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 The AI Revolution in
Networking, Cybersecurity,
and Emerging Technologies
 The AI Revolution in
Networking, Cybersecurity,
and Emerging Technologies

Omar Santos, Samer Salam, Hazim Dahir

Cover: Javier Pardina/Shutterstock
Figure 5-4: GreenOak/Shutterstock
Figure 5-5: U.S. Bureau Transportation Statistics
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Editor-in-Chief
Mark Taub

Director ITP Product Management

Brett Bartow

Executive Editor
James Manly

Managing Editor
Sandra Schroeder

Development Editor
Christopher A. Cleveland

Production Editor
Mary Roth

Copy Editor
Jill Hobbs

Technical Editor
Petar Radanliev

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I would like to dedicate this book to my lovely wife, Jeannette, and
my
two beautiful children, Hannah and Derek, who have inspired and
supported me
throughout the development of this book.

—Omar Santos

To Zeina, Kynda, Malek, Ziyad, Mom, Dad, and Samir.

—Samer Salam

To Angela, Hala, Leila, and Zayd, the “real” Intelligence behind

everything good in my life.

—Hazim Dahir
Contents
Preface

1 Introducing the Age of AI: Emergence, Growth, and

Impact on Technology
The End of Human Civilization
Significant Milestones in AI Development (This Book Is
Already Obsolete)
The AI Black Box Problem and Explainable AI
What’s the Difference Between Today’s Large Language
Models and Traditional Machine Learning?
Hugging Face Hub: A Game-Changer in Collaborative
Machine Learning
AI’s Expansion Across Different Industries: Networking,
Cloud Computing, Security, Collaboration, and IoT
AI’s Impacts on the Job Market
AI’s Impacts on Security, Ethics, and Privacy
Prompt Injection Attacks
Insecure Output Handling
Training Data Poisoning
Model Denial of Service
Supply Chain Vulnerabilities
Sensitive Information Disclosure
Insecure Plugin Design
Excessive Agency
Overreliance
 Model Theft
Model Inversion and Extraction
Backdoor Attacks
MITRE ATLAS Framework
AI and Ethics
AI and Privacy
Summary
References
2 Connected Intelligence: AI in Computer Networking
The Role of AI in Computer Networking
AI for Network Management
Automating Network Planning
Automating Network Configuration
Automating Network Assurance
AI for Network Optimization
Routing Optimization
Radio Resource Management
Energy Optimization
AI for Network Security
Access Control
Anti-malware Systems
Firewalls
Behavioral Analytics
Software and Application Security
AI for Network Traffic Analysis
AI in Network Digital Twins
Summary
 References
3 Securing the Digital Frontier: AI’s Role in
Cybersecurity
AI in Incident Response: Analyzing Potential Indicators to
Determine the Type of Attack
Predictive Analytics
Sentiment Analysis and Potential Threat Intelligence
Text-Based Anomaly Detection
Enhancing Human Expertise in the Security
Operations Center Through AI
Integration with Other Models
AI in Vulnerability Management and Vulnerability
Prioritization
AI in Security Governance, Policies, Processes, and
Procedures
Using AI to Create Secure Network Designs
Role of AI in Secure Network Design
AI and Security Implications of IoT, OT, Embedded, and
Specialized Systems
AI and Physical Security
How AI Is Transforming Physical Security
Security Co-pilots
Enhanced Access Control
AI in Security Assessments, Red Teaming, and Penetration
Testing
AI in Identity and Account Management
Intelligent Authentication
Automated Account Provisioning and Deprovisioning
 Dynamic Access Control
Using AI for Fraud Detection and Prevention
AI and Cryptography
AI-Driven Cryptanalysis
Dynamic Cryptographic Implementations
Integration with Quantum Cryptography
AI in Secure Application Development, Deployment, and
Automation
Dynamic Analysis
Intelligent Threat Modeling
Secure Configuration Management
Intelligent Patch Management While Creating Code
Summary
References
4 AI and Collaboration: Building Bridges, Not Walls
Collaboration Tools and the Future of Work
Innovations in Multimedia and Collaboration
What Is Hybrid Work and Why Do We Need It?
AI for Collaboration
Authentication, Verification, or Authorization
Through Voice or Speech Recognition
Reducing Language Barriers with Real-Time
Translation
Virtual Assistants
Task Management
Context and Intent Analysis
Workflow Automation
 Prescriptive Analytics
Learning and Development
Physical Collaboration Spaces
Virtual Collaboration Spaces
Team Dynamics
Document Management
The Contact Center: A Bridge to Customers
Virtual Agents
Call Routing Optimization
24 × 7 × 365 Support
Multilanguage Support
Customer Sentiment
Quality Assurance and Agent Coaching
Large Case Volume Handling
Predictive Analytics
Upgrading and Upselling
AR/VR: A Closer Look
Interactive Learning
AI-Assisted Real-Time Rendering
Content Generation
Personalization of Interaction
Virtual Assistant/Selling
NLP and NLU
Sentiments and Emotions
Affective Computing
Summary
References
5 AI in the Internet of Things (AIoT)
Understanding the IoT Landscape
AI for Data Analytics and Decision-Making
Data Processing
Anomaly Detection
Predictive Maintenance
Advanced Data Analytics
AI for IoT Resource Optimization
AI for IoT in Supply Chains
AI for IoT Security
AI and Threat Detection in IoT
AI and Vulnerability Detection in IoT Environments
AI and Authentication in IoT
AI and Physical Safety and Security
AI for IoT in Sustainability
Water Management and Preservation
Energy Management
Sustainable Waste Management and Recycling
Wildlife Conservation
Circular Economy
Summary
References
6 Revolutionizing Cloud Computing with AI
Understanding the Cloud Computing Environment
Virtualization
Application Mobility
Cloud Services
 Deployment Models
Cloud Orchestration
AI in Cloud Infrastructure Management
Workload and VM Placement
Demand Prediction and Load-Balancing
Anomaly Detection
AI for Cloud Security
Vulnerabilities and Attacks
How Can AI Help?
Challenges for AI
AI for Cloud Optimization
Cloud Service Optimization
Cloud Infrastructure Optimization
AI and Machine Learning as a Service
AI Infrastructure Services
AI Developer Services: AutoML and Low-Code/No-
Code AI
AI Software Services
Advantages of AIaaS
Challenges of AI and Machine Learning in the Cloud
What Lies Ahead
Summary
References
7 Impact of AI in Other Emerging Technologies
Executive Order on the Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy
Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence
AI in Quantum Computing
 Quantum Algorithm Development
Algorithmic Tuning and Automated Circuit Synthesis
Hyperparameter Optimization, Real-Time
Adaptation, and Benchmarking for Performance
Analysis
How AI Can Revolutionize Quantum Hardware
Optimization
Control Operation and Resource Optimization
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Quantum Machine Learning: Leveraging AI
Research to Uncover Quantum Advantages in
ML Tasks
AI in Blockchain Technologies
Automating the Execution of Smart Contracts with
AI
Could We Optimize Blockchain Mining Through AI
Algorithms?
Additional Use Cases in Healthcare, Supply Chain
Management, Financial Services, and
Cybersecurity
AI in Autonomous Vehicles and Drones
AI in Edge Computing
Extending the Cloud: Edge and Fog
Taking AI to the Edge
Lightweight AI and Tiny ML
Applications and Use Cases
Web 3.0
Summary
References
Index
Preface
The AI Revolution in Networking, Cybersecurity, and Emerging
Technologies offers an immersive journey into the world of artificial
intelligence and its profound impact on key domains of technology.
This manuscript demystifies AI’s emergence, growth, and current
impact, shedding light on its revolutionary applications in computer
networking, cybersecurity, collaboration technologies, IoT, cloud
computing, and other emerging technologies.
From explaining AI’s role in managing and optimizing networks to its
integral part in securing the digital frontier, the book offers a wealth
of insights. It explores how AI is building robust bridges in
collaboration tools and turning IoT into a super-intelligent network of
devices. The reader will also discover how AI is transforming the
cloud into a self-managing, secure, and ultra-efficient environment
and propelling other technologies towards unprecedented
advancements.
Our motivation is for this book to serve as a comprehensive guide
that bridges the gap between the complex world of artificial
intelligence and its practical implications in the field of IT. We aim to
make the profound impacts and potential of AI in various technology
sectors not only understandable but also tangible for a wide
spectrum of readers. Additionally, part of our vision is to create an
essential resource that empowers readers to understand, navigate,
and address the opportunities, complex challenges, and
responsibilities associated with AI technologies. This book will
empower readers, whether they are IT professionals, tech
enthusiasts, business leaders, or students, with the necessary
knowledge and insights into how AI is reshaping the IT landscape.
By providing a clear, in-depth exploration of AI’s role in computer
networking, cybersecurity, IoT, cloud computing, and more, we aim
to equip readers to harness the power of AI in their respective fields.
Ultimately, our motive is for this book to not only educate but also
inspire—serving as a catalyst that propels individuals and
organizations into the future of AI-integrated technology.
This book is highly relevant for a range of audiences, given its
exploration of various aspects of artificial intelligence and
technology.
IT Professionals: Those who work in fields related to
information technology, network management, cybersecurity,
cloud computing, IoT, and autonomous systems could benefit
from understanding how AI is revolutionizing their respective
fields.
Tech Enthusiasts: Individuals with an interest in emerging
technologies and future trends might find this book interesting
due to its examination of AI’s influence on various domains.
Business Leaders & Managers: This book would be useful
for executives, managers, and decision-makers who need to
understand the implications of AI on business processes and
strategies, particularly those related to IT.
Academics and Students: Professors, researchers, and
students in fields related to computer science, information
technology, and AI would find the book useful for research and
educational purposes.
Policy Makers: Given the increasing impact of AI on society
and the economy, policymakers could also gain valuable
insights from this book.
AI Professionals: People working in the field of AI might use
this book to understand the broader context and applications of
their work.
Register your copy of The AI Revolution in Networking,
Cybersecurity, and Emerging Technologies on the InformIT site for
convenient access to updates and/or corrections as they become
available. To start the registration process, go to
informit.com/register and log in or create an account. Enter the
product ISBN (9780138293697) and click Submit.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the technical editor, Petar Radanliev, for his
time and technical expertise.
Additionally, our appreciation goes to the dedicated Pearson team,
with special mentions to James Manly and Christopher Cleveland, for
their amazing support.
About the Authors
Omar Santos is a cybersecurity thought leader with a passion for
driving industry-wide initiatives to enhance the security of critical
infrastructures. Omar is the lead of the DEF CON Red Team Village,
the chair of the Common Security Advisory Framework (CSAF)
technical committee, the founder of OpenEoX, and board member of
the OASIS Open standards organization. Omar’s collaborative efforts
extend to numerous organizations, including the Forum of Incident
Response and Security Teams (FIRST) and the Industry Consortium
for Advancement of Security on the Internet (ICASI).
Omar is a renowned person in ethical hacking, vulnerability research,
incident response, and AI security. He employs his deep
understanding of these disciplines to help organizations stay ahead
of emerging threats. His dedication to cybersecurity has made a
significant impact on businesses, academic institutions, law
enforcement agencies, and other entities striving to bolster their
security measures.
With over 20 books, video courses, white papers, and technical
articles under his belt, Omar’s expertise is widely recognized and
respected. Omar is a Distinguished Engineer at Cisco, focusing on AI
security research, incident response, and vulnerability disclosure.
Omar is a frequent speaker at many conferences, including RSA,
Blackhat, DEF CON, and more, where he shares his cybersecurity
and AI security insights with the global community. You can follow
Omar on Twitter @santosomar.
Samer Salam is a technology architect and engineering leader in
the computer networking industry with over two decades of
experience. In his role as Distinguished Engineer at Cisco Systems,
he focuses on identifying, incubating, and mainstreaming disruptive
technologies, in addition to defining and driving the system and
software architecture for networking products. His work spans the
areas of Intent Based Networking, Artificial Intelligence, Natural
Language Processing, Machine Reasoning, Semantic Technologies
and Immersive Visualization. Previously at Cisco, he held multiple
technical leadership and software development positions working on
IoT, Layer 2 VPN, Metro Ethernet, OAM protocols, network resiliency,
system scalability, software quality, multi-service edge, broadband,
MPLS, and dial solutions.
Samer was awarded the International Society of Service Innovation
Professionals (ISSIP) 2022 Excellence in Service Innovation Award
for the “Impact to Innovation” category. He holds over 99 US and
international patents, and is coauthor of The Internet of Things
From Hype to Reality: The Road to Digitization, He has authored
fourteen IETF RFCs, and multiple articles in academic and industry
journals. He is also a speaker at Cisco Live, and blogs on networking
technology. Samer holds an M.S. degree in Computer Engineering
from the University of Southern California in Los Angeles and a
B.Eng. in Computer and Communications Engineering, with
Distinction, from the American University of Beirut.
Hazim Dahir is a Distinguished Engineer at the Cisco Technology
Enablement and Acceleration Office. He is working to define and
influence next-generation digital transformation architectures across
multiple technologies and industry verticals. Hazim started his Cisco
tenure in 1996 as a software engineer and subsequently moved into
the services organization, focusing on large-scale and emerging
technology network architectures. He is currently focusing on
developing architectures utilizing security, collaboration, Edge
computing, and AIIoT technologies addressing the future of work
and hybrid cloud requirements for large enterprises. Through his
passion for engineering and sustainability, Hazim is currently working
on advanced software solutions for electric and autonomous vehicles
with global automotive manufacturers. Hazim is a frequent presenter
at multiple US & global conferences and standards bodies. He is the
vice-chair for the IEEE Edge Computing workgroup. He has more
than 22 issued and pending US and International patents, several
R&D publications, and is the co-author of four technical books.
1

