removed from the manilla paper leaving it
wrapped in the wax paper, and placed in a covered vessel in the
refrigerator. The care of vegetables, fruits, meats, fish, etc., follows
hereinafter.
Left-Over Meats
Beef Croquettes
1¾ cups finely chopped left-over roast beef or steak.
¾ teaspoon salt.
¼ teaspoon pepper.
1 tablespoon Worcestershire Sauce.
Few drops onion juice.
1 teaspoon finely chopped parsley.
Brown sauce.
Process: Remove all fat and gristle from cold roast beef or steak.
Chop fine and add ingredients in the order given, moisten with thick
Brown Sauce (made by increasing the quantity of flour called for in
the recipe for Brown Sauce to half cup). Shape in cones, drip in
crumbs, egg and crumbs and fry in deep hot fat. Serve with Brown,
Tomato, or Creole Sauce.
Left-Over Roast Beef—Mexican Style

1 onion finely chopped.
2 tablespoons butter.
1 red pepper shredded.
1 green pepper shredded.
1 clove garlic finely chopped.
1 cup tomato pulp.
¼ teaspoon celery salt.
Few drops Tobasco Sauce.
Thinly sliced cold roast beef.
Process: Cook onion in butter five minutes; cut peppers in thin
shreds with the shears. Add to onion. Add garlic and tomato pulp.
Simmer fifteen minutes. Add Worcestershire Sauce, celery salt and
Tobasco. Salt to taste. Cut cold roast beef in thin slices and re-heat
in sauce. Serve with baked potatoes on the half-shell.
Delicious Beef Pie

Line the bottom and sides of a well buttered baking dish with hot,
highly seasoned mashed potatoes, to which add two tablespoons
finely chopped onion or chives; over this, place a thick layer of left-
over roast beef cut in small pieces; season with salt, pepper, onion
juice, one tablespoon Worcestershire Sauce, moisten with Brown
Sauce and cover with a layer of potato mixture, ornament rim of dish
with some of the mixture forced through a pastry bag and star tube.
Brush over lightly with beaten egg. Bake in a hot oven until mixture is
thoroughly heated and potato is delicately browned.
Cecils with Brown Sauce

1 cup left-over roast beef or finely chopped rare steak.
2 tablespoons fine bread crumbs.
1 tablespoon cream or melted butter.
Yolk one egg, slightly beaten.
Salt, pepper and onion juice.
Process: Add seasonings to beef; add bread crumbs, cream or

butter and beaten egg yolks; shape in small balls the size of an
English walnut, roll in flour, egg and crumbs, and fry in deep hot fat,
drain on brown paper. Arrange in a pyramid on a hot platter and
serve with Brown or Tomato Sauce.
Beef Cutlets
Chop the flank end of the
porterhouse steak very fine, first
removing superfluous fat. Season
meat with salt, two or three drops
Tobasco Sauce, onion piece and
Worcestershire Sauce to taste.
Shape into cutlets about three-
Beef Cutlets fourths of an inch thick; dip in egg,
then in crumbs and fry in deep hot
fat five minutes. Do not brown them too quickly. Dispose them
around a mound of hot riced potato or well seasoned boiled rice.
Beef-Steak Pie
Cut left-over cold broiled steak or remnants of cold roast beef in
one-half inch pieces. Cover with hot stock or water, add one small
onion and simmer slowly until meat is tender. (About one hour).
Remove onion and thicken stock with flour diluted with cold water.
Season highly with salt and pepper. Add potatoes cut in one inch
cubes and previously parboil ten minutes in boiling salted water. Put
into a buttered baking-dish and cool; cover with a crust made of
biscuit dough, rolled one-fourth inch thick. Make three incisions in
top of pie. Bake twenty-five minutes in a hot oven. The top may be
brushed over with the white of an egg diluted with two tablespoons
milk five minutes before removing from oven.
Creole Croquettes
Chop the flank ends of the porter-house steak fine (there should
be one cup packed solidly). Add one-fourth cup uncooked rice,
season highly with salt, pepper and a few grains of cayenne. Wrap
one rounded tablespoon of this mixture in cabbage leaves which
have been previously parboiled two minutes. Simmer one hour in
Tomato Sauce, basting three or four times. Cover closely while
cooking.
Corned Beef au Gratin
2 cups cold left-over corned beef cut in small dice.
2 slices onion.
1 cup celery, coarse stalks and leaves cut in pieces.
4 tablespoons flour.
2 cups milk.
¼ teaspoon paprika.
¾ cup buttered crumbs.
Process: Scald milk with onions and celery. Melt butter in sauce-
pan, add flour and stir to a smooth paste. Strain celery and onion
from milk; add milk to butter, and flour gradually while stirring
constantly, season with salt if necessary, add paprika and bring to
boiling point. Add corned beef; mix well and turn into a buttered
baking dish. Cover with buttered crumbs. Bake in hot oven until
mixture is heated through and crumbs are browned.
Corned Beef Hash

