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Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics 1St Edition Nord Eddine Sad Chemloul Author Full Chapter PDF
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Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
Series Editor
Roger Prud’homme
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:
www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Foreword
It has been my great pleasure to read this book, a series of exercises and a
course review, written by Nord-Eddine Sad Chemloul.
The book addresses dimensional analysis and similarity, tools for solving
specific problems in fluid mechanics, and is intended for students of
mechanical engineering, civil engineering, maritime engineering, and other
similar fields.
The book’s author has taught this subject for over 25 years and has
acquired a great deal of experience, allowing him to perfect his course over
the years.
The book is firmly structured and well written, making it an easy read. It
is divided into three chapters. The first chapter concerns the calculation of
dimensions, the verification of the homogeneity of relationships, and the
conversion of units. The second chapter introduces the homogeneity method
(or Rayleigh method) and the Vaschy-Buckingham method (also known as
the π method), which are used in dimensional analysis. The third chapter
provides a study of the comparison of fluid flows using similarity.
The book’s numerous exercises, the product of the numerous works and
tests prepared by author, are accompanied by detailed and thoroughly
commented corrections. This book is also intended for educators.
x Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
I highly recommend it for students, since it provides them with the essential
elements of dimensional analysis and similarity as applied to fluid mechanics.
Driss NEHARI
Professor at the University Center
of Ain Temouchent, Algeria
Preface
The three chapters that make up this book begin with a simple review of
the essential knowledge, supplemented by examples.
Fifty exercises are worked out and include commentary. They cover
almost all areas of fluid mechanics: flow through orifices, dynamic boundary
layers, the behaviors of fluids on solid faces, etc.
These exercises range from the simplest, on the more pedagogical side, to
the most difficult, on the practical side. They are intended for all students
seeking to familiarize themselves with the discipline of fluid mechanics, in
the field of technological sciences, science, and physics.
The analytical methods (or models) that are used in solving the problems
of fluid mechanics are not always satisfactory (as they do not give good
results) in practice. This is because it is necessary to use simplifications or
detailed and onerous analyses.
Dimensional analysis is based on the principle that only the values of the
same dimension can be compared or added; a length may be added to
another length, but it cannot be said to be greater than, or less than, a
measurement of mass. A physical law cannot change, except in the
xiv Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
In this book, only the second method is used. This method involves
creating a physical model of the proposed installation or structure, which
defines the similarity. The dimensions of the model are generally smaller
than those of the work, meaning that the model is reduced.
1
Homogeneity of Relationships
and Conversion of Units
1.1. Introduction
The first general conference on weights and measures was held in 1889 at
the headquarters of the BPIM (Bureau international des poids et mesures or
International Office of Weights and Measures), at the Breteuil pavilion in
Sèvres (in the suburbs of Paris). In this conference, new international
prototypes of the meter and kilogram were officially adopted and filed with
the Office.
Length Meter m L
Mass Kilogram kg M
Time Second s T
The “meter” is the “length” of the distance light travels in a vacuum for a
period of 1/299792458ths of a second. From this, it can be determined that
the speed of light in a vacuum is exactly: c0 = 299,792,458 m/s.
1 Max Planck, born Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Plank, on April 23, 1858, in Kiel, in the Duchy
of Schleswig (Germany), living until October 4, 1947, was a physicist. Planck’s constant h
plays a central role in quantum mechanics: it links the energy of a photon to a photon’s
frequency.
2 The scale created by Bryan Peter Kibble is a device that allows for the conversion, with nine
significant figures, of mechanical power into electrical power and vice versa. Kibble, born on
August 10, 1938, in Letcombe Regis (England), who lived until April 28, 2016, was a
physicist and an expert in metrology
3 Hyperfine splitting of cesium.
4 William Thomson, better known as Lord Kelvin, born on June 26, 1824, in Belfast
(Northern Ireland), who lived until December 17, 1907, was a physicist best known for his
works on thermodynamics.
4 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
5 André-Marie Ampère, born in Lyon (France) on January 20, 1775, and who lived until
June 10, 1836, was a mathematician, physicist, chemist and philosopher. He contributed to the
development of mathematics by introducing it into physics. He made important discoveries in
the field of electromagnetism.
6 Isaac Newton, born on January 4, 1643, in Woolsthorpe (England), and who lived until
March 31, 1727, was a philosopher, mathematician, physicist, alchemist, astronomer and
theologian. His book, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, is
considered one of the greatest works in the history of science.
7 Joseph Henry, born on December 17, 1797, in Albany (New York) and who lived until
May 13, 1878, was a physicist who discovered self-induction and the principle of
electromagnetic induction from induced currents.
8 Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro, Count of Quaregna and Cerreto, known as
Amedeo Avogadro, was a physician and chemist, born in Turin (Italy) on August 9, 1776, and
who lived until July 9, 1856.
9 Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann, born on February 20, 1844, in Vienna (Austria) and who lived
until September 5, 1906, was a physician and philosopher, considered to be the father of
statistical physics, and an avid proponent of the existence of atoms.
