Chapter 1

Introduction
to Underbalanced
Drilling Operations
 Advanced Underbalanced Well Operations and Pressure Control

Introduction should resist collapse. Also, the hydrostatic pressure of the

drilling fluid is maintained at a value lower than the formation
Underbalanced drilling (UBD) has been employed for pressure, therefore the primary barriers for controlling the
many years in certain areas to improve drilling efficiency and well is the surface handling system-Rotating Control Head
eliminate specific drilling problems. Recent advances in UBD (RCH) & choke. The BOPs are still regarded as secondary
technology have demonstrated that a properly designed barriers. The surface system is closed for safety and
underbalanced well can be drilled through production environmental protection. Underbalanced systems are
intervals while causing minimum damage to the target controlled dynamically. Control
formation. For this reason, there of the bottom hole pressure is
has been a dramatic increase maintained with a combination
in underbalanced drilling. This of hydrostatic pressure, frictional
increase in UBD operations has pressure, and surface pressure.
in turn heightened concerns Near-balanced drilling is
over the development and similar to UBD with regard
implementation of proper safety to equipment and technique.
standards. Near-balanced drilling removes
The IADC Underbalanced conventional hydrostatic
Committee was formed to safety margins and attempts to
address concerns about counterbalance the formation
training, equipment design, pressure with the equivalent
and specifications for UBD circulating density (ECD) of
operations. Well control is the drilling fluid. The pressure
a major issue addressed by differential in the well is
the committee. Techniques maintained close to zero and the
for handling UBD kicks are system is designed so that no
fundamentally different from formation fluids are circulated to
Figure 1: Overbalanced conventional well control. For the surface. Figure 2: Underbalanced
well this reason, the committee has well
The major difference
set criteria for well control training between drilling overbalanced
and certification of personnel for underbalanced operations. and near-balanced is that the near-balanced system can
Conventional or overbalanced drilling is defined handle produced fluids at the surface as a kick control
as drilling when the working fluid exerts a hydrostatic system rather than shutting in the well.
pressure equal to or greater than the formation pressure.
In conventional drilling the density of the drilling fluid is the
primary barrier that controls the formation. Conventional The BOP Stack
systems are designed to control wells in a static condition.
Both conventional and underbalanced operations use
Although friction is generated while fluid is being circulated,
the blowout preventer system as the secondary barrier
the resulting friction pressure is not considered a means of
for controlling a well and the equipment is similar for both
pressure control. Formation fluids should not flow into the
operations. The BOP stack in both systems consists of at
wellbore. The surface handling system is open during drilling
least one annular preventer and a series of ram preventers
operations and therefore is not a barrier. If an accidental
that can be closed in the event of a well control incident. The
inflow of formation fluid occurs, blowout preventers (BOPs),
most visible difference between a conventional BOP stack
which are the secondary barriers, are used to control the
and an underbalanced BOP stack is the use of a rotating
well.
diverter for underbalanced operations. The rotating diverter
Underbalanced drilling refers to drilling operations in
seals around the drill pipe and allows continuous circulation
which the annular bottomhole pressure while circulating
while maintaining pressure on the annulus. Most rotating
exerted by the drilling fluid is less than the pore pressure
diverters are not considered blowout preventers. The design
of the formation being drilled. When underbalanced
and configurations of BOPS for a conventional drilling
conditions are maintained while drilling, formation fluids
operation is based on several factors including:
enter the well when a permeable formation is penetrated,
• Anticipated Surface pressures,
resulting in production during drilling. The drilling rig and
• Casing design,
equipment must be equipped to handle production at the
• Rig design,
surface. Since the formation pressure exceeds the drilling
• Content of produced fluids,
fluid pressure, the wellbore must be self-supporting, i.e., it