Introducing the Age of AI:

Emergence, Growth, and Impact
on Technology
Welcome to the age of artificial intelligence (AI) and the AI revolution!
It’s more than an era of technological advancements; it is a testament to
human curiosity, to our ceaseless quest for knowledge, our undying
ambition to shape humanity. It is an era that will transform core
technologies such as computer networking, cybersecurity, collaboration,
cloud computing, the Internet of Things (IoT), quantum computing, and
many emerging technologies. This book will cover the transformative
journey that is redefining core IT technologies. In Chapter 2, “Connected
Intelligence: AI in Computer Networking,” we explore how AI will
transform computer networking. From managing complex network
infrastructures and reducing downtime to optimizing bandwidth usage
and supporting predictive maintenance, AI is revolutionizing how we
share, transmit, and receive information.
In Chapter 3, “Securing the Digital Frontier: AI’s Role in Cybersecurity,”
we shift our focus to one of the fiercest battlegrounds of technology:
cybersecurity. The need to protect our digital landscape has never been
more urgent. AI, with its predictive capabilities, automation, and
adaptability, is redefining how we protect our data, our systems, and
people.
We pivot from the realm of networks and security to the domain of
collaboration technologies in Chapter 4, “AI and Collaboration: Building
Bridges, Not Walls.” The journey continues in Chapter 5, “AI in the
Internet of Things (IoT) or AIoT: The Intelligence Behind Billions of
Devices,” where we delve into the junction of AI and IoT. AIoT is the
intelligence that’s bridging the physical and digital world, from our homes
to our cities and critical infrastructure, making them smarter, efficient,
and more responsive.
In Chapter 6, “Revolutionizing Cloud Computing with AI,” we examine
how AI will continue to transform cloud computing into a more powerful,
scalable, and efficient technology. Meanwhile, cloud computing has
become the de facto platform for AI’s growth, providing the
computational power and vast storage it needs. Finally, in Chapter 7,
“Impact of AI in Other Emerging Technologies,” we expand our view to
encompass the broader technological horizon. We’ll see how AI is
breathing life into other cutting-edge technologies, from autonomous
vehicles and personalized medicine to quantum computing and beyond.
Together, these chapters weave the narrative of the ongoing AI
revolution. The journey won’t be easy; it’s complex, uncertain, even
daunting. But it is also exhilarating, rich with potential and opportunities.
Join me, along with my co-authors Hazim and Samer, as we embark on
this journey.

The End of Human Civilization

The great debate: Will AI ultimately transform or terminate human
civilization? AI is a groundbreaking technology that has sparked intense
debates about its implications for humanity’s future. Although some
individuals have concerns that AI might bring about the downfall of
human civilization, it is arrogant not to acknowledge the immense
benefits and opportunities it presents.
Several notable figures, including prominent scientists and technology
pioneers, have expressed concerns about the AI-enabled future. Their
concerns center on potential dangers, including the rise of
superintelligent machines that could surpass human capabilities and gain
control over critical systems. These dystopian thoughts envision scenarios
where AI-powered systems become uncontrollable, leading to
catastrophic consequences for humanity.
Don’t get me wrong—numerous risks lie ahead. But it is essential to
recognize that AI, in its current form, is a tool that requires human
guidance and oversight. Responsible development and regulation can
mitigate the potential risks and ensure that AI systems align with human
values and ethical principles. Researchers, policymakers, and industry
leaders are actively working on designing frameworks that prioritize
safety, transparency, and accountability. Their work responds to the fears
about autonomous weapons, job displacement, erosion of privacy, and
the loss of human touch in various domains that fuel these concerns.
However, a vast majority of experts and enthusiasts believe that AI offers
immense potential for positive transformation in almost every aspect of
human life. The extraordinary benefits of AI are already evident in
numerous fields, including IT, healthcare, education, and transportation.

Significant Milestones in AI
Development (This Book Is Already
Obsolete)
It is crucial to be humble and recognize a unique paradox inherent to this
field: The accelerating pace of AI development might render any effort to
encapsulate its current state obsolete almost as soon as it is
documented. In this regard, you could argue that this book—or, really,
any book about technology—captures a snapshot of a moment already
surpassed by the exponential rate of progress.
Each day, AI research generates new insights and unveils improved
algorithms, models, and implementations. These developments are not
only related to the breakthroughs that make news headlines, or what you
hear in podcasts and YouTube videos, but also thrive in the form of
myriad incremental advancements that might seem small on their own
but collectively represent a significant transformation. The landscape of
AI we explore today might differ from the one that exists tomorrow.
However, instead of viewing this inability to keep up as a shortcoming,
consider it a testament to the true potential and pace of the AI field.
Don’t think about this book as just a static record of AI’s current state,
but rather view it as a compass, pointing toward the broader impact. It’s
designed to provide a framework, a lens through which to make sense of
this ongoing revolution, and to help navigate the future developments
that, at this moment, we can only begin to imagine.
The AI field has already seen an incredible number of important
milestones, many of which have led to the advacements we’re seeing
today. Figure 1-1 provides a timeline of the most popular historical
milestones of AI.