Homogeneity of Relationships and Conversion of Units 5
Table 1.2 gives the two additional quantities that have been introduced to
ensure the coherence of the system.
10 The name of the unit of quantities of matter, the mole, originates from the abbreviation of
the German word Molekül: “Mole” (with a capital “m”, and followed by a rapidly abandoned
point) was proposed in 1893 by chemist Wilhem Ostwald to indicate “the weight in grams
numerically equal to the molecular weight of a given substance”. The term “Mole” first
appeared in 1902 as the English equivalent of the German term.
11 The candela (abbreviated as “cd”, from the Latin word meaning “candle”) is one of the
seven basic SI units.
12 James Watt, born on January 19, 1736, in Greenock (Scotland) and who lived until
August 25, 1819, in Heathfield Hall (in his house in Handsworth, England), was an engineer
whose improvements to the steam engine were one of the key advances in the industrial
revolution.
13 The Steradian (symbol: “sr”) is the SI derived unit for the measurement of solid angles.
14 The lumen (from the Latin word for “light”) is the SI derived unit for luminous flux.
6 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
All names of units, even those derived from the names of noteworthy
figures, are considered as common nouns: pascal, newton, hertz, volt15,
ampere, henry, weber16, watt, joule, pascal17, newton, hertz, coulomb18, etc.
The initials are written in lowercase, and are given in plural if they apply
to a number greater than or equal to 2. For example: 1.9 volt, 3 amps,
1.4 newton, 5 watts, 3 henrys, etc.
The names of the units derived from the names of notable scientific
figures are masculine in gender (one joule, one Ampere, one henry).
When one quantity is the product of two others, and neither of them is a
quotient, the name of the unit is obtained by joining the two corresponding
units with a hyphen (making sure not to use a forward slash, which indicates
a quotient). For example, electrical energy that is the product of power and
time can be expressed as a “watt-hour”. In the case of very common units,
the two names can be combined: a “watthour” or a watt-hour. The plural
mark is to be added to the two component names in the case of a hyphen and
to the last one in the case of contiguous nouns: watt-hours or watthours,
meters-newtons.
When one quantity is the quotient of two others which are not quotients
themselves, the name is obtained by placing the word “per” (and not the
15 The name “Volt” was created in tribute to Alessandro Volta, an Italian inventor who
invented the voltaic pile (battery) in 1800.
16 Wilhelm Eduard Weber, born on October 24, 1804, in Wittemberg (Germany) and who lived
until June 23, 1891, was a physicist who developed an original theory of electromagnetic
interaction.
17 Blaise Pascal, born on June 19, 1623, in Clermont-Ferrand, and who lived until 1662, was
a mathematician, physicist, inventor, philosopher, moral thinker and theologian.
18 Charles-Augustin Coulomb, born on June 14, 1736, in Angoulême, and who lived until
August 23, 1806, was an officer, engineer and physicist who is the namesake for the unit for
electric charge in SI.
8 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
symbol for division) between the units of the dividend and those of the
divisor: kilometer per hour, meter per second.
A velocity, the quotient of length and time, can be expressed with a unit
whose symbol is m÷s (horizontal bar) or m/s (forward slash) or (m.s- 1).
1.5. Exercises
1.5.1.1. Solutions
1) The force is given by F = mγ , and its dimension is [ F ] = [ m ][γ ] , with
m as mass and γ as acceleration.
speed LT
−
[γ ] = = = LT −2
time T [ F ] = MLT −2
[ mass ] = M
10 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
E=
F ×
l
force lenght
[ E] = [ F ][l ]
[ F ] = MLT −2
[ F ] = ML2T −2
[l ] = L
force F
P= =
unit area S
Energy E
4) the dimension of the relationship = is:
volume v
E [ E ] ML T
2 −2
= = = ML−1T −2
v [ v] L3
For formulas translating the same result, we can cite the following: the
manometric (or effective) pressure Pman at a depth with respect to a free
surface subjected to atmospheric pressure (taken as equal to zero) is
Pman = ρ gh .
Homogeneity of Relationships and Conversion of Units 11
[ ρ gh] = ML−1T −2
The unit for this is:
kg kgm 2 m m Nm Joule
2
= 3 2
= kg 2 2
= 3
=
ms m s s m m unit volume
We can also give the expression of the amount of work exchanged with a
perfect gas.
V2
5) The term ρ has the dimension.
2
V2
The dimension ρ of the relationship is that of a pressure, and is
2
called dynamic pressure.
6) The dimension of the term ρ g z , with z as the side.