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 Chapter 1: Introduction to Underbalanced Drilling Operations
• Mud properties,
• Regulatory Requirements.
Figure 3: BOP stack
Although the stack used during UBD operations is much
the same, the application, requirements, and configuration
is altered to accommodate the various activities specific
for UBD operations. BOP stack configuration for UBD
operations is based on the following factors:
• Maximum anticipated surface pressure,
• Layout of rig substructure or platform to
accommodate the stack,
• Composition of produced fluid (i.e. H2S, CO2,
aromatics, etc.),
• Additional hardware components to be run in the
well after drilling,
• Regulatory requirements.
The working pressure of the UBD BOP stack should
be rated to the maximum anticipated surface pressure as a
minimum. When most operators design BOP stacks for UBD
operations (critical wells) they divide the design criteria into
two categories:
1) conventional components for well control only and,
2) components used for both well control and UBD
normal operations.
This separation of roles ensures that the quality
of equipment used for secondary well control is not
compromised by over-use in normal UBD operations.
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The total effect of this division is not fully realized until the
operational procedures are developed.
Well planners must consider equipment deployment
procedures in an attempt to identify conflicts that arise due
to this division of equipment usage.
Another key design point is that most rotating control
heads, with the exception of the Shaffer PCWD, are not API
certified annular preventers. Often it becomes essential to
reduce BOP component height if possible. Some operators
elect to remove the conventional annular preventer and
use the control head as a substitute. This is not good
design practice, as it reduces the redundancy required for
emergency well control situations.
For most underbalanced operations the number of rams
used is the same as for conventional operations; however,
layout of the rams requires special consideration. The
placement of the blind rams should be considered within the
overall operational plan. The blind rams will be the wellbore
isolation valve when the drill string is out of the hole, unless
a down hole isolation valve is employed. If height allows,
consideration should be made to use an additional blind
ram that is placed directly above the wellhead. This will give
additional lubrication height to get the bottom hole assembly
into and out of the hole. All UBD BOP systems should have
an equalizing line that connects the primary flow line and the
lowest BOP.
If it is desirable to flow the well when drill pipe is out of
the hole (to reduce surface pressure or to perform a flow
test), a mud cross should be placed below the blind rams.
If constrained by the equipment division noted above, two
blind rams may be needed to meet the requirements, one for
routine UBD operations, and one for well control.
If the well site is near public areas, a slotted liner or
expandable sand screen is to be run or if H2S is a concern,
the use of blind shear rams should be considered. Many of
the heavy wall drill strings used today are too thick to allow
shearing. The operator must know the limitations of the rams
employed. Once the drill string has been chosen, consult the
BOP manufacturer with regards to shearing capability. The
shear rams must also be able to shear the slotted liner or
expandable sand screen to be run.
Drilling BOPs are not designed for sustained production.
BOPs for UBD operations should be evaluated for seals
and elastomers to assure they are suitable for service.
In addition, most BOPs used for conventional drilling are
seldom tested with gas. It is suggested that the BOP stack
and rigs injection manifold be tested with gas prior to
commencing underbalanced operations, especially if a gas
media is present.
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 Advanced Underbalanced Well Operations and Pressure Control
Maintaining Control of a Well
Both conventional and underbalanced systems are
designed so that bottom hole pressure is controlled at all
times. The following expression describes bottom hole
pressure for both systems.
BHP = SP + ∆PGravity + ∆PFriction + ∆PAcceleration
Where:
BHP =bottom hole pressure
SP =surface pressure
∆PGravity =hydrostatic pressure due to mud weight
∆PFriction =friction pressure due to circulation
∆PAcceleration =pressure due to acceleration
Conventional drilling uses hydrostatic pressure to
maintain adequate bottom hole pressure. Since the well
remains open in conventional drilling, the hydrostatic
pressure must balance the formation when circulation stops.
Friction pressure and acceleration pressure do not come in
to play.
Underbalanced wells are controlled dynamically. An
underbalanced system is designed to take into account
friction, surface pressure and acceleration of the fluids.
Although underbalanced systems allow the reservoir fluids
to flow into the well, this does not mean that there is less
control over bottom hole pressure. Although bottom hole
pressure is maintained below the formation pressure, control
of the bottom hole pressure is still critical and must not be
allowed to fall below a pre- determined value. Allowing the
bottom hole pressure to fall outside the designed operating
window could result in wellbore stability problems, excess
surface pressure, production rates that exceed the capacity
of the surface separation equipment or temporary over
balanced conditions that can cause formation damage. The
control of bottom hole pressure must account for pressure
fluctuations that occur during connections, slugs of gas
or liquid in the well, and other transient effects caused by
having compressible fluid in the annulus. In UBD operations,
optimum bottom hole pressure ensures that the resulting
formation fluid flow rates and pressures are within the limits
of the equipment, and that the wellbore remains stable
throughout the interval.
Health, Safety & Environmental Issues (HSE)
Health, safety and environmental (HSE) issues
are the paramount concern for both conventional and
underbalanced operations. Both systems must be designed
so that the health and safety of those working on the rig and
the general public are protected. Both systems must also
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be designed so that the environment is protected during
all phases of operation. When compared to conventional
drilling, underbalanced systems require a higher degree of
design and control to due to the fact that hydrocarbons are
produced during the operation. Issues such as flammable
material and proper disposal of returned fluids must be
addressed in both the design and implementation phases
of the project.
The Barrier Concept
All drilling operations are designed with control of the
well as the primary criteria. Controlling a well includes
casing design, BOP configuration, fluid densities and in
some cases, hole and drill string dimensions. A consistent
barrier policy, which requires a minimum of two barriers
for all operations, is maintained for most conventional and
underbalanced operations.
Conventional operations use fluid density as the
primary well control barrier. The fluid density is maintained
such that the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the fluid
column exceeds the reservoir pressure. The rig’s well
control equipment, BOPs and choke manifold, serve as the
secondary barrier for well control. The drilling operations are
normally conducted with the BOP stack fully open and only
in the event of unplanned influxes is the stack closed.
In the UBD mode, the density of the fluid is reduced
to allow the formation to flow. Parameters such as friction