Figure 1-1
Historical AI Development Milestones

These milestones, among many others, represent key moments in the

development of AI, each marking a significant stride forward in the
technology’s capabilities. Let’s explore the milestones illustrated in Figure
1-1.
In 1950, Alan Turing proposed a test to measure a machine’s ability to
exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to or indistinguishable from that of
a human. This test, known as the Turing Test, remains an important
concept in the field of AI. The first organized gathering to discuss AI was
the Dartmouth Conference, held in 1956. This is where the term “artificial
intelligence” was coined. The Dartmouth Conference initiated active
research in the field. Three years later, John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky
established the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT), signifying the formalization of AI as an
academic field of study. Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT later created ELIZA,
one of the first AI programs that could simulate conversation with a
human being. In 1972, MYCIN was developed at Stanford University; it
was one of the first expert systems designed to help doctors diagnose
bacterial infections and recommend treatments. IBM’s supercomputer,
Deep Blue, defeated world chess champion Garry Kasparov in 1997. This
event showcased the potential for AI to outperform humans in complex
tasks. Watson, another IBM creation, won the game show Jeopardy in
2011, demonstrating a significant leap in AI’s natural language processing
and understanding capabilities.
Developed by Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever, and Geoffrey Hinton,
AlexNet won the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge in
2012, highlighting the effectiveness of deep learning and convolutional
neural networks in image recognition tasks. Two years later, Microsoft
launched Xiaoice, a social chatbot that could carry on conversations,
paving the way for the development of advanced conversational AI
systems.
In 2015, Google’s AlphaGo, developed by DeepMind, defeated world Go
champion Lee Sedol, showcasing the power of AI in mastering a game far
more complex than chess. Elon Musk co-founded OpenAI, a research
organization committed to ensuring artificial general intelligence (AGI)
can be aligned with human values and widely distributed. OpenAI’s GPT
models have marked significant progress in generative AI. DeepMind’s AI,
AlphaFold, made a breakthrough in biology by solving the protein folding
problem, demonstrating the potential for AI to accelerate scientific
discovery.
Nowadays, dozens of AI models and applications are being released at a
very rapid pace. But what’s next? We can extrapolate, based on trends
and projected advancements, that AGI is very near. Such AI systems will
possess the ability to understand, learn, and apply knowledge across a
wide array of tasks at a human level.
Meanwhile, quantum computing is in an emerging stage. Its integration
with AI will open up new possibilities for data processing and machine
learning. How quantum computers are programmed and networked will
be vastly different than the case for traditional computers.
As AI systems grow more complex, the demand for transparency also
increases. In particular, we will need to see significant advancements in
“explainable AI” (XAI). We must design these systems to provide clear,
understandable explanations for their decisions and actions.
The AI Black Box Problem and
Explainable AI
The opaque and mysterious nature of complex machine learning and AI
models has been a recurring challenge in the industry. The growing
demand for what is known as explainable AI (XAI) is obvious. Machine
learning models, particularly deep learning ones, are often referred to as
“black boxes.” While incredibly powerful, these models’ inner workings
are largely inexplicable. Even the engineers who create them can struggle
to explain precisely why a given model made a specific decision. This lack
of transparency poses serious issues for such models’ wider application.
When AI impacts critical areas such as medical diagnosis, networking,
cybersecurity, or autonomous vehicle control, it’s crucial for users to
understand the reasoning behind its decisions. The risks of mistakes
caused by biased or incorrect decisions could lead to horrible
consequences and damage trust in AI technologies.
Explainable AI seeks to bridge this gap, by promoting the development of
AI models that are not only performant but also interpretable. The goal is
to create systems that can provide understandable explanations for their
decisions in a way that humans can comprehend. These explanations can
take different forms, such as feature importance, surrogate models, and
visual explanations. For instance, they might highlight which features or
inputs were most influential in a model’s decision. They might also
involve training simpler, interpretable models to understand the decisions
made by a more complex one. Another option is visual explanations such
as heat maps that show which parts of an image were most important for
a model’s classification.
Achieving a balance between model interpretability and performance is
one of the main challenges in making AI more widely applicable.
Simplifying models for the sake of interpretability can sometimes reduce
their accuracy. Also, the concept of “explanation” can be subjective and
varies based on the person’s expertise and the context.
What’s the Difference Between
Today’s Large Language Models and
Traditional Machine Learning?
Today’s AI systems have achieved a more nuanced understanding of
human language, enabling more effective, natural interactions and a
deeper comprehension of context, sentiment, and intent. But what’s the
difference between today’s large language models and traditional
machine learning? Large language models (LLMs), such as OpenAI’s GPT,
Falcon, LLaMA2, DALL-E, Stable Diffusion, MidJourney, and others, are
transforming our understanding of what machines can achieve. Their
ability to generate human-like text has implications for numerous fields,
from content generation and translation to customer service and tutoring.
These models represent a shift away from traditional machine learning
approaches.
Traditional machine learning models, including algorithms like decision
trees, linear regression, and support vector machines, typically work by
learning patterns from a set of input–output examples. They are often
relatively simple, interpretable, and require explicit feature engineering.

Note
Feature engineering is the process in which the data scientist specifies
which aspects of the data the model should pay attention to.

Traditional models tend to be task-specific. This implies that a new model

must be trained from scratch for each unique problem, with little to no
transfer of knowledge occurring from one task to another.
LLMs introduce a different approach, known as Transformer-based
models. These models leverage deep learning and natural language
processing (NLP) to understand and generate human-like text. They are
pretrained on a massive corpus of text data, learning patterns, structures,
and even some facts about the world from billions of sentences. Unlike
traditional models, these LLMs are generalists. Once trained, they can be
fine-tuned for a wide range of tasks, such as translation, question-
answering, summarization, and more, all within the same model
architecture. The ability to transfer knowledge across tasks is one of their
key strengths.

Tip
In the context of AI, parameters are the internal variables that the
model learns through training. They are the part of the model that is
learned from historical training data and enable the model to make
predictions or decisions. In a simple linear regression model, the
parameters are the slope and the y-intercept. In a deep learning
model such as a neural network, the parameters are the weights and
biases in the network. These parameters are initially set to random
values and then iteratively adjusted based on the feedback signal
(loss or error) that the model gets as it trains on the data.
In the case of LLMs like GPT, the parameters are the weights in the
numerous layers of the Transformer architecture that the model uses.
As an example, the legacy GPT-3 has 175 billion parameters, which
means the model has an equal number of weights that it can adjust
to learn from the data it’s trained on. GPT-4 is speculated to have 1.76
trillion parameters, though some sources suggest it is a combination
of different models (the exact details have not been disclosed by
OpenAI).
Their total number of parameters allows these models to capture and
represent very complex patterns and relationships in the data. In turn,
that is part of what enables them to generate such remarkably
human-like text.

Unlike traditional machine learning, large language models do not rely on

explicit feature engineering. They learn to represent and understand the
data automatically through their training process, which involves
adjusting millions, billions, or even trillions of parameters to minimize the
difference between their predictions and the actual outcomes.
Table 1-1 compares the traditional machine learning models with the
newer, more advanced models such as LLMs, Transformer-based models,
and generative AI models.

Table 1-1 Traditional Machine Learning Models Versus Newer AI

Models
Traditional Machine
Learning Models
Basic architecture Generally, based on a
mathematical/statistical
model. Examples include linear
regression, decision trees,
support vector machine
(SVM), etc.
Data requirement Requires less data compared
to the new AI models.
Comprehensibility Easier to interpret and
understand. Some models
(e.g., decision trees) provide
clear, intuitive rules.
Training time Usually quicker to train
because of their simplicity and computational
lower computational
complexity.
Model Generally, may have lower
performance performance on complex tasks
compared to the newer AI
models.
Generalization Usually better at generalizing
from less data.
Newer AI Models
(LLMs,
Transformer-
Based, Generative
AI)
Generally based on
neural networks, with
the “transformer”
being a specific type
of network
architecture.
Requires massive
amounts of data to
perform optimally.
More of a “black box”
approach; these
models are often
more difficult to
interpret.
Require significant
resources and time
due to their
complexity.
Outperform
traditional machine
learning models on
complex tasks such
as natural language
processing and image
recognition.
May struggle with
generalization due to
 Traditional Machine
Learning Models
Versatility Specific models are usually
required for specific tasks.
Transfer learning Limited capability.
Feature Requires careful manual
engineering feature engineering.
Newer AI Models
(LLMs,
Transformer-
Based, Generative
AI)
their reliance on large
amounts of training
data.
More versatile. A
single architecture
(e.g., Transformer)
can be used for a
variety of tasks.
These models excel
in transfer learning,
where a model
trained on one task
can be fine-tuned to
perform another task.
Feature extraction is
typically performed
automatically by the
model itself.