M
[ ρ ] = 3
L
L
[ g ] = 2 [ ρ gz ] = [ ρ ][ g ][ z ] = ML−1T −2
T
[ z ] = [ lenght ]
V2
PTotal = Pstatic + ρ gz + ρ = constant
2
energy from potenial energy
pressure forces of gravity kinetic energy or
dynamic pressure
2 gh = [ 2 gh ]1 2 = [ 2]1 2 [ g ]1 2 [ h ]1 2 = ( LT −2 )1 2 ( L)1 2 = LT −1
=1
τ [τ ] = [τ ]
[μ ] = =
dV dy [ dV dy ] [ dV ] [ dy ]
[ dV ] = [speed ] = LT −1
[ dy ] = [length ] = L
19 Daniel Bernoulli, born in Groningen (Netherlands) on February 8, 1700, and who lived
until March 17, 1782, was a doctor, physicist and mathematician. He formulated the
fundamental theorem of fluid mechanics which bears his name, Bernoulli’s theorem, in his
book Hydrodynamica (1738).
Homogeneity of Relationships and Conversion of Units 13
And therefore:
[ μ ] = ML −1T −1
COMMENT 1.2.− From questions 5), 6) and 7), assuming that the side is zero,
we obtain the relationship giving the dynamic pressure:
V2
ρ = PTotal − Pstatic
2
PTotal − Pstatic
V = 2
ρ
In practice, the total pressure and the static pressure are measured using
a Pitot tube20, or separately using piezometric tubes.
V12 P1 V2 P2
+ + z1 = 2 + + z2
2g ρ g 2g ρ g
= h1
= 0, since the horizontal
= 0 , since the reservoir P1 = Patm P2 = Patm references passes
has large dimensions through point ( 2 )
The orifice is either at the bottom of the container (see Figure 1.1) or on
its side on the surface. The drop in pressure is negligible between points (1)
and (2). We obtain V = 2gh .
20 Henri Pitot, born in Aramon on May 29, 1695, and who lived until December 27, 1771,
was a hydraulic engineer and inventor of the Pitot tube, used to measure the speed of fluids.
21 Evangelista Torricelli, born on October 15, 1608, in Faenza (Italy) and who lived until
October 25, 1647, was a physicist and mathematician known in particular for inventing the
barometer.
14 Dim
mensional Analyssis and Similaritty in Fluid Mech
hanics
Figu
ure 1.1. Flow through an ori
rifice, establish
hing of the Torrricelli relation
nship;
HRP: horizoontal reference
e plane. For a color version of this figure,
see
e www.iste.co..uk/sadchemlo oul/mechanicss.zip
dV
COMME
ENT 1.3.− For
F questionn 9), relatiionship τ = μ or N
Newton’s
dr
relationnship is obttained from the experim
ment known as “movabble wall
experimment” given in Figure 1.22.
Seveeral experim ments were ccarried out using differrent geometrries and
fluids off different naatures. The reesults of thesse experimennts show thatt:
F V0
− thee relationshipp is propportional to th
he relationshhip ;
S h
F F
− thee relationshiip ngential shear stress τ = . The
repressents the tan
S S
trianglee formed by V0 and h, annd the one fo ormed by dV V and dy, aree similar
V dV
ble to write 0 =
right-anngled trianglles, which maakes it possib ;
h dy
Fig
gure 1.2. New wton’s experimment known ass the “moving wall”. For a co
olor
v
version of thiss figure, see www.iste.co.uk/
w k/sadchemloul//mechanics.ziip
1.5.2. Exercise
E 2:: homogeneity of rela
ationships
1 kr
1) Chheck the hoomogeneity of
o the relatio
onship f = reprresenting
2π m
the osciillation frequuency f of a solid-springg system, witth m the maass of the
solid annd kr the spriing stiffness constant. Th
he restoring force
f F relattes to the
extensioon Δ l with thhe relationshhip F = kr Δl .
2) Are
A the following relaationships valid v dimennsionally? M
Make a
dimensiional analysiis to confirm or correct th
his.
16 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
Gm m3
a) F = like F is a force, G is a constant expressed in , m is a
r kgs 2
mass and r is a distance.
b) P = ρ gh1 + h 2 F like P is a pressure, g is the acceleration due to
gravity, h 1 and h 2 are heights and F force.
b sin(a)
c) θ = , l , and c represent lengths.
l sin(c)
with E as energy, qmv the amount of motion, c the speed of light and m the
mass.
2
dα 2
c) ma = FN + mg (sin α ) + kr a(cos α )
dt
2
dα 2
d) a = FN + g (sin α ) + kr a (cos α )
dt
d 2α
e) ma = FN + mg (sin α ) + kr a(cos 2 α )
dt 2
2
dα
f) ma = FN + mg (sin α ) + kr a (cos α )
dt
with a being the length, FN the force, kr spring stiffness constant, m the
mass, t the time and α the angle.
Homogeneity of Relationships and Conversion of Units 17
1.5.2.1. Solutions
1 kr
1) Ratio f = .
2π m
1
The dimension of the frequency f is [ f ] = −1
= T and the dimension
time
of the mass is [ m] = M .
[force] [ F ] = MT −2
[ kr ] = =
[spring extension ] [ Δl ]
kr
The ratio has the dimension:
m
kr
12
=
[ kr ]1 2 =
( MT −2 )1 2
= T −1
m [ m]1 2 M 12
1 kr
The relationship f = is therefore homogeneous from the point
2π m
of view of the dimension.