and pump rates are modified to alter the effective density
in the wellbore. To accomplish this, the rotating head and
choke assembly is used to provide control of fluids exiting
the wellbore. In UBD operations, the use of rotating heads
facilitates transfers the primary control from the hydrostatic
column to the rotating head and surface equipment,
making them the primary barrier. Control of the well in
underbalanced operations is dependent upon the integrity of
the surface flow system. The primary BOP system remains
the secondary barrier in emergency well control situations.
The BOP stack is exposed to higher pressures for longer
periods of time. It is for this reason that the quality of the
BOP stack must be ensured.
Redundant Barrier
A major issue with underbalanced drilling is the ability
to maintain a two-barrier policy throughout all operations.
It must be noted that there will only be a single barrier
at the wellhead to BOP connection and at the BOP body
below the lowest ram. This is similar to the single barrier
associated with producing wells below the master valve of
the Christmas tree. Although this risk has been noted and
accepted in production applications, particular care must be
made to mitigate the risks associated with this area.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Underbalanced Drilling Operations
In addition, operations that require equipment that
bypass one of the two barriers create the potential problem.
Slotted liners effectively bypass the primary barrier (rotating
diverter cannot seal around slots) and the secondary
barrier (slots allow flow past BOP). Procedures have
been developed to allow the running of slotted liners and
completion equipment, but a true two-barrier policy is difficult
to maintain. Particular care must be used in the design of the
well to mitigate the risks associated with running this type of
equipment in underbalanced conditions.
Figure 4:BOP stack with RCH
Kick Detection
Detecting a kick during conventional drilling is relatively
simple. If the annular pressure becomes less than the
formation pressure and a formation with permeability and
porosity is encountered, fluid from the formation will enter
the wellbore. Because the system is designed so that the
induced annular pressure is normally greater than the
formation pressure, any time the annular pressure is less
than the formation pressure, a well control incident, or kick,
may occur. Kicks are identified by flow from the well when
the pumps are off, or an increase in flow from the well while
circulating at a constant rate. With regard to conventional
drilling a kick can be defined as an unexpected and
unwanted influx of formation fluids into a well.
In underbalanced drilling, the well is designed so that
the induced annular pressure is less than the formation
pressure. Therefore, if formations with permeability and
porosity are encountered, the well is designed to allow flow
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from the formation. If this is true, then the definition of a kick
must change.
For underbalanced well control, a kick, or more
accurately, a well control incident may be defined as
anytime:
• Higher formation pressure than expected is
encountered,
• Higher permeability than expected is encountered;
• Poor choke control that results in pressure or
flow rate that exceeds the design window for the
operation,
• Errors in engineering that result in pressure or
flow rate that exceeds the design window for the
operation.
These are only a concern if the incident causes any of
the surface parameters, pressure or flow rate, to fall outside
the design parameters.
Reasons for Drilling Underbalanced
Well planners often associate a UBD operation with the
drilling of production intervals. This mindset may lead the
planners to only consider the benefits of UBD in terms of
reservoir damage and increased penetration rates in lower
pressured intervals. However, there are other benefits
associated with UBD operations.
UBD technology has been applied to the drilling of
hard, low-permeable formations in order to obtain better
penetration rates, and in reactive formations, which would
require expensive weighted systems if drilled conventionally.
The technology also provides a means of drilling highly
permeable or ultra low pressure formations without the
expenses incurred from losses of whole mud. Many of these
formations do not have hydrocarbons associated with them.
In lower pressured reservoirs UBD methods can be used
to aerate fluids in order to reduce the hydrostatic pressure
to values that reduce fluid loss, increase penetration rate,
and reduce the likelihood of differential sticking. These
applications do not reduce the hydrostatic pressure of
the fluid column below the reservoir pressure and are not
considered pure UBD operations, but the surface systems
and methodology are considered UBD. When used in this
manner, it is uncommon to see formation hydrocarbons at
the surface other than at background levels, which would
also be seen in conventional drilling. It is not possible to
prevent the intrusion of materials contained in the pore
spaces of the material being drilled.
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 Advanced Underbalanced Well Operations and Pressure Control
Common Features of Underbalanced
Drilling
Design specifics for drilling underbalanced are
determined by various factors. Some important factors are:
• The reasons for drilling underbalanced;
• The make-up of the produced fluids;
• The formation pressure;
• The risk of problems and the difficulty in solving
problems
Description of High Energy Wells
A well is planned to drill through a depleted gas reservoir
in a vugular limestone formation. Underbalanced drilling is
being considered due to the drilling problems encountered
while drilling conventionally. Formation pressures have
dropped to a point at which the formation can no longer
support a full column of liquid (water or diesel). Due to
the level of depletion, conventional drilling has resulted in
total loss of returns, differential sticking and mechanical
sticking caused by the inability to circulate drilled solids
to the surface. The loss of fluids to the formation and the
techniques for trying to solve the lost circulation problems
has resulted in formation damage and lost productivity.
Despite the depletion of the reservoir, the formation
is still very prolific. Offset wells show that the wells can
produce in excess of 100 MMscfd/psi.
Description of a Depleted Reservoir
An offshore well is to be drilled in a depleted oil reservoir
in a fractured carbonate. Previous wells have suffered loss
in excess of 20,000 bbls. and stuck pipe. Clean-up time after
drilling exceeds 30 days. Underbalanced drilling is being
used to eliminate drilling problems and reduce clean-up time.
Reservoir fluid has a high asphalteen and wax content.
High Energy Reservoir Case Study
After years of depletion, the reservoir pressure in the
Rhourde El Baguel field dropped more than 60%, creating
a large secondary gas cap. A redevelopment project
was started to try and increase recovery. In nine of the
early redevelopment wells, an attempt was made to drill
overbalanced with a lighter weight oil based mud. Yet, this
fluid weight reduction was still insufficient and caused an
overbalance of more than 1900 psi. As a result, massive
lost circulation and differential sticking problems began
to surface in these wells. Mechanical sticking was also
prevalent due to the inability of circulating drilled solids to
the surface. LCM pills containing fiber, nut plug, and mica
were used without success. Stuck pipe occurred time and
again and sought after coring attempts were abandoned.
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Additional costs related to the massive losses amounted