Transfer learning is a machine learning technique in which a model

developed for a given task is reused as the starting point for a model on
a second task. Basically, you take a pretrained model (a model trained on
a large dataset) and adapt it for a different (but related) problem.
Transfer learning is useful when you have a small dataset for the problem
you are interested in solving but also have access to a much larger,
related dataset.
For example, suppose you have a convolutional neural network (CNN)
model that has been trained to recognize 1000 types of objects. This
model has already learned useful features from the images it has seen,
such as edges, corners, and textures. Now, you have a new task where
the system needs to recognize only a few types of network topology
devices (e.g., routers, switches, firewalls, servers, desktops). Instead of
training a new model from scratch, you can use the pretrained model and
slightly modify its architecture to suit your specific task. In this way, you
can leverage the learned features without having to start the training
process from scratch.
Several different types of transfer learning are possible:

Feature extraction: The pretrained model acts as a feature

extractor. You remove the output layer and add new layers that are
specific to your task. The pretrained layers are usually “frozen”
during training (i.e., their weights are not updated).
Fine-tuning: You not only replace the output layer but also
continue to train the entire network, sometimes at a lower learning
rate, to allow the pretrained model to adapt to the new task.
Task-specific models: Sometimes, certain layers of the pretrained
model may be replaced or adapted to make the model better suited
to the new task.

Tip
Training a model from scratch can be computationally expensive and
time-consuming. Transfer learning can significantly speed up this
training process. When you have a small dataset, training a model
from scratch may result in overfitting. Transfer learning helps in such
cases by leveraging a pretrained model. A pretrained model has
generalized features that can enhance its performance on the new
task, even if the new task is significantly different from the original
task. Transfer learning has seen successful applications in multiple
domains, including NLP, computer vision, and reinforcement learning.

Feature engineering is the process of selecting, transforming, or creating

new input variables (features) to improve the performance of a machine
learning model. The quality and relevance of the features used can
significantly impact the model’s ability to learn the underlying patterns in
the data, and consequently its performance on unseen data.
The feature engineering process typically involves a combination of
domain expertise, data analysis, and experimentation, and can include
steps such as variable transformation, feature extraction, and feature
construction. Variable transformation is explained in Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2
Mechanics of Variable Transformation

Feature extraction is the process of transforming high-dimensional data

into a lower-dimensional form, while retaining the most important
information in the data. This technique is often used to simplify the
dataset while preserving its essential characteristics, making it easier for
machine learning algorithms to learn from it. Methods such as principal
component analysis (PCA), for numerical data, and term frequency-
inverse document frequency (TF-IDF), for text data, are commonly used
for feature extraction. The goal is to highlight the key features that will
contribute to better model performance while reducing computational
complexity and mitigating issues such as overfitting.
Embeddings in AI refer to the conversion of discrete variables (e.g.,
words or items) into continuous vectors of fixed dimensions in a lower-
dimensional space. The idea is to map similar items or words close to
each other in that vector space, thereby capturing the semantic or
functional relationships among them. Embeddings are widely used in NLP,
recommendation systems, and other machine learning tasks to represent
categorical variables or complex data structures in a way that is more
amenable to the demands of machine learning algorithms.
For example, in NLP, word embeddings like Word2Vec, GloVe, and BERT
represent words in dense vector spaces in such a way that the semantic
meaning of the words is captured. Words with similar meanings will have
vectors that are close to each other in the space. This enables better
performance on tasks such as text classification, sentiment analysis, and
machine translation.
Embeddings can also be used for other types of data, such as graph data,
where nodes can be embedded into continuous vectors, and for
collaborative filtering in recommendation systems, where both users and
items can be embedded in such a way that their inner products can
predict user–item interactions. The main advantage of using embeddings
is that they capture the complexity and structure of the data in a
compact form, enabling more efficient and effective learning by machine
learning models.

Tip
Retrieval augmented generation (RAG) is an NLP technique that
combines the strengths of extractive retrieval and sequence-to-
sequence generative models to produce more informative and
contextually relevant responses. In a typical RAG setup, an initial
retrieval model scans a large corpus of documents to find relevant
passages based on the query, and these retrieved passages are then
provided as an additional context to a sequence-to-sequence model
that generates the final response. This process enables the model to
access external knowledge effectively, enriching its generated
responses or answers with information that may not be present in the
initial training data. In a typical RAG implementation, vector
databases such as Chroma DB and Pinecone are used to store the
vectorized representation of the data.
The following article explains how you can use RAG in AI
implementations: https://community.cisco.com/t5/security-
blogs/generative-ai-retrieval-augmented-generation-rag-and-
langchain/ba-p/4933714.

Table 1-2 compares some popular traditional machine learning models.

Table 1-2 Comparing Traditional Machine Learning

Machine Category Strengths Weaknesses

Learning
Model
Linear Supervised Simplicity, Assumes a
regression interpretability, linear
fast to train. relationship,
sensitive to
outliers.
Logistic Supervised Probabilistic Assumes linear
regression approach, fast decision
to train, boundary, not
interpretability. suitable for
complex
relationships.
Decision trees Supervised Interpretability, Can easily
handles both overfit or
numerical and underfit,
categorical sensitive to
data. small changes
in the data.
Random Supervised Reduces Less
forest overfitting interpretable
compared to than decision
decision trees, trees, longer
handles both training time.
numerical and
categorical
data.
Support Supervised Effective in Not suitable for
vector high- larger datasets,
machines dimensional less effective on
(SVMs) spaces, robust noisier datasets
against with
overfitting.
Machine Category Strengths Weaknesses
Learning
Model
overlapping
classes.
Naive Bayes Supervised Fast, works Makes a strong
well with high assumption
dimensions about the
and categorical independence
data. of features.
K-nearest Supervised Simple, Computationally
neighbors nonparametric expensive as
(KNN) method is very dataset size
versatile. grows,
normalization of
data is required.
Neural Supervised/unsupervised Can model Require
networks complex, significant data
nonlinear and
relationships. computational
power, “black
box” nature can
hinder
interpretability.
K-means Unsupervised Simple and Must specify
fast. the number of
clusters in
advance,
sensitive to
initial values
and outliers.
Principal Unsupervised Used for Not suitable if
component dimensionality the data doesn’t
analysis (PCA) reduction, follow a
removes Gaussian
Machine Category Strengths Weaknesses
Learning
Model
correlated distribution,
features. loss of
interpretability.
Reinforcement Reinforcement Can handle Requires a lot
learning (e.g., complex, of data and
Q-Learning) sequential computational
tasks. power, defining
rewards can be
tricky.

Each of these models has specific use cases where they shine. The best
model to use often depends on the specific data and task at hand.

Tip
Neural networks can be used for both supervised and unsupervised
learning tasks, as well as a combination of the two, known as semi-
supervised learning. The categorization depends on the specific
problem being solved and the type of data available. In supervised
tasks like classification or regression, neural networks are trained
using labeled data. The network learns to map inputs to the correct
outputs (labels) through back-propagation and iterative optimization
of a loss function. Examples include image classification, sentiment
analysis, and time-series prediction.
In unsupervised tasks, neural networks are trained without labels to
find underlying patterns or representations in the data. Techniques
like autoencoders and generative adversarial networks (GANs) are
examples of neural networks used in unsupervised learning. They are
often used for tasks like anomaly detection, dimensionality reduction,
and data generation.
Some neural networks leverage both labeled and unlabeled data to
improve learning performance. This is especially useful when
acquiring a fully labeled dataset will be expensive or time-consuming.
 Although they do not strictly fall under the categories of supervised or
unsupervised, neural networks can also be used in reinforcement
learning; in this application, they are trained to make a sequence of
decisions to maximize some notion of cumulative reward.

Table 1-3 compares some of the more modern AI models.

Table 1-3 Comparing Modern AI Models

AI Model Category Strengths Weaknesses

Convolutional Supervised Excellent for Computationally
neural image intensive,
networks processing, require large
(CNNs) pattern datasets.
recognition in
spatial data.
Recurrent Supervised Good for Difficulty
neural sequence data handling long-
networks (time series, term
(RNNs) NLP). dependencies,
training can be
computationally
intensive.
Long short- Supervised Can handle Computationally
term memory long-term intensive,
(LSTM) dependencies, require large
variant of datasets.
RNNs.
Transformer Supervised/unsupervised Excellent Require
models (e.g., performance significant
BERT, GPT, in NLP, computational
LLaMA, capable of resources and
Claude, understanding large datasets,
Gemini) context in text not easily
data. interpretable.
AI Model Category Strengths Weaknesses
Generative Unsupervised Capable of Training can be
adversarial generating difficult and
networks new data, unstable,
(GANs) good for tasks require
like image significant
synthesis. computational
resources.
Autoencoders Unsupervised Good for May not
dimensionality perform well
reduction, with too much
anomaly noise in the
detection, and data, require
generating large amounts
new data. of data.
Reinforcement Reinforcement Can handle Require a lot of
learning complex, data and
models (e.g., sequential computational
AlphaGo, tasks, power, defining
OpenAI Five) excellent for rewards can be
game playing tricky.
and
navigation.
Capsule Supervised Potential Still
networks improvement experimental,
over CNNs, not widely
better adopted,
preservation require large
of hierarchical datasets.
relationships.
Graph neural Supervised/unsupervised Excellent for Computationally
networks structured intensive, less
(GNNs) data like mature than
social other models.
networks and
AI Model Category Strengths Weaknesses
chemical
compounds.
Quantum Supervised/unsupervised Potential for Still
neural very high experimental,
networks computational require
(QNNs) speeds, able quantum
to solve computers.
complex
problems.