Gm
2) a) The relationship F = .
r
The dimension of the force F is [ F ] = MLT −2 .
The dimension of G is [G ] =
[lenght ] 3 = M −1L3T −2 .
[ mass ][ time] 2
18 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
Gm
The dimension of the relationship is:
r
Gm [G ][ m ] M L T M
−1 3 −2
= = = L2T −2
r []
r L
Gm
The formula F = is not valid dimensionally.
r
b) relationship P = ρ gh1 + h2 F .
We note here that the terms of the sum ρ gh1 + h2 F do not have the same
dimension, and therefore the relationship of P = ρ gh1 + h2 F is not valid
dimensionally.
b sin(a)
c) Ratio θ = .
l sin(c)
b sin(a )
Since the constants b and l represent lengths, the relationship
l sin(c)
has no dimension, and since the angle θ has no dimension, then the
b sin(a)
relationship θ = is valid dimensionally.
l sin(c)
Homogeneity of Relationships and Conversion of Units 19
l g 1 l 1 l+g
3) a) Ratios t = 2π , t = 2π , t= , t= .
g l 2π g 2π lg
[ t ] = T
l
2π =T
g
l
The relationship t = 2π is homogeneous.
g
[t ] = T
g −1
2π =T
l
g
The relationship t = 2π is not homogeneous.
l
[t ] = T
1 l
=T
2π g
1 l
The relationship t = is homogeneous.
2π g
1 l+g
t=
2π lg
2 2
q mv c
b) E = qmv c2 + mc4 , E 2 − = m 4 , E 2 = qmv
2 2
c + m2 c 4 .
m
20 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
Since the terms of the sum qmv c 2 + mc 4 do not have the same dimension,
the relationship E = qmv c2 + mc4 is not homogeneous.
2 2
qmv c
Relationship E 2 − = m4 :
m
2 2 qmv2 2 2 2 2 2
= [ qmv ] [ c] = [ mV ] [ c] = (MLT ) (LT ) = ML4T −4
qmv c c −1 2 −1 2
=
m [ m] [ m] [ m] M
E 2 = M 2 LT −4
m4 = M 4
with V being the speed of the mass m .The components of this relationship do
2 2
qmv c
not have the same dimension, the relationship E 2 − = m 4 is not
m
homogeneous.
Relationship E 2 = qmv
2 2
c + m2 c 4 :
E 2 = M 2 L4T −4
2 2 2 4 −4
qmv c = M L T
m2c4 = M 2 L4T −4
2
dα 2
c) Relationship ma = FN + mg (sinα ) + ka(cos α ) :
dt
dα 2 d α 2 dα −2
ma = [ ma ] = [ m][ a ] = MLT
dt dt dt
[ FN ] = MLT
−2
[ mg ( sinα )] = [ m][ g ] = MLT −2
ka(cos 2α ) = [ k ][ a ] = MT −2 L = MLT −2
2
dα 2
The relationship ma = FN + mg (sinα ) + ka(cos α ) is homogeneous,
dt
because all its terms have the same dimension.
2
dα 2
d) a = FN + g (sinα ) + ka(cos α ) :
dt
dα 2 dα
2
−2
a = [ a ] = LT
dt dt
[ FN ] = MLT
−2
−2
[ g ( sinα )] = LT
ka(cos α ) = MLT
2 −2
2
dα 2
The relationship a = FN + g (sinα ) + ka(cos α ) is not homogeneous,
dt
because its terms do not have the same dimension.
22 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
d 2α
e) ma = FN + mg ( sinα ) + ka (cos 2α ) :
dt 2
d 2α
ma
2
= MLT −2
dt
F = MLT −2
[ N ]
−2
[ mg ( sinα )] = MLT
ka(cos α ) = MLT
2 −2
d 2α
The relationship ma = FN + mg (sin α ) + ka (cos 2α ) is homogeneous,
dt 2
because its terms have the same dimension.
f) With regard to case 3c), it can easily be verified that the relationship:
2
dα
ma = FN + mg (sinα ) + ka(cosα )
dt
is homogeneous.
For the four ratios 3c) to 3f), it must be remembered that the dimension of
an angle is equal to the unit.
1.5.3.1. Solutions
1) For the equation to be dimensionally valid, the terms V , At 3 , and Bt
have the same dimension, which must be that of a velocity.
speed [speed ]
[ A] = 3
= = LT −4
t t 3
speed [speed ]
[ B ] = = = LT −2
t [t ]
1.5.4.1. Solutions
1) The equation of perfect gases is P vm = RT , with n being the number of
v
moles, which gives us v m = , which is expressed in liters minute or
n
m3 mole .
With [ R ] being the size of the constant of perfect gases R and θ the
dimension of the temperature T , thus [ P ] = ML−1T −2 , [ v m ] = L3 mole −1 , and
[T ] = θ .
and the unit of the perfect Gas Constant R is therefore kg.m2 s −2 mole−1K −1 .