to more than $1.3 MM. The loss of fluids to the formation
and the LCM pills resulted in lost productivity and formation
damage.
Underbalanced drilling was considered due to these
problems. Since the wells were generally successful oil
producers with production rates averaging 2500 BOPD, an
underbalanced foam system was the most viable option.
The foam system allowed for the adjustment of both water
and gas, resulting in the ability to maintain a bottom hole
pressure less than that of the reservoir. The foam drilling
technique was capable lifting liquids and suspending these
liquids in a foam emulsion preventing slugging during
connections. Additionally, the UBD program enabled
coring, drilling to objective depths, and improved reservoir
evaluation through electric logging.
Robinson, S., Hazzard, V., Leary, M., Carmack, C., “Redeveloping
the Rhourde El Baguel Field with Underbalanced Drilling Operations,”
paper SPE 62203 presented at the IADC Conference and Exhibition 2000
held in Houston, Texas, 28-29 August 2000.
Depleted Reservoir Case Study
The Krisna field is located 60 miles offshore Java,
Indonesia. Massive lost circulation in excess of 50,000 bbl
of fluid occurred while attempting to drill the first horizontal
well in the field. The goal for drilling the production interval
underbalanced was to eliminate the loss of fluids to the
formation. The ability to maintain underbalanced was a
critical issue for the Krisna project. The existing pore
pressure of 650 psi gave an equivalent density below 3.0
ppg. The oil from the Krisna field has high wax content and a
high pour point. The reservoir oil thickness posed a problem
for maintaining circulation and also having the oil set up in
the separator. Potential problems became worse when tests
between the produced oil and the KCL brine drilling fluid
created an emulsion.
Problems were encountered in separating the cuttings
from the fluid. The solids slurry from the four-phase
separator contained oil, which was sent over the shaker and
to the mud pits. This resulted from the inability to break the
KCL/oil emulsion. A decision was made to allow all fluids
to be pumped to production and have the solids collected
in the four-phase separator. After some time drilling ahead,
the production transfer line was opened up. Large amounts
of drilled solids were found packed in the pipe and transfer
pump. This indicated that the KCL/oil emulsion was so
tight that solids were not being separated in the four-phase
separator. To fix this problem, a switch was made to a diesel/
N2 mist. This reduced the emulsion thickness and allowed
drilling to continue in an underbalanced condition. The
diesel mist system worked well. Good cuttings separation
was achieved in the four-phase separator. Drilling continued
until the basement was encountered. The well was tested to
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Underbalanced Drilling Operations
obtain stabilized flow rates and a shut in reservoir pressure.
Very high penetration rates were realized throughout the
drilling of the production zone. Control drilling had to be
implemented when the rate of penetration exceeded 300
feet per hour and hole cleaning became an issue.
Park, D., Brand, P.R., Allyson, B., and Sodersano, G., “Planning
and Implementation of the Repsol-YPF-MAXUS Krisna Underbalanced
Drilling Project,” paper SPE/IADC 67689 presented at the SPE/IADC
Drilling Conference held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 27 February
-1 March 2001.
H2S Case Study
The North Sumatra Offshore (NSO) field is located
off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia with reservoir gas
containing approximately 1.7% H2S and 33.5% CO2. The
rock is a chalky reef build up which contains coral fragments
with fractures resulting in extremely high permeabilities.
Historically, the challenges of drilling in this area have
included severe lost circulation followed by gas kicks that
can fully evacuate the borehole. The weak rock makes
it very difficult to maintain a stable column of liquid in the
wellbore. Safety risks are great due to the high H2S content
in the reservoir gas.
Historically, the NSO reservoir limestone has been
porous, permeable and weak enough to allow entry of all
mud and drilled cuttings into the rock when drilling. In this
case, blind drilling was used to improve safety and reduce
drilling times. Key elements of the drilling system included
a rotating blowout preventer (RBOP) attached above
a conventional blowout preventer on a jackup rig. The
RBOP maintained surface pressure during blind drilling with
seawater. During this pressurized mud-cap drilling, seawater
is pumped simultaneously down the drillstring and down the
annulus. This approach maximizes the chance that sour
reservoir fluids will not enter the wellbore and expose the rig
crews to safety risks. The RBOP applies pressure to the fluid
in the annulus while rotary drilling. Thus, seawater rather
than the expensive mud can be used, as is the case for
conventional mud-cap drilling. The abundant supply of water
avoided potential mixing and materials logistic problems.
With the set up used, surface pressures can be continually
monitored beneath the RBOP to allow liquid injection rates
to be maintained at minimum levels without gas influx.
The average time to drill the limestone was 4.7 days per
well at a progress rate of 132 ft/day. This compares favorably
with the historical appraisal drilling performance of 15.6 days
per well and 42 ft/day. Most importantly, safety was greatly
improved by using the RBOP and blind drilling practices.
Quitzau, R., Brand, P.R., Tarr, B.A., Frink, P.J., and Leuchtenberg,
C., “System for Drilling an Offshore Shallow Sour Gas Carbonate
Reservoir,” paper SPE/IADC 52808 presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference held in Amsterdam, Holland, 9-11 March 1999.
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IADC UBO Classification
Underbalanced drilling is used for many different
applications. In an effort to quantify the level of risk
associated with an underbalanced well, IADC has adopted
a classification system. The classification system has three
tiers. The first tier is used for risk management. Six levels
are described based on the ability of the well to flow and
the comparative pressure rating of the primary barrier to the
maximum anticipated surface pressure.
Tier 1: Risk Management
Level Description
0 Performance enhancement only; no
hydrocarbon containing zones
1 Well incapable of natural flow to surface,
inherently stable, and a low-level risk from a
well control point of view
2 Well capable of natural flow to surface but
enabling conventional well control methods
and has limited consequences in the case of
catastrophic equipment failure
3 Geothermal and non-hydrocarbon
production. Maximum shut-in pressures are
less than UBD operating pressure rating.
Catastrophic failure has immediate serious
consequences
4 Hydrocarbon production. Maximum shut-
in pressures are less than UBD operating
pressure rating. Catastrophic failure has
immediate serious consequences
5 Maximum projected surface pressures
exceed UBD operating pressure rating but
are below BOP stack rating. Catastrophic
failure has immediate serious consequences.
The second tier is used to describe the well as a true
underbalanced project or a near balanced project. The third
tier is used to describe the fluid system being used.
Tier 2: IADC UBO Committee Classification System for
Underbalanced Wells
Near-balanced A
Underbalanced B
MudCap C
The fluid system selected for a particular project is
dependent on the desired BHP, tolerance to water influx,
hole cleaning, cost and environmental considerations.
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 Advanced Underbalanced Well Operations and Pressure Control