2 cups cooked corned beef, chopped moderately.
2 cups cold cooked potatoes, chopped moderately.
Salt, pepper and clove garlic.
Cream, milk or stock.
Process: Remove all gristle, fat and stringy parts from meat.
Chop with chopping knife in bowl. Mix well with chopped potatoes,
season highly with salt, pepper, and moisten with milk, cream or
stock. Melt butter in spider, when hot turn in mixture and spread
evenly. Place clove of garlic in centre; let cook slowly until well-
browned underneath, remove garlic and fold as an omelet on to a
hot serving platter. Serve with Hollandaise Sauce. Garlic may be
omitted.
Breaded Tongue with Tomato Sauce
Cut the tip end of the cold boiled tongue in one-fourth inch slices,
sprinkle them with salt and pepper, dip them in egg, then in fine
bread crumbs; repeat, saute them in butter and arrange them on a
hot serving platter, pour over Tomato Sauce.
Casserole Rice with Veal

Butter a two-quart brick-shape mould, line it with hot boiled rice to
three-fourth inch thickness. It would require one and one-half to two
cups of rice boiled, to line and cover the mold. To one cup of cold,
cooked veal finely chopped and packed solidly, add one egg, slightly
beaten, two tablespoons cracker-meal and sufficient Sauce Veloute
to moisten mixture. Season highly with salt, pepper, lemon-juice, and
one-half teaspoon parsley, finely chopped. Pack meat mixture in
centre of lined mold, cover with rice, place cover well-buttered on
mold and steam thirty-five minutes. Unmold on hot serving platter,
sprinkle with paprika and pour around Tomato or Creole Sauce.
Veal Croquettes.
2 cups cooked veal finely chopped.
½ teaspoon salt.
⅛ teaspoon pepper.
Few grains cayenne.
Yolk of one egg.
1 cup thick Veloute Sauce.
Process: Mix the ingredients in the order given; moisten with

sauce. Spread mixture on a plate to cool. Shape, crumb and fry as
other croquettes. Serve with Creole Sauce.
Blanquette of Veal
Cut cold roast veal in small strips. (There should be two cups).
Prepare one and one-half cups of Sauce Veloute, add meat, bring to
boiling point and serve in a potato or rice border, sprinkle with finely
chopped chives or parsley.
Minced Veal
Prepare same as Minced Lamb and serve on toast; garnish with
half a broiled tomato placed on each portion.
Ragout of Veal
Prepare a Brown Mushroom Sauce, omit the lemon juice and add
one tablespoon Worcestershire Sauce, a few drops onion juice and
one-fourth teaspoon paprika. Re-heat thoroughly two cups cold roast
veal, cut in one inch cubes, in sauce; serve in a rice or hot mashed
potato border. If the latter is used, pass the potato mixture through
the pastry bag and star tube. Sprinkle border with paprika.
Mutton with Currant Jelly Sauce

2½ tablespoons flour.
¼ teaspoon salt.
1 cup Brown Stock.
5½ tablespoons currant or wild plum jelly.
2 tablespoons sherry wine.
8 slices cold cooked mutton.
Process: Melt butter and brown richly in a sauce-pan, add flour

and continue browning, add seasoning and stock slowly, stirring
constantly; beat the jelly with a fork and add to sauce; when melted
add mutton, simmer gently until mutton is heated thoroughly, add
wine. Dispose mutton on a platter and pour over sauce. Left-over
gravy may be used instead of making Brown Sauce.
Minced Mutton on Toast