1.5.5.1. Solutions
1) The dimension of a force F is:
If we consider both systems of units (SI for index 1 and CGS for index
2), we can write:
−2
[ F1 ] = M1 L1 T1
[ F2 ] M 2 L2 T2
The relationship between the units of force taken in two systems is:
unit SI F 1N 1kg 1m 1s −2
: 1 = − 2
= − 2
= 103 × 10 2 × 1 = 105
unit CGS F2 1gcms 1g 1cm 1s
So, we obtain:
[acceleration ] = [γ ] = LT −2
As for acceleration, we can write it as:
−2
[γ 1 ] = L1 T1
[γ 2 ] L2 T2
The relationship between the units of acceleration taken in two systems is:
unit SI
:
[γ 1 ] = 1 ms −2 =
1m 1s −2
= ×10 2 × 1 = 102
unit CGS [γ 2 ] 1 cms −2 1cm 1s −2
22 The gal (symbol: Gal) is a CGS unit of acceleration equal to 1 cm/s2 = 0.01 m/s2, used to
express the acceleration from gravity in geodesy and geophysics.
26 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
So, we obtain:
[ tangential stress ] = [τ ]
[μ ] =
[ velocity gradient ] [ dV dy ]
[force] MLT −2
= ML−1T −2
[τ ] = =
[ unit area ] L2
dV [ dV ] LT −1
= = = T −1
dy [ dy ] L
[τ ] = ML−1T −1
[μ ] =
[ dV dr ]
And for force, we can write it as:
−1 −1
[ μ1 ] = M 1 L1 T1
[ μ 2 ] M 2 L2 T2
The relationship between the units of viscosity used in two systems is:
unit SI
:
[ μ1 ] = 1 kgms −1 = 1kg 1m −1 1s −1 = 103 × 10−2 × 1 = 10
unit CGS [ μ2 ] 1gcms −1 1g 1cm−1 1s −1
So, we obtain:
23 Jean-Léonard-Marie Poiseuille, born on April 22, 1797, in Paris and who lived until
December 26, 1869, was a physicist and doctor who graduated from the École polytechnique
(France’s Polytechnic University) in 1815. He published several of his findings on the heart
and the circulation of blood in vessels.
Homogeneity of Relationships and Conversion of Units 27
If we consider both systems of units (SI for index 1 and CGS for index
2), we can write:
−1 −2
[ P1 ] = M 1 L1 T1
[ P2 ] M 2 L2 T2
The relationship between the units of pressure taken in two systems is:
unit SI
:
[ P1 ] = 1 kgm −1s −2 =
1kg 1 m −1 1 s −2
= 103 × 10−2 × 1 = 10
unit CGS [ P2 ] 1 gcm −1s −2 1g 1 cm −1 1 s −2
So, we obtain:
gcms −2 dyne
1 Pa = 10 gcm −1s −2 = 10 2
= 10
cm
cm 2
2
= 1 dyne / cm
dyne dyne
1 hPa = 102 (10 gcm−1s −2 ) = 102 10 2 = 103
cm cm2
dyne
The pascal (Pa) is an SI unit, but non-SI units may be used, such as
cm 2
which is called the barye:
− 1 barye (ba) = 1 dyne / cm 2 and 1 dyne / cm2 = 0.1Pa ;
28 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
The PSI is the pound (force per square inch), or pound-force per square
inch, abbreviated as “PSI” or “lbf/in2”. In some cases, this unit is wrongly
referred to as “pound per square inch” which is a unit of measurement of
stress and pressure used in English speaking countries:
1 lbf 4.4482 N
1 psi = = = 6894.76 Pa
2
(1 in) (0.0254 m) 2
24 The torr (symbol: Torr) or millimeter of mercury is a unit of measure for pressure. This
unit is not part of the International System of units, in which the unit of pressure is the pascal.
The Torr is an abbreviation of the name of Italian physicist and mathematician Evangelista
Torricelli, inventor of the mercury column barometer.
25 The atmosphere, according to its primary definition, is the layer of gas that surrounds a
planet. However, the term is used with several other meanings and expressions. The atmosphere
contains different gases such as pollution or nitrogen. To measure pressure, for instance, we can
measure Earth’s atmosphere, which is the gaseous layer surrounding the Earth which is known
as “air“. Dry air consists of 78.08% nitrogen molecules, 20.95% oxygen molecules, 0.93%
argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide and traces of other gases. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by
absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface by retaining heat (known as the
greenhouse effect) and reducing temperature differences between day and night.
26 The technical atmosphere (symbol: at) is an older unit of pressure, defined as the force
exerted by a kilogram on a surface of one square centimeter: 1 normalized atmosphere =
1 kilogram-force per square centimeter (kgf/cm2).
27 The term “Bar” has its origins in ancient Greek, referring to gravity. The bar has the
advantage of being close to the atmosphere (average atmospheric pressure on the surface of
the sea). Outside of the SI, this unit derives from the barye (1 bar = 106 baryes).