Tier 3: Fluid Classifications • Pressure differential,

• Surface separation system.
Fluid Specific Equivalent Classification
System Gravity Mud (ppg) Level Table 1 shows the variables that influence the final
Gas 0.00-0.02 0.0-0.2 1 configuration of the UBD system. The design of the well and
Mist 0.02-0.07 0.2-0.6 2 the maximum formation pressures will quantify the degree of
risk in having and handling a well control incident.
Foam 0.07-0.6 0.6-5 3
Gasified 0.55-0.9 4.5-7.5 4
Liquid Fluid Injection Methods
Liquid 0.8 and 6.9 and 5 There are four main methods utilized for injecting
above above gas into the wellbore; standpipe injection, parasite string
injection, concentric string injection and concentric drillpipe
Example injection. Each method has advantages and disadvantages.
Horizontal section of a well is drilled in a known geological The overall benefits, cost and risk, along with the impact
area using a drilling fluid lightened with nitrogen gas to on bottom hole pressure and annular velocities, must be
achieve an underbalanced condition through the reservoir considered in selecting the appropriate injection method.
section. The maximum predicted bottom- hole pressure is
3,000 psi with a potential surface shut-in pressure of 2500 Standpipe Injection
psi. The rotating control head and the surface equipment, up The conventional method for underbalanced drilling is to
to the flow control choke, are rated to 5000 psi. To achieve mix the gas and liquid at surface and inject the mixture down
an underbalanced condition, a fluid system is designed to the drill string.
pump 300 gpm of liquid and 1500 scfm of gas. This well This method requires the fewest modifications to the
would be classified as a 4-B-4, indicating Classification well design. The biggest drawback to this option is the effect
Level 4 risk and underbalanced conditions created using a on the ability to monitor downhole data from the well.
gasified liquid system. For multiphase systems, the presence of gas in the drill
pipe will hamper or eliminate the signal from a conventional
MWD. As gas is a compressible fluid, it tends to dampen out
Underbalanced Drilling Techniques the signal. For gas ratios above 20% to 28%, the signal will
UBD has been used under a number of conditions be lost. This problem can be eliminated with the use of an
with different methods. The type of well to be drilled can be Electromagnetic MWD, which sends the signal through the
classified by using the following variables: earth to the surface instead of the fluid and is not impacted
by the gas in the drill string. This makes the system better
• Injection Method, suited for underbalanced systems.
• Pipe conveyance, The use of the standpipe injection method dictates that
• Fluid system (based on gas to liquid ratio), the gas will pass through the BHA. This will impact the power
generated by downhole motors and may impact the design
and material selection of the motors selected.
Table 1: UBD Design Variables
Well Geometry
Injection Method Inside Drill Parasitic Casing Concentric Casing Concentric Drill Pipe
Pipe Annular
Conveyance Coiled Jointed Pipe & Jointed Pipe & Regular Rig
Method Tubing Snubbing Unit