All of the models in Table 1-3 are quite data-hungry and computationally
intensive models; however, they have achieved state-of-the-art results in
their respective domains. They are also characterized by the ability to
learn features automatically from raw data—a key advantage over many
traditional machine learning models.
Earlier, I mentioned Transformer-based models. What are those models?
Well, let’s ask ChatGPT using GPT-4:
“explain Transformer-based AI models like I am 5 years old.”

Imagine you’re trying to tell a story with your toys. But there’s a catch:
Each toy can remember only one thing at a time. It gets difficult to tell a
really good story, right? Because the toys don’t know what the other
toys are doing, they can’t react properly or help each other out.

Now, imagine that each of your toys could talk to all the other toys at
the same time, and remember what the other toys are doing. This way,
they can work together and understand the story much better, because
they’re all sharing what they know. That would make your story much
more fun and exciting!

Well, Transformer-based AI models work in a similar way. Instead of

one part of the model looking at only one piece of information at a time,
like a single word in a sentence, it can look at all the words at the same
time and understand how they all fit together. This helps the model to
understand language much better and makes it really good at tasks like
translating languages or writing stories.
Lately, everyone has been talking about OpenAI’s ChatGPT; however, it’s
not the only Transformer-based AI implementation. Many other models
are available, including open-source models that you can access in
Hugging Face.

Hugging Face Hub: A Game-Changer in

Collaborative Machine Learning
In the expanding universe of AI and machine learning (ML), one platform
has emerged as a beacon of innovation and collaboration: the Hugging
Face Hub. You can access this collaboration hub at
https://huggingface.co.
Hugging Face is a company that specializes in AI. It has created a
business around Transformer-based models (and others), which are
state-of-the-art models for many NLP tasks. Perhaps its most well-known
product is the Transformers library, an open-source library that provides
pretrained models and training scripts for Transformer models, including
popular ones like BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from
Transformers), GPT-2 (Generative Pretrained Transformer 2), GPT-3, GPT-
4, Gemini, the LLaMA series, and the Falcon series.
These models have been pretrained on large amounts of text and can be
fine-tuned to handle specific tasks such as text classification, text
generation, translation, and summarization. The library has been
designed to be framework-agnostic, and it supports both PyTorch and
TensorFlow.
Hugging Face also provides other NLP tools and resources, such as the
Tokenizers library for text tokenization, the Datasets library for loading
and sharing datasets, and a model hub where people can share and
collaborate on models.
The Hugging Face Hub comprises an extraordinary collection of more
than 300,000 models, 65,000 datasets, and 50,000 demo applications,
known as “Spaces.” These numbers most definitely will be obsolete soon,
as hundreds of AI researchers and afficionados are contributing more
models, datasets, and applications on a daily basis. These resources
represent an invaluable treasure trove for anyone interested in delving
into different domains of ML and AI.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Le 20, nous montons dans l’Atakor, en suivant un chemin très bien établi ; le
réseau hydrographique est dense et compliqué. Nous trouvons des truffes
blanches (terfes [A]), en particulière abondance. Ces terfes, avec le Dahnoun (A)
et le Berdi (A) sont des ressources en cas d’absence de vivres. Nous campons
dans l’oued Tikeneouin.
Et le temps qui était menaçant depuis quelques jours devient mauvais et nous
subissons un orage.
Les nuages sont très fréquents autour du massif du Tahat et des massifs
montagneux les plus élevés du Massif cristallin qu’ils entretiennent ainsi dans
une certaine humidité.
Le 21, nous campons dans l’oued Echchil près d’un abankor avec lauriers-
roses, au pied du Tahat. L’altimètre marque 1.730 mètres.
Le 22, nous gagnons par le Nord du Tahat, par un épaulement du Tahat à
plus de 2.000 mètres, l’oued Ti-n-Iferan situé beaucoup plus bas ; campons dans
cet oued près de son confluent avec l’oued Tellet-Mellel, et près d’une source
située dans le voisinage de beaux figuiers ; l’altimètre marque alors 1.720
mètres. Aperçu un tombeau et une roche gravée de tifinars.
Le 23, même camp.
Le 24, retour à l’oued Echchil.
Le 25, je gagne l’oued In-Fergan en remontant l’oued Abedassen d’abord,
puis en appuyant à l’Est dans des plateaux semés de majestueuses aiguilles
volcaniques.
Le 26, je descends vers l’oued Terroummout par de vastes coulées étagées
d’où émerge à ma gauche le pittoresque Akrakar ; à droite l’Isekram.
Je trouve un Calosome. Les Coléoptères au Sahara sont surtout représentés
par des Ténébrionidés (Pimelia, Blaps, etc.), des Curculionidés (Cleones,
Apions, etc.) et des Carabidés (en particulier le Tamanrasat).
Puis sous les coulées, vers le bas, réapparaît le Cristallin avec un point d’eau
important agrémenté de palmiers et dans lequel je trouve de nombreux papillons
noyés — parmi lesquels de très beaux Sphynx.
L’oued devient très humide dans les Schistes cristallins, profondément gravé,
et sa végétation assez belle ; en particulier, il y a de fort beaux lauriers-roses. Il
prend plus loin le nom d’oued Tamanrasat.
Je campe au pied d’une aiguille de lave prismée au milieu des tentes du caïd
Oini.
Le 27, le 28 et le 29, Tamanrasat.
 Le 30, le 31 et le 1er avril, retour par la même voie jusqu’à l’oued Echchil. Je
rencontre en particulier les campements d’Anaba et ceux de la Tamenoukalt, que
j’avais déjà rencontrés à l’aller.
Je gagne, de l’oued Echchil, l’oued Tikeneouin, où je passe, le 2, non loin
d’un abankor.
Le 3, retour à l’oued Echchil.
Le 4, le 5 et le 6, repos et étude de l’oued Echchil et de ses environs.
Le 7, je gagne l’oued Tamzizek par l’oued Tiniferan et l’oued Arrou, ce dernier
d’abord encaissé très pittoresquement dans les roches grenues, ensuite dans les
Schistes cristallins ; beaucoup d’eau partout.
Le 8, je gagne In-Amdjel par l’oued Arrou, puis l’oued Tessert à l’Est de l’oued
Arrou, puis l’oued In-Tayet, à l’Est de l’oued Tessert. Beau développement de
terrasses d’alluvions ; quelques abankors à fleur de terre.
A signaler de beaux Cipolins dans la région de l’oued Tessert.
Belle végétation arborescente, en particulier dans les oueds Arrou et Tessert.
Le 9 et le 10, In-Amdjel.
Je visite le centre de culture d’In-Amdjel.
Un jeune Targui, Retaman-ag-Baba Ahmed me rappelle étonnamment un
buste de Toutankamon. Il est de race targui pure. L’on attribue souvent une
origine lybique et peut-être égyptienne aux Touareg. Leurs cheveux tressés, les
croix abondamment répandues comme ornements sur tout ce qui est targui, leur
type n’est pas pour faire rejeter cette origine orientale des Touareg[96].
A In-Amdjel passe la piste automobile qui traverse le Sahara et mène au
Niger ; une équipe travaille à la réparer pour le passage du raid Citroën qui ne
sera pas la première traversée du Sahara en auto car le lieutenant Fenouil l’a
déjà traversé avec plusieurs autos à roues. De la première traversée du Sahara
en auto l’honneur revient à nos officiers.
Le 11, je gagne Teneleft près du Touferert (Toufrik). C’est une curieuse
aiguille de roche grenue. Je campe dans les campements d’Abadoroul des Kel-
Terourirt.
Le 12, pays de granits. Je passe par l’Anou (puits) oua-n-Tinifouk. A gauche
les monts In-Tafargui, et à droite et en arrière les monts Igematen.
On aperçoit encore au Sud le Tahat.
Je gagne le bas du massif de Briri où je campe près de l’oued Amelak.
Beaucoup d’Acheb, Lehema et Rabiè.
 Le 13, je longe le massif du Briri et je campe près de l’oued Teneleft, dans le
voisinage des tentes de Mohamed-ag-Iknane des Kelindrar.
Les granits ont là des formes extraordinaires dues à une corrasion intense
superposée à l’insolation.
Je vais voir dans la montagne une petite source permanente : Naher,
accessible aux ânes seulement.
Le 14, repos.
Le 15, je gagne l’oued Adenek et le Anou (puits) Adenek, en laissant à droite
les monts Isk, Iskaouen, Ahellakan, les oueds Tin-Sebra et Tinian.
Je rencontre un superbe cercle, dans le genre de celui rencontré entre Idelès
et Hirafock, mais de diamètre beaucoup plus grand. Au milieu se trouve un petit
carré dessiné par des pierres. Peut-être l’emplacement du feu sacré, car
d’aucuns prétendent que ces cercles sont des restes du culte persan du feu[97]
que les Touareg auraient eu avant d’être musulmans, ce qui est possible.
Je remonte l’oued Adenek jusqu’à un beau Tarfa près duquel j’établis mon
camp.
Le 16, je suis l’oued Adenek un moment, puis le quitte et suis un mechbed en
direction du mont Iskarneier. Je passe dans l’oued Tintamahé (qui se jette dans
l’oued Abezzou), puis dans l’oued Entenecha où se trouve un bon abankor, puis
dans l’oued Martoutic.
Je remonte l’oued Martoutic ; sur sa rive droite, dans la montagne, je vais
visiter l’abankor Tahara (avec palmiers, lauriers-roses et joncs [Juncus
maritimus]) et je campe au confluent des oueds Aor et Tintahouin, qui forment
l’oued Martoutic.
L’Iskarneier et l’Intakoulmont sont, à l’Est de l’oued Martoutic, deux cimes
élevées très importantes du Tifedest, remarquables en particulier comme type de
desquamation des granits, car ce sont d’étonnantes coupoles polies émergeant
d’un amoncellement de boules.
Le 17, je vais voir l’abankor de l’oued Aor, puis je gagne la source d’In-
Ebeggi, par l’oued Ehan-nebra, le mont Babaia étant à l’Est.
Nous laissons à droite l’Adrar Hellelè et gagnons l’oued In-Takoufi (qui
continue l’oued Ehan-nebra, après In-Ebeggi) par l’oued Goulgoul, affluent de sa
rive droite.
A gauche, la montagne Hogeda et Adrar Dinaleouin ; à droite, Adrar
Oscindida, Adrar Agenora, Agelaga, Amerê.
 Planche XVI.