2
Dimensional Analysis:
Rayleigh Method and
Vaschy-Buckingham Method
2.1. Introduction
This method is based on the fact that only quantities of the same size can
be compared or added. It provides a basis for modeling using models and for
studying the effects of scale.
[G ] = M α Lβ T γ [2.1]
The numerical value of G depends on the units chosen for the fundamental
quantities. The essential applications of dimensional analysis are:
– the optimization of the experimental approach of a problem by reducing
the number of parameters that must be varied to ensure the appropriate
coverage of the phenomenon;
Dimensional Analysis: Rayleigh Method and Vaschy-Buckingham Method 31
Lord Rayleigh devised a variant that was easier to use. If n is the number
of physical quantities Gi involved in a physical phenomenon, then we can
write the following:
with:
1 John William Strutt, better known by his title, Lord Rayleigh, was an English physicist
(1842–1919) who studied several branches of physics and mechanics (acoustics, optics,
electrodynamics, electromagnetism, fluid viscosity, photography).
32 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity in Fluid Mechanics
f (Tp , l, m, g ) = 0
T p = f1 (l , m, g ) = klα m β g γ
[T ] = Lα M β Lγ T −2γ or [T ] = M β Lα α +γ T −2γ
The system of equations obtained is:
M : β = 0 α = 1 2
L : α + γ = 0 β = 0
T : −2γ = 1 γ = − 1 2
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plus élémentaire exige que ceux-là qui semblent s’arroger des libertés
détestables, se gouvernent plus sévèrement que quiconque.
Jamais, avec mon amie, nous n’avions abordé telle matière. Je ne savais
pas ce qu’elle en pensait. Je ne désirais d’ailleurs pas, on le croira
volontiers, j’espère, compliquer une situation assez pénible, et j’ai trop
parlé de moi pour que je m’attarde à protester ici de ma discrétion. Jamais
donc je n’avais rien tenté de dangereux. Deux ou trois fois, retenu, je
m’étais senti près de succomber à la tentation. J’avais toujours résisté.
Or, l’avant-veille de son départ, l’avant-dernier jour de cette dernière
semaine de juin, mon amie, que je ne devais plus revoir à Paris, m’arriva
toute triste. J’en fus d’autant plus inquiet que, je l’ai dit, elle s’était, depuis
plusieurs jours, montrée fort gaie.
—Laisse, fit-elle. Rien. Discussion et dispute.
—Dispute?
—A cause des petits. Le cadet est malade.
—Mais alors...
—Rien de grave, rassure-toi.
Et elle sourit, comme pour me remercier. J’avoue, en effet, que je lui
témoignais rarement de l’affection à l’égard de ses deux fils, et elle ne s’en
offensait pas.
—Laisse, dit-elle encore. Je te vois, tout est fini.
Mais tout n’était pas fini, car elle demeurait grave, malgré ses efforts,
jusque dans mes bras. Je lui en fis la remarque.
—Écoute, répondit-elle. Ces statues que tu vas dresser dans le parc
d’Argenton, je t’ai dit qu’elles seront peut-être pour moi dans dix ans le seul
vestige de ton amour.
—As-tu l’intention de me chasser?
—Tu t’en iras.
J’ouvrais la bouche.
—Mais non, mon Mien, tu t’en iras. Tu ne supporteras pas, pendant dix
ans, de mener la vie misérable que nous menons. Tu te lasseras, tu t’en iras,
tu m’abandonneras.
—Mienne...
—Écoute. Je ne t’ai jamais rien demandé. Ou plutôt tu n’as jamais
compris que je voulais de toi quelque chose. Aujourd’hui, aujourd’hui que
nous nous aimons pour la dernière fois dans notre chez-nous, il faut que je
te dise ce que je veux. Et il faut que tu me l’accordes.
—Parle, Mienne, je suis prêt.
—Jure d’abord que tu ne me refuseras pas.
—Parle, Mienne, je ne refuserai pas.
—Eh bien, je veux...
Elle était dans mes bras, la tête posée contre mon épaule, à sa place
préférée. Et elle me dit tout bas ce qu’elle voulait. Et elle ajouta, prompte:
—Ne réplique pas que je veux donc éloigner davantage le moment où je
pourrai me rendre libre. Je suis sûre que je ne te garderai pas si longtemps.
Et je serai sûre au moins d’avoir de toi un souvenir que tu ne pourras pas
m’enlever.
—Mienne! Mienne!
—Quelle joie pour moi! dis, mon Mien, dis, tu veux? tu veux?
J’abrège.
—Je veux que ce soit une fille, dit-elle quand elle n’eut plus rien à
vouloir, et je veux qu’elle te ressemble.
—Mienne...
—Tout me sera tellement égal, quand tu m’auras abandonnée!
—Mienne...
—Ose prétendre qu’elle n’est pas tienne, ta Tienne, ose! dit-elle enfin.
Mais je m’arrête là. Le cœur me saute dans la poitrine. Mes paupières
sont brûlantes. Si je n’ai pas connu le bonheur d’aimer, je ne le connaîtrai
jamais.