2 cups minced left-over mutton.
6 yolks hard boiled eggs.
½ teaspoon mustard.
½ teaspoon salt.
Few grains cayenne.
1 tablespoon butter.
1 cup thin cream or milk.
4 tablespoons sherry wine.
Process: Rub the yolks through a sieve and add seasoning. Add
mutton, finely minced, and cream. Melt butter in a sauce-pan, add
mixture and when thoroughly heated add wine. Serve on toast. Lamb
may be used in place of mutton.
Salmi of Mutton
Cut cold roast mutton in thin uniform slices. Cook two tablespoons
butter with one slice onion, finely chopped, five minutes. Add mutton,
sprinkle with salt, pepper, and pour over Brown Mushroom Sauce, to
which add one tablespoon Worcestershire Sauce. Simmer until
heated throughout. Arrange slices of meat over-lapping one another
around a pyramid of fried potato balls; pour around sauce; garnish
with toast tri-angles. Lamb, veal, duck or game may be served in this
manner.
Lamb Croquettes
1 cup cold cooked lamb finely chopped.
¼ cup cold boiled potatoes finely chopped.
1 slice onion finely chopped.
1 cup stock.
1 teaspoon parsley finely chopped.
Salt and pepper.
Left-over peas.
Process: Cook onion in butter five minutes; remove onion. Add

flour and stir to a smooth paste, add stock gradually, stirring
constantly; add meat, potato, salt and pepper; simmer gently until
meat and potato is blended with sauce. Spread mixture on a plate to
cool. Divide the mixture into equal parts (this mixture will make about
seven croquettes).
Take up a portion of the mixture and make a depression in centre,
put in a teaspoon of left-over cream peas, enclose peas carefully,
shape, dip in crumbs, eggs and crumbs again. Fry in deep hot fat.
Drain on brown paper and serve with Sauce Bearnaise.
Left-over Roast Pork Croquettes

Prepare a thick White Sauce and season it delicately with a very
little sage. Add one and one-half cups of finely chopped cold roast
pork. Season with salt, pepper and a few drops onion juice. Add one-
half teaspoon finely chopped parsley. Spread mixture on plate to
cool. Shape; roll in crumbs, egg and crumbs, and fry in deep hot fat.
Arrange in a pyramid on hot serving platter, surround with baked
apples. Pass “Sauce Soubise.”
Left-Over Poultry
Chicken Croquettes
2 cups cold cooked fowl chopped fine.
½ cup English walnut meats chopped
moderately.
½ teaspoon salt.
Few grains cayenne.
Slight grating nutmeg.
1 teaspoon lemon juice.
¾ cup thick White Sauce.
Bread crumbs.
Process: Mix the ingredients

in the order given; after adding the
sauce let mixture cool. Mold in
cork shape croquettes, roll in fine
bread crumbs, dip in egg (diluted
with cold water in the proportion of
two tablespoons water to each
egg slightly beaten), then in
Chicken Croquettes crumbs again. Fry in deep hot fat.
Drain on brown paper and serve
with Supreme Sauce.
Chicken and Mushroom Croquettes

Prepare mixture as for Chicken Croquettes No. 1. Add one-half
cup finely chopped mushrooms. Shape, egg and crumb, and fry as
other croquettes. Serve with a Brown Mushroom Sauce.
Cream Chicken with Green Peppers and

Mushrooms
Add to one and one-half cups of white Bechamel Sauce one and
one-half cups of cold cooked chicken cut in one-third inch cubes,
one-half cup mushrooms and one green bell pepper, previously
cooked ten minutes, the seeds removed and the pepper cut in
shreds with the shears. Serve in croustades of bread.
Scalloped Chicken
Butter a baking dish well. Arrange alternate layers of cold, cooked
chicken or turkey cut in small thin slices and boiled rice or spaghetti.
Pour over giblet, White, Brown or Tomato Sauce. Cover with
buttered crumbs, garnish with toast-points and bake in the oven until
mixture is thoroughly heated and crumbs are brown.
Chicken Chartreuse
Follow recipe for Casserole of rice with Veal, using chicken
instead of veal. Season chicken highly with salt, pepper, celery-salt,
onion juice and one teaspoon finely chopped parsley. Moisten
mixture with Cream Sauce, using half cup chicken stock and half cup
hot thin cream. Unmold on hot platter and serve with Cream Sauce.
Chicken Timbales
¼ cup stale bread crumbs.
⅔ cup milk.
1 cup finely minced cooked chicken.
½ tablespoon finely chopped parsley.
2 eggs.
Few drops onion-juice.
Salt and pepper.
Process: Melt butter in a sauce-pan, add bread crumbs and milk,