Le Pays cristallin. L’aguelmam Tahara, près de l’oued Martoutic (Tifedest).

Végétation avec Juncus maritimus, palmier et laurier-rose en fleurs. — Un
Targui et son méhari.

De l’oued In-Takoufi, traversant son affluent de droite, l’oued Timaratin, dont

la vallée amont abrite des points d’eau importants et doit être très intéressante, je
gagne le passage de l’Henderiqui où nous campons. Pâturage d’Arta.
Nombreuses antilopes mohor.
Le 18, traversons l’oued Intounin, dont l’amont est important par ses puits,
l’oued Ouhet, également riche en eau à l’amont, laissons à droite l’oued
Agellagan, contournons le mont Tileouin-Hanker et campons près de l’oued Ens-
Iguelmamen, au pied de la gara Ti-Djenoun, de l’Oudan, après avoir abreuvé les
chameaux à l’aguelmam d’Ens-Iguelmamen.
L’impression générale qui se dégage des régions du Tifedest que nous avons
parcourues est qu’il est très avantagé à divers points de vue, et en particulier que
les centres de culture y pourraient être nombreux (il y en a plusieurs
abandonnés) sans l’absence de main-d’œuvre agricole que la suppression
théorique de l’esclavage a créée dans ces pays.
Le Tifedest possède au plus haut degré l’avantage d’avoir des vallées
humides ; il joue un rôle important dans la richesse des Issekemaren, les riches
plébéiens des Kel-Ahaggar, et ses produits d’élevage camelin sont parmi les
meilleurs de l’Ahaggar.
C’est certainement une des régions les plus richement dotées du pays des
Kel-Ahaggar en même temps que vraiment des plus pittoresques et originales.
Le 19, je gagne directement le confluent de l’oued Taremert-n-Akh avec
l’Igharghar, près d’Egeleh. C’est maintenant un tanesrouft, le pays plat de
l’Avant-pays cristallin, pays absolument nu.
J’aperçois une grande antilope près d’Egeleh.
A signaler des tombeaux (?) nombreux, en gâteaux ronds bien bâtis, avec
des sortes de branches radiées, généralement deux. Sont-ce des tombeaux ou
des signaux ?
Je campe dans l’oued Taremert-n-Akh, près d’un peu d’Arta sec.
Le 20, je gagne Amguid, où je retrouve de la végétation (de l’acheb) et des
montagnes : l’Enceinte tassilienne.
Le 21 et le 22, repos à Amguid.
Le 22 et le 23, raid à Iraouen.
Du 24 au 1er mai, repos forcé à cause de mon état de santé.
Certains de mes Touareg également sont malades ou blessés ; et j’ai ainsi
l’occasion de voir des femmes touareg dans le rôle de médecin ; car ce sont, en
pays targui, les femmes qui connaissent les vertus des simples et l’art de guérir.
Pour les blessures elles font usage en particulier d’applications de plantes,
principalement de cédrat ; en médecine générale elles font grand usage de la
saignée et de sortes de cornets avec lesquels elles tirent du sang en des
endroits choisis, particulièrement à la nuque ; ces cornets jouent un peu le rôle
de ventouses scarifiées ; elles mettent aussi des applications de crottin sur les
tempes ; elles connaissent les propriétés laxatives du senné (qui pousse en terre
d’Ahaggar), etc., etc.
Les 2, 3, 4 et 5, raid au Tahihaout, par Tounourt Tin-Tedjert, l’oued Arami,
Tihoubar (source avec vrais roseaux [Phragmites communis]), l’oued Ti-
Gamahen et l’oued In-Tmanahen (point d’eau permanent et aguelmam).
Tuons des mouflons.
 C’est la chasse préférée des Touareg que celle du mouflon (ils méprisent la
chasse à la gazelle, dans laquelle excellent par contre les Arabes).
Quand le Targui part pour chasser, il cherche à ne pas être vu ; cela porte
malheur ainsi que les souhaits ; et à son retour il vous fait les honneurs de la
bête en vous apportant sa tête avec la queue coupée mise entre les dents.
Le mouflon séché, boucané, est un des éléments constitutifs de leurs
réserves de vivres ; ils en font également le commerce ; du poil des manchettes,
ils font des cordes très résistantes, ainsi que des chasse-mouches de nobles
seigneurs ; des cornes, quand elles sont grandes, des récipients pittoresques.
Le mouflon est considéré, semble-t-il, comme un des produits des terrains de
parcours et, comme tel, la chasse n’en semble admise pour les tribus que sur
leurs propres terrains de parcours.
Nous rencontrons de nombreuses mosquées à la manière targuia et un
tombeau de marabout.
Dans le Tahihaout, j’essaie de m’emparer à la course d’ânes redevenus
sauvages que l’on m’avait signalés. Ce n’est pas facile.
Du 6 au 19, je suis retenu à Tounourt et Amguid par une violente crise
d’appendicite qui préludait depuis quelques jours.
Les Touareg me soignent et je garde un souvenir reconnaissant en particulier
aux Forassi de la descendance d’El-Hadj-el-Foki qui m’entourent d’affection.
C’est une section raffinée des Touareg ; leurs femmes sont très recherchées
pour leur beauté, leur finesse et leur bonne éducation, et la dot que doit donner
leur mari est particulièrement élevée.
Et je vérifie encore combien est nuancé le code de la civilité touareg et
combien ils ont de formes de respect pour les femmes de haut lignage, pour les
vieillards, etc., etc.
J’y apprends également combien ils craignent la déesse Némésis. Il convient
par exemple de ne jamais les féliciter sur le nombre de leurs chameaux ou de
leurs jeunes bébés chameaux quand ils vous font l’honneur de leurs troupeaux,
car cela porte malheur, disent-ils, un rezzou est si vite arrivé qui change la face
des choses ! Il convient de ne même pas dire avec admiration : « Qu’il y en a ! »,
il convient tout juste de dire : « Il y en a quelques-uns », quand il y en a
beaucoup.
Les Touareg cachent leur fortune ; s’ils sont voilés quant à leur figure, ils le
sont aussi quant à leurs biens et d’ailleurs quant à tout. Nous ne savons pas en
particulier ce qu’ils cachent dans leurs grottes secrètes, ce qu’ils y entassent.
Ces cachettes, placées en général dans le terrain de parcours de leur tribu, où ils
mettent leurs biens, leurs provisions, ont souvent fait trotter mon imagination
quand ils allaient y chercher des vivres (dattes, blé, mouflon séché, etc.). Depuis
des siècles des objets curieux s’y sont peut-être entassés !... Les deux fusils que
j’ai trouvés près de Tin-Edness appartenaient, paraît-il, au père d’un Eitlohen
(Oinkara) ; ils lui venaient de son père, etc., etc., et ils étaient depuis longtemps
cachés dans la grotte que lui seul connaissait, où je les découvris. Dans ces
cachettes peuvent donc dormir des armes anciennes des Touareg (celles en tous
les cas qu’on leur voit arborer dans les grandes cérémonies et qui sortent alors
comme par enchantement) et beaucoup de vieilles choses. Peut-être là
trouverait-on quelques éléments pour l’histoire des Touareg, si informe encore.
Que de voiles encore à déchirer couvrent les mystérieux Touareg[98].
Pendant ces quelques jours je subis de nombreux vents de sable.
C’est d’ailleurs habituel en avril-mai. Aussi est-ce une période peu sûre dans
ces régions, car les Touareg, sachant que leurs traces seront ainsi effacées,
profitent souvent des vents de sables pour faire leurs raids de pillages.
Le 19, je vais à la Source du Figuier pour m’assurer de mon rétablissement.
A signaler contre la montagne un groupe de tombeaux (?) orientés, à
guirlandes, allées, tumuli, etc., près de Tin-Tarabin, à mi-chemin entre Tin-
Eselmaken et Tit-Tahart.
Le 20, gagnons l’oued Raris en traversant l’erg d’Amguid.
Le 21, je passe au pied de la pointe des Grès inférieurs d’In-Touareren ; là, un
tombeau (?) ancien, orienté, à guirlandes de pierres, tumuli, etc., en vague
croissant, est à signaler.
Traversons l’oued Tidilekerer ; remontons sur les Tassilis internes de
l’Emmidir par l’oued Tin-Tarahit (au Nord, l’oued Asaouen mène à l’oued Tilia ou
Henin). Tombes islamiques[99].
Descendons dans la cuvette de Tiounkenin, poussons une pointe au Sud,
jusqu’à l’aguelmam Afelanfela (ou Deïtman), dans le voisinage duquel je dois
signaler également un monument lithique du type à allées, guirlandes de pierres
et tumuli.
Le 22, passons à l’abankor de Tiounkenin.
Gisement de Graptolithes.
Après la traversée des Tassilis externes par l’oued Khanget-el-Hadid, où se
trouve l’aguelmam Hindebera, arrivons dans le mader Amserha, d’où nous
remontons vers le Nord, vers les puits de l’oued Tilia.
 Le 23, 24 et 25, oued Tilia. Beau pâturage de Had et de Drinn.
Le 26, le 27 et le 28, traversons les Pays pré-tassiliens par l’oued Abadra
(abreuvage à un puits), pour aboutir à Aïn-Redjem.
Le 29, Aïn-Ksob.
C’est la fin du Ramadan, et pour marquer ce jour mes Touareg édifient une
mosquée à leur manière dans laquelle ils se livrent à de nombreuses prières.
Le 30, Aïn-El-Hadj-el-Bekri (Tihoubar).
Tombeaux d’El-Hadj-el-Bekri et autres membres de sa famille.
Des dattes sont déposées sous la protection du marabout, ainsi que d’autres
objets.
Je crois qu’une partie est destinée à la famille d’El Hadj-el-Foki, sinon tout.
On ne doit pas toucher à ces provisions, paraît-il, que si l’on est près de mourir
de faim, en danger de mort, et les remplacer ensuite dès qu’on le peut.
Ce qu’il y a de curieux, c’est que les Touareg, pourtant pillards dans l’âme,
respectent cette règle ; ils n’aiment d’ailleurs que le vol à main armée, qui seul
est noble, et qui d’ailleurs n’est pas toujours un vol, puisque c’est souvent un
vieux compte que l’on règle.
Le 31, je fais d’une traite le parcours Tihoubar, Foggaret-el-Arab. La région
est désolée ; il y a absence complète de pâturage : c’est bien le Tidikelt.
Le 1er juin, repos à Foggaret-el-Arab.
Le 2, Foggaret-el-Arab-In-Salah.
J’apprends, à mon arrivé, que l’on m’avait cru assassiné ou grièvement
blessé et que non seulement des patrouilles avaient été à la recherche de
renseignements sur mon sort, mais encore qu’on s’était préparé à monter une
mission pour aller à mon secours ou me venger si cela avait été nécessaire.