N UIT douce, ai-je dit. Nuit fade, sur une campagne d’une simplicité
décourageante. Ces paysages berrichons n’ont rien de romantique. Ils
serviraient mal de cadre à des héros de tragédie. Une âme tourmentée
n’y trouve pas matière à s’émouvoir, sauf par contraste. C’est un pays de
tout repos.
Par ma fenêtre ouverte, je n’entendais que le cri morne du crapaud qui
chantait dans le jardin. L’eau de la Creuse luisait à peine.
Je m’assis à ma table pour y fixer un croquis. J’aurais pu me croire seul
dans la maison, tant le silence y était parfait. Un écrivain eût mieux
apprécié que moi les ressources d’une nuit pareille en une pareille solitude.
Nous autres, sculpteurs et peintres, qui travaillons au grand jour, nous
ignorons la volupté du travail nocturne et l’orgueil de penser ou de souffrir
pour la multitude qui sommeille.
A mesure que ma main combinait des harmonies de lignes, je m’enivrais
de la docilité de mes doigts à jouer du crayon. Pour la première fois depuis
mon arrivée, je me sentais dispos. Étais-je enfin conquis par la douceur
modeste du climat? Dix projets différents pour ma fontaine naissaient en
moi l’un de l’autre, et le dernier me séduisait toujours plus que le précédent.
Combien de temps passai-je ainsi, à noter les démarches pressées de
mon imagination jusque-là si rétive? Je ne sais pas. Les trois fleurs, que
mon amie avait placées sur ma table, enchantaient de leur parfum mon
allégresse. Le cri du crapaud persistait dans le jardin, morne et fidèle. Toute
la maison semblait endormie.
J’avais l’impression qu’en me levant je troublerais d’un bruit intempestif
la quiétude qui m’environnait. Je n’osais plus bouger de ma chaise. Je
crayonnais d’une main lente. Le moindre geste maladroit eût sans doute
éveillé de lointains échos.
Derrière moi, le bois de l’armoire craqua. Je tournai la tête, surpris qu’un
effet si grand n’eût pas de cause plus considérable. Et j’eus envie de me
coucher, afin de ne point me gagner près de mes hôtes une réputation
d’importun.
Mais, comme machinalement je traçais quelques dernières lignes, un
autre bruit soudain m’arrêta, un autre craquement, moins proche, puis un
autre, et un autre, et un autre, et un autre, puis un autre, puis d’autres
encore; et tout à coup je crus que ma respiration allait s’arrêter aussi; mon
cœur battit avec violence contre la table.
Une plainte sourde m’arrivait. Une plainte, rythmée comme le bruit qui
avait arrêté ma main. Cette voix... Des mots dominèrent la plainte. Je les
entendis. Une voix, une seule. Des mots d’extase. La voix haletait. Elle cria.
Deux cris légers. Silence.
Les craquements duraient. J’aurais été incapable de me lever. Quel coup
de matraque venait de me frapper à la nuque? Ces bruits qui m’arrivaient
prenaient une ampleur de cauchemar. La plainte recommençait. La même
faible voix geignit, geignit longtemps, râla, encouragea, témoigna, se rendit,
s’oublia, cria. Toute la maison aurait dû entendre comme j’entendais. Mais
non, rien. Silence. Silence partout. Seuls les craquements premiers se
prolongeaient, étouffés, mais réguliers, tenaces, lancinants.
J’étais rivé à ma table, les épaules lourdes, les oreilles bourdonnantes,
paralysé, anéanti. Une troisième fois,—oui, une troisième fois, alors que
l’homme, pas une fois, ne se révéla d’aucune façon,—je subis le supplice de
ces cris de femme en plaisir, puis tout se tut. Silence complet. Silence enfin
total. Silence définitif. J’ai connu de pareils silences pendant la guerre, la
nuit, après des fusillades inopinées.
Qu’ajouterais-je? Rien. Il faut qu’ici le même silence pèse, comme là-
bas sur toute la maison endormie, comme il pèse encore à cette heure sur
mon cœur battant. Rien. Il ne faut rien ajouter.
Ma longue détresse qui s’ensuivit, elle n’importe pas. Ni le désordre des
mille résolutions qui m’éblouirent et m’épuisèrent. Ni mon accablement. Ni
ma honte. Ni rien. Rien. Silence.
L’aube à la cime des tilleuls blémit. J’étais toujours prostré à ma table.
J’eus froid. Un coq appela.
Le soleil parut. Des oiseaux, jetant au jour leur joie en paquets de sifflets
confus, marquèrent la fin du silence. Tout peu à peu se réveilla, au loin, plus
près, à la ferme, dans la maison. Ce fut comme un flux de vie qui monta
vers ma stupeur.
Courbatu, je me levai, et j’allai vers un miroir. Mes cheveux n’étaient
point devenus blancs, mais quel désarroi trahissaient mes yeux!