cook five minutes. Add chicken, parsley, and eggs slightly beaten,
season with salt, pepper and onion juice. Turn mixture into buttered
timbale molds, set molds in a pan of hot water and cover them with a
buttered paper. Bake twenty minutes. Turn from molds on serving
platter and serve with Celery Sauce.
Chicken a la Bechamel
1½ cups cold cooked chicken cut in
one-third inch cubes.
1 cup Sauce Bechamel.
⅛ teaspoon celery salt.
½ teaspoon finely chopped parsley.
Process: Add parsley and celery salt to sauce; add chicken and
simmer gently until chicken is thoroughly heated. Omit the yolks of
eggs when making the sauce for this purpose.
Chicken Souffle
2 cups scalded milk.
½ teaspoon salt.
½ teaspoon celery salt.
⅓ cup fine soft bread crumbs.
2 cups left-over cooked fowl or
chicken, chopped very fine.
Yolks of four eggs well beaten.
2 teaspoons finely chopped parsley.
Whites four eggs beaten stiff and dry.
Process: Melt butter in sauce-pan, add flour mixed with

seasonings, stir to a smooth paste; add milk gradually, beating
constantly, add bread crumbs and cook three minutes; remove from
range; add chicken, yolks of eggs and parsley, cut and fold in the
whites of eggs. Turn mixture into a well-buttered baking dish and
bake thirty-five minutes in a moderate oven. Serve with Cream,
Bechamel or Supreme Sauce. Left-over turkey or veal may be used
instead of chicken.
Salmi of Duck with Green Peas

Cut four slices of bacon crosswise in shreds, with shears. Saute
in spider, add one tablespoon finely chopped onion; when lightly
browned add four and one-half tablespoons flour, continue browning;
add slowly one and one-half cups brown stock, add sprig of mint and
let simmer five minutes; then add one and one-half cups cold roast
duck, cut in small pieces, and one-half cup left-over peas (if there is
a cup of peas add them), let simmer gently until ingredients are
heated through. Remove the mint and season with salt and pepper.
Serve on toast.
Chicken and Oysters a la Seville

½ teaspoon salt.
1 cup hot milk.
¾ cup oyster liquor.
2 cups cold cooked chicken cut in one-half inch cubes.
2 cups oysters.
Patty shells.
Process: Melt butter in a sauce-pan, add flour and seasonings;

stir to a smooth past. Pour on slowly, while stirring briskly, hot milk
and strained oyster liquor. Re-heat chicken in sauce. Plump oysters
in their own liquor; drain and add oysters to chicken. Serve in patty
shells or croustades of bread.
Mock Terrapin
2 cups cold cooked chicken cut in small cubes.
1 cup White Sauce No. 2.
2 hard-boiled eggs.
Few grains nutmeg.
¼ cup sherry wine.
Salt, pepper and a few grains cayenne.
Process: Add chicken to sauce, rub the yolks of eggs through a

sieve; add to first mixture. Add whites of eggs finely chopped.
Season with salt, pepper and cayenne, simmer four minutes and add
sherry. Turn into deep dish, garnish with triangles of toast or puff
paste points.
Left-Over Chicken with Poached Eggs

2 cups cold cooked chicken chopped moderately.
1 slice carrot.
1 slice onion.
1 spray parsley.
1 cup chicken stock or milk.
Salt, pepper and celery salt.
5 eggs.
¾ cup buttered cracker crumbs.
Process: Melt butter in a sauce-pan, add vegetables and cook
five minutes, add flour and stock or milk slowly, stirring constantly.
Strain sauce and add chicken and seasonings. Spread mixture on a
buttered platter and sprinkle with cracker crumbs. Make five small
nests in mixture and into each slip an egg; cover eggs with cracker
crumbs and bake in a moderate oven until eggs are cooked.
Minced Turkey with Poached Eggs

To one cup of cold roast turkey, chopped moderately, add one-half
cup of stuffing finely chopped. Moisten with a sauce made by melting
two tablespoons butter in a sauce-pan, brown well, add two and one-
half teaspoons flour, continue browning. Add one cup of stock (made
by cooking skin and bones of a roast turkey), season with salt,
pepper and onion juice. Re-heat turkey and stuffing in sauce. Serve
on circles of toast with a poached egg placed in centre of each;
garnish with sprays of parsley.
Left-Over Fish
A Simple Luncheon Dish