Fluid Design
Liquid - Gas Ratio Gas Mist Foam Gasified Fluid Single Phase
Pressure Flow Drilling Near-balanced Floating Mud Cap Pressurized Mud Cap
Differential

Processing Equipment
Separation Method Blooey 2 Phase Separators 4 Phase Separators

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 Chapter 1: Introduction to Underbalanced Drilling Operations
Drill pipe injection
has additional problems
on the effect on the drill
string. Pumping gas
down the drill pipe
tends to loosen and
slough mud and scale
inside the drill pipe.
The fact that gas will
be pumped down the
drill pipe also requires
a gas tight connection.
The use of
standpipe injection also
impacts connections.
As the drillstring
contains a multiphase
fluid, the time to bleed
down the drillstring
pressure prior to
making a connection
is increased. The
injection manifold
Figure 5: Standpipe injection must contain a bleed
down line that allows
drillpipe pressure to be brought to atmospheric pressure
prior to making the connection. The bleed down line must
vent the gas to a safe area. This is normally to the separator
or the flare line.
Parasite String Injection
Parasite string injection utilizes a sacrificial small
diameter string as the conduit for gas injection. The parasite
string is run on the outside of the casing string to the gas
injection point.
The parasite string is normally not run into the open hole,
to prevent damage to the string. As the gas is contained
within the string, it is possible to run the injection point below
the top of cement. To assure that fluid from the annulus
does not enter the parasite string, a side entry sub with a
backpressure valve is usually run at the injection point.
The main advantage of the parasite injection method is
that only liquid is pumped down the drillpipe. This allows the
use of conventional MWD tools and BHA. It eliminates the
concern over material selection and power generation of the
motor. It also allows for a more direct measurement of BHP
and drillstring problems from surface.
Connections are also quicker with parasite string
injection systems. As the drill string only contain a single
phase non-compressible fluid, the time to bleed off the string
is reduced considerably. The use of a parasite string also
eliminates the effect of gas on scale and dried mud on the
drillpipe.
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If the fluid
used is kill weight
fluid, a well can
be brought under
control by stopping
the injection of gas.
If desirable, it is
possible to continue
gas circulation
during trips and
connections.
A major factor
in parasite string
well design is that
the gas enters the
wellbore at a point
off bottom. This
limits the degree of
pressure reduction
that can be obtained
by the use of this
method. Due to the
compressibility of
gas, the impact of Figure 6: Parasite string injection
injecting the gas off
bottom is limited as long as the injection point is below 5000
feet. Having the injection point below this point will impact
the bottom hole pressure, but only marginally.
A major impact of injecting the gas off bottom will be the
impact on annular velocity and hole cleaning. As the gas is
injected off bottom, the total fluid out of the bit is lower from a
given target bottom hole pressure. This will lower the annular
velocity in the open hole and may create a hole cleaning
problem. This issue may be dealt with by increasing both
the gas and liquid volumes pumped, which may increase the
Figure 7: Side entry sub
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 Advanced Underbalanced Well Operations and Pressure Control

The advantages and disadvantages of utilizing

concentric casing injection are similar to parasite injection
include:

Advantages:
• Conventional MWD can be used
• Conventional motors can be use with no impact on
power
• Eliminates sloughing scale and dried mud
• Faster connections

Disadvantages:
• Limited depth of injection
• Cost
• Impact on BHP and Annular velocities
• Possibly higher gas volume requirements.
• Oscilating pressure (accumulator effect)
Figure 8: Parasite string with clamps • Plugging of the ports
cost of the project (gas requirements, chemical additions, Concentric casing injection has an additional advantage
etc.). in that concerns over damage or loss of the injection method
Another concern of the parasite injection method is the are minimized and include the elimination of the need to
possibility of damage to the parasite string. The parasite modify the wellhead. Injection pressures are also generally
string can be crushed or crimped during the running of the lower utilizing concentric string injection. Due to the smaller
casing. A leak in the string at one of the termination points hole size created by the concentric strings, hole cleaning is
or in the string is also a concern. There is also the possibility generally improved.
that the string can be plugged. In either case, the damage The major disadvantage not seen with parasite string
may cause this method to become ineffective. injection is the cost of pulling the casing string upon
The use of the parasite injection method requires the completion. Concentric casing designs have the additional
modification of the wellhead allowing a path for the gas. As
the parasite string is run as a permanent fixture, there is
always the concern over the creation of a leak path if the
back pressure valve or a leak in the string occurs in the
future.
Other concerns over parasite string injection methods is
the addition cost and time for running the parasite string, the
possible need for larger hole size for running the string, the
higher pressure requirement for gas injection and the limited
volume of gas that may be pumped down the parasite string.
A higher volume of gas may be required to compensate for
the depth of injection to reach the target BHP.