Quand je sortis de ma chambre, vers huit heures, le beau-frère de mon
amie sortait de la chambre voisine. En costume d’appartement, et la main
sur le bouton de la porte, il disait, vers l’intérieur:
—Je vous envoie le chocolat et des rôties, mais levez-vous, hein? Vous
avez assez dormi, petite paresseuse.
Après quoi:
—A la bonne heure au moins! me dit-il. Voilà qui est d’un campagnard,
de ne pas s’attarder au lit. Comment allez-vous, ce matin?
E LLE avait compris. Pendant plusieurs jours, elle n’essaya pas une fois
de forcer mon indécision. Elle se plaignit seulement, dès le premier, au
dîner, d’être souffrante. Et, plusieurs jours durant, elle traîna de vagues
migraines et des mines fatiguées. C’était sans doute une façon de se montrer
à mes yeux humble et repentante. Un homme plus cruel que moi l’eût
accusée de sentiments plus habiles. La discrétion qu’elle observa
m’attendrit. Tels sont les effets de la présence. Si j’avais fui tout de suite,
chaque heure d’absence nous aurait éloignés davantage l’un de l’autre: tout
rapprochement eût été désormais impossible.
Que désirais-je? J’étais dans l’état d’un blessé qui ne se rend même plus
compte de la gravité de sa blessure, que la fièvre alimente, que d’étranges
rêves soutiennent, et qui ne sait point s’il guérira ni s’il a peut-être envie de
guérir, tant un retour à la vie normale de tous les hommes n’est pas toujours
pour les hommes désirable.
Les jours, lents, se succédaient. Je m’enfermais dans mon atelier.
N’ayant encore fixé mon choix sur aucun de mes projets, je n’avais pas
encore commandé le marbre convenable. Pour éviter des questions, je
m’étais empressé de manier quelques blocs de glaise, au hasard, et, couvert
par cette apparence, je ne faisais rien, que de ruminer des pensées
débilitantes.
Quelquefois, les enfants entraient dans l’atelier. Ils avaient l’air
contraint. Obscurément, ils pressentaient peut-être en moi un ennemi, et ils
ne cherchaient pas mon amitié; ils demeuraient distants, comme il arrive à
l’ordinaire à ces pauvres petits êtres devant ceux qui menacent de leur
dérober une part de l’affection maternelle qu’ils veulent toute pour eux.
Le mari, quand il venait me voir, ne laissait percer aucune gêne. Il avait,
comme on dit, des idées arrêtées, mais, quand l’éducation de ses enfants
n’était pas en jeu, il n’essayait pas de les imposer. A mon égard, il montrait
de la sympathie. Je ne m’en réjouissais pas. Il m’interrogeait volontiers,
s’intéressait à ce qu’il nommait mon labeur secret d’artiste; mais, en
homme de méthode, il ne me parlait de mon art que dans mon atelier. Il était
intelligent, curieux, et n’affichait qu’un goût modéré pour les spéculations
philosophiques, se retranchant derrière sa seule compétence de technicien
qui regrette que tout le monde ne l’imite pas. Au demeurant, un homme de
bonne compagnie.
Quant au beau-frère, il ne me dérangeait presque jamais. Il prétendait,
disait-il, ne pas violer les mystères de mon temple. Et je lui savais gré de ne
m’infliger que rarement, et rapidement, son intrusion. C’est à cause de lui,
on le comprend, que je retardais de plus en plus l’instant où j’ouvrirais mes
bras à mon amie pardonnée, si je devais les lui ouvrir jamais.
Quelle certitude attendais-je?
Mon amie ne semblait pas pressée d’obtenir malgré moi son pardon.
Discrète, humble, digne, et douloureuse, elle attendait, elle aussi. Depuis la
nuit affreuse, je ne montais dans ma chambre que fort tard, après de longues
et desséchantes heures passées au fond de mon atelier, lorsque je présumais
que je pouvais enfin sans risque gagner mon lit, où d’ailleurs le sommeil
m’échappait longtemps. Nuits détestables. Nuits atroces. Réveils pénibles.
Je descendais de ma chambre vers midi, pour ne pas risquer non plus de
trouver encore le beau-frère sur le seuil de sa belle-sœur, ou de rencontrer
l’un de mes hôtes au sortir du lit, alors que les yeux et tout le visage ont une
franchise indécente.
Quand je revoyais mon amie, elle me regardait tristement, puis elle
baissait la tête. Rien de plus. Selon mon humeur, c’était beaucoup, ou
c’était peu. Certains jours, j’avais envie de la prendre dans mes bras, devant
tout le monde; d’autres jours, je serrais les poings, et je l’aurais frappée
avec plaisir.
Orgueil! Orgueil! Lequel fut le plus coupable, du sien ou du mien?
Pourquoi n’avait-elle pas le courage de me tendre des mains chéries?
Pourquoi n’eus-je pas la force d’être lâche encore, aveuglément? Le même
orgueil nous retenait tous deux. Aurais-je persévéré? Je ne crois pas. Du
plus profond de ma misère, je songeais souvent à cet enfant qu’elle avait