Mix one cup of left-over flaked fish with three “hard boiled” eggs,
chopped fine, and one-half teaspoon finely chopped parsley. Re-heat
in one and one-half cups, thin White Sauce. Serve in a border of hot
riced potato or steamed rice. Sprinkle all with paprika.
Fish Hash
Mix well two cups each of cold cooked fish, flaked, and cold
boiled potatoes, finely chopped. Season well with salt, pepper and
one teaspoon finely chopped parsley. Fry out salt pork cut in small
dice. (There should be about four tablespoons fat.) Remove scraps,
add fish and potatoes. Stir until mixture is well mixed with fat and
thoroughly heated through. Cook until hash is well browned
underneath; fold as an omelet and turn on a hot platter. Serve with
Cream or Tomato Sauce. Garnish with parsley and slices of lemon.
Fish Cakes
(Made of Remnants of any Fresh Fish)
Press hot boiled potatoes through a ricer. (There should be two

cups). Season with salt, pepper, two tablespoons butter and one egg
beaten light. Beat mixture thoroughly and add an equal quantity left-
over cooked fish, flaked. Moisten slightly with Cream Sauce. Shape
into round flat cakes. Saute in hot bacon fat. Drain cakes on brown
paper, first on one side, then on the other; a poached egg may be
served on top of each cake. Garnish with crisp bacon and parsley.
Left-over Fish en Casserole
Line a brick-shaped mold with well seasoned hot steamed rice, to
the depth of three-fourth inch. Fill centre with remnants of cold boiled
or baked fish, flaked, and seasoned with salt, pepper and slightly
moistened with thin White Sauce. Cover with rice, place cover on
mold and steam thirty-five minutes. Turn on a hot platter and serve
with Egg Sauce. Sprinkle all with finely chopped parsley. A granite
brick-shape bread pan may be used as a substitute for covered
mold, covered with a buttered paper, butter side next to rice; tie the
paper on with twine.
Fish Croquettes
2 cups cold cooked fish.
¾ cup thick White Sauce.
½ teaspoon salt.
½ teaspoon finely chopped parsley.
1 teaspoon lemon juice.
Process: Flake fish with a silver fork. Add seasonings and

sauce; spread on plate to cool. Shape, and roll in cracker crumbs,
egg and crumbs, and fry in deep hot fat; drain on brown paper. Serve
with Egg, Hollandaise, or Tartare Sauce. Garnish with sliced lemon
and parsley.
Turban of Fish
2½ cups cold baked or boiled fish.
1½ cups scalded milk.
1 slice onion.
1 blade mace or a few grains nutmeg.
1 spray parsley.

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Striking a Balance: A Comprehensive

Approach to Early Literacy 5th Edition,

(eBook PDF) Labor Relations: Striking a Balance 6th

Dental Assisting: A Comprehensive Approach Donna J.

Early Literacy in Preschool and Kindergarten: A

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12 Literacy and Technology in a Balanced Classroom

13 Assessment of Early Literacy Development

15 The Early Literacy Classroom

About the Authors

1 A Child Learns to Read

2 A Quest for Balance

5 Phonics, Sight Vocabulary and Fluency

7 Acquiring Word Meanings

10 Informational Text in the Classroom

11 Large- and Small-Group Reading Strategies

12 Literacy and Technology in a Balanced Classroom

13 Assessment of Early Literacy Development

15 The Early Literacy Classroom

A Children’s Literature Resources

B Recommended Books for Teachers

C Websites for Early Literacy

D Commercial Assessment Instruments

E Informal Checklists and Assessment Devices

F Rimes and Common Words Containing Them

G Fry’s List of “Instant Words”

H Phonics Terms and Orthography Chart

5 Phonics, Sight Vocabulary and Fluency

Spelling in Parts (SIP)

7 Acquiring Word Meanings

A Simple Literacy Scaffold

10 Informational Text in the Classroom

12 Literacy and Technology in a Balanced Classroom

What are the fundamental processes of reading?

How is reading defined by researchers and practitioners in the field?

▪ devouring a book from cover to cover.

The Grapho-Phonological System

The Syntactic (Sound Stream of Language) System

The Semantic System

Care of the Refrigerator

The Care of Food in the Refrigerator

Left-Over Roast Beef—Mexican Style

Delicious Beef Pie

Cecils with Brown Sauce

Process: Add seasonings to beef; add bread crumbs, cream or

Corned Beef Hash

Casserole Rice with Veal

Process: Mix the ingredients in the order given; moisten with

Mutton with Currant Jelly Sauce

Process: Melt butter and brown richly in a sauce-pan, add flour

Minced Mutton on Toast

Process: Cook onion in butter five minutes; remove onion. Add

Left-over Roast Pork Croquettes

Process: Mix the ingredients

Chicken and Mushroom Croquettes

Cream Chicken with Green Peppers and

Process: Melt butter in a sauce-pan, add bread crumbs and milk,

Process: Melt butter in sauce-pan, add flour mixed with

Salmi of Duck with Green Peas