Concentric Casing Injection

Concentric casing injection is the technique of pumping
the gas down an un-cemented casing-casing annulus. The
gas enters the wellbore at the base of the un-cemented
string. The un-cemented string may be an inner string of
casing run for the purpose of creating the annulus or may
be an un-cemented tieback casing string. Gas may enter
the wellbore at the base of the casing, through a gap left
between the tieback and the liner, through a perforated
joint near the base of the tieback or through a entry sub
containing a back pressure sub. In most cases, the un-
cemented casing string is removed from the well following
Figure 9: Concentric casing injection
the underbalanced activities.

1-10 Blade Energy Partners

 Chapter 1: Introduction to Underbalanced Drilling Operations

problem of severe pressure oscillations during and after © Press Sol Ltd.
connections if a back pressure valve is not used. The
volume between the casing strings acts as an accumulator
that can cause pressure oscillations for up to an hour after
the connection. Injection ports have also become plugged
with cuttings due to these oscilating pressures.

Concentric Drillpipe Injection

Concentric drillpipe strings are designed with two
separate flow paths that allow the gas and liquid to be
pumped down the drillpipe through separate pipes. The
gas enters the wellbore at a selected point above the BHA
through a cross over with an injection port. The drill string is
then crossed over to conventional drill pipe and BHA below
the injection port.
The advantages of concentric drillpipe design are similar
to parasite and concentric string design. In addition, there
are no permanent changes to the well that are required that
will impact the life of the well. The main disadvantage of the
concentric drillpipe design is the cost of the system. Special
drillpipe is required for the system. In addition, modifications
to the surface injection system, including a special Kelly or
top drive, are required. For this reason, only a few concentric
drill pipe projects have been done. Thus, concentric drillpipe
is not readily available globally.
Figure 10: Concentric drillpipe injection
Fluid Systems hole pressures. This eliminates the formation of mud rings
while drilling.
Gas Drilling The disadvantages of mist systems are the higher gas
Dry gas drilling is the simplest and least expensive requirements to achieve the same BHP, higher corrosion
underbalanced drilling system. It can also achieve the lowest rates, and the potential adverse effect on water sensitive
BHP. Gas systems used include air, nitrogen, natural gas shale formations.
and CO2. Problems associated with dry gas drilling include
Foam Systems
low tolerance to water influxes, down hole fires, potential
Foam systems are created when water and gas are
wellbore stability problems, inability to utilize conventional
mixed with a surfactant (surface active agents). The
MWD tools, the need for special motors and environmental
surfactant binds the gas within the structure of liquid. As
issues. Dry gas drilling should not be used in a sour (H2S)
the gas is bound within the liquid, the gas and liquid move
environment.
together. This increases the velocity of the liquid. Due to
The biggest disadvantage in dry gas drilling systems is
the structure of foam, it has a tremendous solids carrying
the intolerance to water influxes. If water is produced during
capacity. Foam has better hole cleaning characteristics than
dry gas operations, the water will mix with the drilled cuttings
a conventional mud. The minimum annular velocity (a/v) for
to form a mud ring. The mud rings may pack off the annulus
adequate hole cleaning is normally designed in the range of
leading to lost circulation and down hole fires. Due to the
100 ft./min. Annular velocities of as low as 30 ft./min. have
limitations of dry gas drilling, it is normally only used to drill
been successful over short intervals. As the quality of the
formations with little or no permeability. It is seldom used for
foam (ratio of gas to liquid) increases, the carrying capacity
drilling a productive zone.
of foam will increase, to a limit of ± 97%. At this point, the
Mist Drilling foam will break down into a mist and the carrying capacity
Mist drilling systems are a combination of gas and a will be significantly reduced.
small ratio of water. Mist systems usually have less than To generate foam, the surfactant is added in order to
2-½% water. In a mist system the gas is the continuous bind the gas within the liquid. A ± 60% quality is required
fluid with liquid bubbles dispersed in the gas. The main before foam can be generated. If the quality exceeds ± 97%,
advantage of a mist system is its higher tolerance to water the foam will break down, because there is not enough liquid
influxes, while still being able to achieve ultra low bottom available to create the structure. An additional advantage of