[80] Ou Hoggar.
[81] Ces « impressions de route », tirées de mon journal de route, sont extraites du
texte d’une conférence que j’ai prononcée le 24 avril 1923 à Grenoble devant le
Club Alpin (Section de l’Isère) de même qu’un article « Seul au Hoggar » que j’ai
livré à la revue La Vie Tunisienne Illustrée en mai 1923 et qui y a paru en
décembre de la même année.
[82] C’est ainsi que l’on peut appeler d’un nom descriptif et point trop inexact
puisque le mimosa de France est un Acacia, les Tamat, Teleh et Ahtés (Acacia
Seyal, Acacia albida et Acacia tortilis).
[83] Tagoulmoust (T).
[84] Dans le sens héraldique du mot.
[85] Le sol de la Crau rappelle assez certains sols de reg. Il y aurait peut-être lieu
de se demander si ce sol de la Crau ne s’est pas constitué lors d’un climat plus ou
moins désertique.
De nombreuses raisons géologiques me font soupçonner que cette hypothèse
n’est pas loin de la vérité.
[86] Porphyre est ici employé dans le sens vulgaire.
[87] Edelés en Tamahak veut dire « lieu cultivé ». Idelès est un des plus beaux
Edelés de l’Ahaggar.
[88] Arrem en Tamahak veut dire « village », « centre de sédentaires », Kel arrem
(sédentaires) est opposé à nomades.
[89] Dans le Massif Central Saharien on distingue de l’Ouest à l’Est trois groupes
de Touareg : le groupe des Kel-Ahaggar de l’Ettebel des Taïtok, avec l’Ahnet
comme centre ; celui des Kel-Ahaggar du Grand Ettebel, avec l’Atakor de
l’Ahaggar et, enfin, celui des Kel-Ajjer, avec l’Ajjer.
[90] Sortes de toges blanches ornées de bandes écarlates ou pourpres et de points
bleus.
[91] Sinon celles des explorations de Duveyrier.
[92] Tirées de mon journal de route.
[93] D’après les Touareg il ne faudrait pas approcher son visage des belles fleurs
roses des Kerenka ; cela donnerait mal aux yeux.
[94] La grande piste saharienne qui passe par l’Oued Tedjert, Tisemt et l’Amadror
est certainement une des ces vieilles pistes sahariennes essentielles comme la
piste d’In Size dont nous trouvons déjà l’indication dans les cartes espagnoles du
xve siècle.
[95] Artemisia.
[96] Les Touareg ont souvent des clochettes pendues au cou de leur mehari ; tout
ce qui est Arabe ne se sert pas de clochettes ; les cloches et clochettes ont
quelque chose de chrétien ; les Touareg ont-ils passé dans les premiers siècles de
notre ère par une phase chrétienne à laquelle des relations avec la Lybie et
l’Egypte n’auraient pas été étrangères ? C’est là une question encore sans
réponse sûre.
[97] Le culte du feu existerait chez certaines tribus du Soudan Egyptien, ce qui est
déjà plus près de l’Ahaggar que la Perse et par suite pourrait nous éclairer peut-
être davantage sur beaucoup de questions encore très mystérieuses qui se posent
en terre d’Ahaggar.
[98] Je ne me suis guère étendu dans cet ouvrage sur les Touareg (caractère,
mœurs, droit, organisation sociale, etc.). Duveyrier en a admirablement traité à
 propos de sa pénétration des Touareg de l’Ajjer, et on ne saurait en écrire après
lui.
Plus on connaît les Touareg plus on s’aperçoit de l’exactitude de Duveyrier à
leur sujet. Je suis fier de rappeler ici que ce premier explorateur du pays targui
était un jeune géologue de 23 ans. C’est un bel exemple entre d’autres du rôle
glorieux qu’ont joué les scientifiques, dans la conquête et la pénétration du Sahara
Central.
[99] On doit remarquer que les tombes nettement islamiques, c’est-à-dire avec
pierres-témoin plutôt rares en pays targui, quand on compare leur nombre à celui
des monuments lithiques divers qu’on y rencontre.
 CONCLUSIONS

Dans ce travail l’étude géologique et morphologique du pays nous a permis

de distinguer, dégager et définir un certain nombre de régions et sous-régions,
un certain nombre « d’unités structurales ».

I. Les pays crétacico-tertiaires sud-constantinois avec leur bord relevé à la

périphérie constituant au Sud la Hamada de Tinghert et le Tademaït.

II. Le Massif Central Saharien comprenant :

1. Les Pays pré-tassiliens ;

2. L’Enceinte tassilienne avec :

a) Les Tassilis externes ;

b) Les Tassilis internes ;

3. Le Pays cristallin avec :

a) L’Avant-pays cristallin ;
b) Le Massif cristallin.

La distinction de ces unités de structure homogène nous paraît importante au

point de vue géologique et géographique.

*
* *

Nous avons indiqué par une rapide mise au point botanique et zoologique
combien la distinction inspirée par les considérations géologiques et
morphologiques entre les pays crétacico-tertiaires sud-constantinois et le Massif
Central Saharien était légitimée aussi par les caractères de la végétation et de la
faune.
 On constate un grand changement dans la flore quand l’on passe du Sahara
arabe dans le pays targui.
On remarque en outre :

la concentration de la végétation persistante sur le réseau hydrographique

auquel elle est étroitement limitée (sauf cas de sable, cas plutôt rare), alors qu’en
pays crétacico-tertiaires (particulièrement atteints par la « maladie des sables »)
la végétation persistante est largement diffuse ;
les caractères de cette flore persistante beaucoup moins adaptée à la
sécheresse, donc beaucoup moins désertique que celle des pays crétacico-
tertiaires ;
la conservation d’une flore persistante de pays humides et d’une faune
dulcaquicole complète composées d’espèces survivantes, à représentants
dispersés de temps beaucoup plus humides.