Blade Energy Partners 1-11

 Advanced Underbalanced Well Operations and Pressure Control
Figure 11: Foam structure
foam is that it has a greater tolerance to overbalance before
fluid will be lost to the formation.
In addition to the cost of the surfactant and the additional
equipment required, foam adds a degree of complexity to
the system. Foams can break down with contamination
from acid gasses, hydrocarbons or brines. Since one or
more of these contaminants are normally present in an
underbalanced system, selection and testing of a foam
system is critical. Foams also lose their stability at increased
temperature. Another disadvantage of foam systems is that
the higher relative viscosity increases the frictional pressure
loss in the wellbore, making it difficult to achieve ultra low
bottom hole pressures.
Breaking the foam structure must be accomplished
when it reaches the surface in order to effectively separate
the fluid constituents (gas, water, liquid hydrocarbons and
solids). Failure to effectively break the foam will cause
separation problems and will overload the separator. Foams
can either be broken chemically or mechanically. In the past,
foam systems could not be re-generated after they were
broken. This caused high disposal costs and environmental
concerns. The introduction of recyclable foams has
eliminated many of these concerns.
Most foam systems are anionic. This precludes the uses
of cationic corrosion inhibitors. Foam systems can be further
defined as stable foams, which contain only water gas and a
surfactant, and stiff foams, which include gels and polymers
to increase the viscosity of the system. Foam boosters and
foam stabilizers can also be added to the system to increase
the half-life of the foam (time at which half the volume of the
foam is lost).
Gasified Liquids
Gasified liquids are a combination of liquid and gas in
which the liquid is the continuous phase. Gasified liquids do
not have surfactants that bind the gas within the liquid. The
main advantages of gasified liquids are the lower cost, the
1-12 Blade Energy Partners
ability to recycle the liquids, better environmental properties
and simplicity. Gasified liquid systems also create a lower
frictional loss compared to a foam system with the same gas
to liquid ratio.
The main disadvantage of the gasified liquid system
comes from the fact that the gas is not bound within the
liquid. This allows the gas to separate from the liquid and
create slugs. The gasified liquids have a much lower solids
carrying capacity than foam systems. As the gasified liquid
systems rely on velocity of the liquid phase, not viscosity of
the fluid, liquid annular velocities in excess of 180 to 230 feet
per minute, depending on hole angle, are normally required
to assure adequate hole cleaning.
Liquid Drilling
If the formation pressure is above a normal pressure
gradient, an underbalanced state may be achieved with a
single liquid phase. This allows for a simple system in which
the well is allowed to flow during drilling operations. Liquid
drilling is commonly referred to as flow drilling or production
through a productive interval drilling. In many production
drilling applications, the produced fluids are captured and
sent to sales.
Special Applications
Mud Cap Drilling
Mud cap drilling is a method used to safely drill through
producing zones without returns to surface. The technique is
utilized in areas where severe lost circulation problems and
kicks are prevalent and it is unsafe to allow hydrocarbons
to flow to surface. It is normally associated with fractured or
vugular formations, with a high H2S content. Fluid (usually
water) is pumped down the drill pipe at a sufficient rate
to cool the bit and transport cuttings up to the loss zone).
Simultaneously, fluid is pumped down the annulus at a rate
sufficient to keep produced fluids from migrating to surface.
This annular fluid is referred to as the “mud cap” since it
prevents migration of the drilling and inflow fluids up the
annulus to the surface. The cuttings, pumped fluids, and
any produced fluids, are pumped back into the formation
at the loss zone. Because of the need to pump whole mud
and cuttings into the loss zone, the formation must contain
fractures or vugs to be successful.
Depending on the formation pressure, mud cap drilling
may or may not be a form of UBD. In general, the annular
fluid pressure is such that overbalanced conditions prevail
in the section between the surface and the loss zone, while
underbalanced conditions are maintained between the
bit and the loss zone. There are two methods of mud cap
drilling:
1) floating mud cap drilling and,
2) pressurized mud cap drilling.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Underbalanced Drilling Operations
Floating mud cap drilling uses an annular fluid whose
density is greater than the fracture gradient of the formation,
so that there is fluid loss into the formation.
This simultaneously prevents migration of produced
gas to regions above the loss zone. However, in this
method, maintenance of a proper mud cap is by trial and
error. Migration of gas to the surface is difficult to detect and
requires constant vigilance.
Pressurized mud cap uses an annular fluid density that
is less than the formation fracture gradient, and uses annular
surface pressure to force fluid and cuttings into the loss
zone. A pressurized mud cap system must have a rotating
control head to maintain constant annular pressure. The
advantage of this system (in comparison with floating mud
cap systems) is the control of surface pressure to monitor
the migration of fluids into the loss zone. The rate that fluids
are pumped down the annulus can be optimized. In addition,
the fluid lost to the formation will be lighter, cheaper and is
potentially less damaging to the formation.
Figure 12: Mud cap drilling
Snub Drilling
Snub drilling utilizes a hydraulic work over unit with
a top drive to drill the well utilizing conventional drill pipe.
It has many of the advantages of coil tubing in that it is
designed for tripping under pressure, tripping while flowing
the well and the ability to continuously circulate while drilling.
Hydraulic workover units are normally compact, allowing a
smaller footprint. The main disadvantage of snub drilling is
the time required to trip in and out of the hole, as snubbing
units typically have much lower trip rate, and typically trip in
singles or doubles. Snub drilling also requires connections,
which will cause pressure transients.
Blade Energy Partners
The majority of underbalanced snub drilling operations
have been done on sidetracks of existing wells.
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 Advanced Underbalanced Well Operations and Pressure Control
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