(Les autres massifs sahariens géologiquement et morphologiquement

comparables, les autres massifs cristallins du « Faîte saharien », avec leurs
enveloppes primaires, sont peut-être ainsi de même au point de vue zoologique
et botanique en opposition avec les pays de calcaires secondaires ou tertiaires et
de sables qui les entourent plus ou moins au Nord et au Sud).

*
* *

C’est ainsi que la flore et la faune du Massif Central Saharien semblent

témoigner de l’existence d’un passé humide au Sahara.
On peut croire que le réseau hydrographique du Sahara en disproportion
avec l’activité actuelle des oueds est également un héritage de ce passé humide.
Et ainsi la flore, la faune du pays targui et le réseau hydrographique saharien
fournissent un faisceau de raisons de croire qu’un passé humide a régné sur le
Sahara.
Nous ne sommes pas le premier à émettre cette hypothèse, mais la question
nous a paru ne pouvoir que gagner à une mise au point, appuyée souvent de
précisions nouvelles.
 Pour l’explication de ce passé humide, qui reste encore un point à éclaircir,
nous avons cru devoir faire un exposé de la question de la mer saharienne car,
au cas où des golfes méditerranéens et de l’Océan Atlantique auraient pénétré
profondément le Sahara on s’expliquerait des précipitations atmosphériques plus
considérables desquelles l’influence de volcans en activité et une plus grande
élévation du Massif Central Saharien ne semblent des explications ni suffisantes,
ni bonnes.
Et nous avons conclu que contrairement à l’opinion généralement admise
actuellement la question n’est pas réglée définitivement et qu’on ne peut rejeter
encore, sans éléments nouveaux, l’hypothèse des golfes sahariens.

*
* *

Au cours de cet exposé par unités structurales, nous avons mis en lumière le
rôle joué par les sédiments siluriens dans les formations de l’Enceinte
tassilienne.
Nous avons montré que les Grès inférieurs des Tassilis internes sont plus
anciens que les Schistes à Graptolithes (siluriens) et qu’ainsi toute une partie des
Tassilis est plus ancienne qu’on ne le croyait.
Nous avons esquissé la carte générale d’affleurement de ces Schistes
siluriens à Graptolithes et des Grès qui leur sont inférieurs.
Ces résultats ont une notable répercussion sur la géologie des vastes
domaines de grès de l’Afrique Centrale et Occidentale française dont ils peuvent
contribuer à démêler les traits par analogie.
Ces résultats permettent ainsi de croire que les sédiments siluriens jouent un
rôle important dans ces immenses pays[100].
Nous avons également indiqué que l’on peut maintenant considérer les
Schistes cristallins de l’Ahaggar comme plissés à l’époque algonkienne et
comme eux-mêmes anté-cambriens.
On peut admettre également cet âge anté-cambrien pour les Schistes
cristallins d’immenses régions du Sahara, ainsi que leur plissement à l’époque
algonkienne, entre autres les régions de l’Adrar des Iforas, de l’Aïr, du Tibesti (la
partie qui est en Schistes cristallins), de l’Eglab et d’Amseiga (au nord d’Atar, en
Mauritanie).
 Et c’est tout un « bouclier algonkien », un « faîte ancien » qui est révélé, le
« Faîte saharien »[101].

Dans ces conclusions, nous n’irons pas plus avant dans la mise en relief des
résultats scientifiques de notre exploration exposés au cours de ce travail.
Ceux-là, rappelés dans ces dernières lignes, suffisent déjà, croyons-nous, à
légitimer la mission[102] scientifique en Sahara central au point de vue
géologique, géographique et biologique dont nous avait chargé, en 1921, M. le
Ministre de l’Instruction Publique.

Grenoble, le 15 mars 1924.

 MASSIF CENTRAL SAHARIEN
DE L’AHAGGAR
Croquis Schématique de l’“ Enceinte Tassilienne ” par
Conrad Kilian 1922

(Agrandissement)

[100] Cette hypothèse paraît particulièrement vraisemblable quand on rapproche ces

observations de celle de M. Sainclair.
[101] Nous nous proposons dans des missions ultérieures d’étudier ces différentes
régions du « Faîte saharien » avec leurs enveloppes primaires en particulier par
une mission d’exploration d’Est en Ouest du Sahara d’Atar en Mauritanie à Bardaï
dans le Tibesti en passant par ses régions médianes et en coupant les pistes
transahariennes par leur milieu, l’aller, passant par le Djouf et Tamanrasat ; le
retour par Tummo Tamanrasat, In Size, Ouallen, le Sud d’Ouallen, l’Eglab et le
Hank.
Les régions inconnues du coude du Tafassasset, où certains prétendent
qu’existent les ruines d’une ville antique, et de l’Ouest de l’Acedjerad rentrent en
particulier dans ce programme d’exploration.
 Nous espérons qu’on nous donnera les moyens de la réaliser.
[102] Mission gratuite, c’est-à-dire non aux frais du gouvernement.
 TABLE DES PLANCHES

Pays crétacico-tertiaires sud-constantinois.

Pages
I. — Plaine au Sud d’Ouargla 40
II. — Dans les dunes près de Hassi et Khollal 46
III. — Dans le Gassi Touil 52
IV. — Dans la Hamada de Tinghert 54
V. — Modelé désertique dans le Djoua 62

Massif Central Saharien.

ENCEINTE TASSILIENNE

VI. — Le bord des Tassilis externes qui domine le Tahihaout 64

VII. — Le bord des Tassilis internes, près d’In Ebeggi 68
VIII. — La gorge de l’oued Iskaouen dans les Tassilis internes 78

PAYS CRISTALLINS

IX. — Les Basaltes de Tin ed’ness (Egéré) 90

X. — « Monad nock » à l’Est de Tin ed’ness (Egéré) 96
XI. — Dans l’oued Telouhet, près d’Idelès (Ahaggar) 120
XII. — La haute-plaine de l’Amadror et le Tellerteba 146
XIII. — Le Tellerteba vu de l’oued In Sakan (Anahef) 148
XIV. — Idelès, dans l’Ahaggar. — La Tamenoukalt. — Une aiguille volcanique 150
XV. — La Gara-ti-Djenoun (Oudan) 154
XVI. — Tahara, près de l’oued Martoutic (Tifedest) 176

CARTES

1. Carte d’itinéraire général 10

2. Coupe géologique de l’Enceinte tassilienne 66
3. Carte du Massif Central Saharien avec le figuré de l’Enceinte tassilienne en
rouge 186
 TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Pages
Introduction 7

PREMIÈRE PARTIE

DES PAYS CRÉTACICO-TERTIAIRES SUD-CONSTANTINOIS OU DU SAHARA

ARABE SUD-CONSTANTINOIS

I. — Études géologiques.
De la mer saharienne plio-pléistocène 11
De l’origine de la dépression Sud-Tinghert 17
Des troncs d’arbres silicifiés 22
Du Crétacé du Tinghert et du Djoua 23
Du projet de Transsaharien Souleyre. (Région du Gassi Touil et du Tinghert.)
Aptitude du sol à recevoir une voie ferrée 27
Ressources en eau 31
II. — Etudes botaniques.
De la flore des pays crétacico-tertiaires sud-constantinois 39
Du pâturage et du pâturage en Sahara arabe 43
III. — De mon itinéraire.
De Touggourt à Temassinin. — Impressions de route. 49
Notes de route 55

SECONDE PARTIE

DU MASSIF CENTRAL SAHARIEN OU DU PAYS TARGUI (AHAGGAR ET AJJER)

I. — Etudes géologiques.
Des Pays pré-tassiliens 64
De l’Enceinte tassilienne 65
Du Pays cristallin 79
Du projet de Transsaharien Souleyre. (Région d’Amguid).
Aptitude du sol à recevoir une voie ferrée 103
Ressources en eau 104
II. — Etudes botaniques.
 De la flore du Massif Central Saharien 113
Du pâturage dans le Massif Central Saharien et de l’élevage
targui 131
III. — Etudes zoologiques.
De la faune dulcaquicole du pays targui 139
IV. — De mon itinéraire.
De Temassinin à In-Salah par l’Ahaggar. — Impressions de route 143
De Temassinin à In-Salah, par l’Ahaggar. — Notes de route 156
Conclusions 183

Soc. An. M. Weissenbru

IMPRIMEUR DU ROI. BRUX
 Note du transcripteur:

Page 74, " direction sud-méridienne " a été remplacé par " sub-méridienne ".
Page 75, la phrase " monts de Tisekfa, d’Adrar-n’Taserest (Djebel Tanelak), " qui est dupliquée a été
supprimée.
Page 110, note 57, " Calatropis procera " a été remplacé par " Calotropis ".
Page 120, la référence à la note 61 était absente. Il a été placé juste après " a) L’Etel ".
Page 122, " plutôt mériterranéen " a été remplacé par " méditerranéen ".
Page 131, note 66, " Colligonum comosum " a été remplacé par " Calligonum ".
Page 171, " Typha augustifolia " a été remplacé par " angustifolia ".
La ponctuation n'a pas été modifiée hormis quelques corrections mineures.
La page de couverture, créée expressément pour cette version électronique, a été placée dans le
domaine public.