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Engineering Graphics Essentials
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction to Engineering Drawings
1 .1) DESIGN ........….................................……….........……..................……….........…·….................. 1-2

1 .2) COMMUNICATING A DESIGN ....................….......................................…...............….......... 1-2
1 2 1) Sketching .. .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ......... ...... .. ..... . ............................................. 1-2
1 2 2) Technical D『awi ng .. . . . . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. ... . .. . . . . .... . ... 下2
1 2 3) Compute『－Aided Drawing . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . .. ... . .. . . .. .. ... . .. . ..... . .. ... 1-4
1 .3) STANDARDS ...................................……….........….........….........……….................................. 1-4
1 .4) HISTORY OF TECHNICAL DRAWING .............…................…...............….................…....... 1-5
1 .5) MANUFACTURING ...........….........……….........……….........….........…….........……................... 1-5
1 .6) ENGINEERING DRAWING FORMAT AND CONTENTS. ……................…........................... 1-6
1 6 1 ) Sheet Sizes ...............................................……. .•• •. … ……………. 1-7 h
1 6 2) Drawing ....…. .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . 1-8

1 6 3) Zoning.. . . . .. .. .. .. ... .. .... . . .. ... . .. . . ... .. .. ... .. .... . . .. .. . .. . .. ... .. .. ... 1-9
1 6 4) Scale ........... … ………………··…- ….• •. …… ……………. .•• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. .••.•. •1-9
h
1 6 5) Notes . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . ... .. . . .. 1-9

1 6 6) Title Block ............................ ….• •. ….• •. ......…·…-…·…- … ……......... 1-9 h
1 6 7) Revision History Block . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. ... .. . . . 1 斗 0

1 6 8) Tole『a nee and Projection Blocks ...............................…·…….• •. ……..... 1-11
INTRODUCTI。N T。 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS QUESTI。NS .......….......……··…··…··…··….. 1-13
INTRODUCTI。N TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS PR。BLEMS .............................................. 1-17
Chapter 2：。rthographic Projections
2.1) ORTH。GRAPHIC PROJECTION INTR。DUCTI。N .................…........................................2-2

2 1 1) The Six P『i nciple Views ..................................…·…-…. •• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. ..•.•. •2-2
2.2) THE GLASS BOX METHOD .......................….........…..................…......................................2-3
2.3) THE STANDARD VIEWS .............….........….........….................…..........................................2-7
2 3 1) The F『ont View . .. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. ... . .. . .. ... . . . . 2-7
2.4) LINE TYPES USED IN AN ORTHOGRAPHIC PR。JECTION ............................................. 2-7
2.5) RULES F。R LINE CREATI。N AND USE .........….........….........…........................…...........2-10
2 5 1) Hidden Lines.. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . . .. . .. ... .. . . . 2-10
2 5 2) Cente『 Li nes ........ …………·…·…-…. •• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…- ….• •. ……..... 2-11
2 5 3) Phantom Lines. . .. .. ... . .. . . . .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. ... . .. . . . .. .. . .. . .. ........ 2-14
2 5 4) Break Lines ..............................................…·…-…·…- … ……........ 2-15 h
2 5 5) Line Type Precedence......................................................................... 2-16

2.6) CREATING AN 。RT HOG RAPHIC PROJECTION ............................................................. 2-18
2 6 1) P『ojection Symbol. .......................................…·…-…. •• •. …................. 2-19
2.7) APPLYING WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED ……….......………….......................……......….......2-27
ORTH。GRAPHIC PR。JECTIONS QUESTI。NS .......................……….........……......................2-31
ORTHOGRAPHIC PR。JECTI。NS PR。BLEMS ........….........…..................…..........................2-33
Chapter 3: Pictorial Drawings
3.1) PICT。RIALS INTR。DUCTI。N ........…....................................…….........…...........................3-2

3.2) PICTORIAL TYPES .….........…........…….......................................................…........…............3-4
3.3) AXONOMETRIC PROJECTI。NS ..............….........…..................….........……........................3-5
3 3 1) Types of axonometric pictorials .. . ... . .. . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. .. . .. . .. ...... ... 3-5
3.4）。BLIQUE PROJECTIONS. ….......…................................................…..................…..............3-8
IV
Engineering G『aphics Essentials
3 4.1) Types of oblique pictorials . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ............... . ... . 3-8

3.5) PERSPECT IVE PR。JECTIONS ..........................................................................……......... 3-11
3 5.1) Types of perspective p『ojections .......... ........ ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·…... 3-11
3.6) VISUALIZATION ........…............................................................…...............…..........…........ 3-12
3.7) DRAWING ISOMETRIC P ICT。RIALS .........….................................…··…..........................3斗4
3.7.1) D『awi ng linear features in an isometric pictorial. ......................................................... 3斗 5
3 7.2) Drawing ci「cles and radii in an isometric pictorial . ............. ........ ........ ................. 3-18
3.7.3) Drawing cylinde『S in an isometric pictorial .................................................................. 3-22
3.8) DRAWING CABINET OBLIQUE PICTORIALS .............….........…........................……........ 3-27
3 8.1) D『awi ng features of a cabinet oblique pictorial .. .“ ............ ........ ........ ................. 3-27
3.9) APPLYING WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED ........…..........…………...........................……........ 3-35
PICTORIAL DRAWINGS QUESTI。NS ................……….......….........….......….........…................ 3-39
PICTORIAL DRAWINGS PROBLEMS ...................................…................................…............. 3-41
C hapter 4: Dimens io n in g
4 .1) DETAI LED DRAWINGS ........................…….......….........…........................….........…….......... 4-2

4.2) LEARNING TO DIMENSION .................…............................................................................. 4-2
4.3) D IMENSI。N APPEARANCE ....................…..................….........…….....................................4-3
4 3.1) Lines Used in Dimensioning .. . . . . . . .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ............... . ... . 4-3
4 3 2) Types of Dimensions . ..... ........ ...... ... ........ ............... ........ ........ ................... 4-4
4 3.3) Arrowheads, lettering, and symbols . . .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . ............... . ... . 4-5
4.4) FEATURE DIMENSIONS ...............................................….........…….........……......................4-6
4 4.1) D『awi ng Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . .............. . ..4-20
4.5) D IMENSI。N I NG RULES. ….................................................................................................4-20
4 .5.1 ) Dimension placement, spacing and readability ............................................................4-20
4 5 2) Over/Unde『 dimensioned parts .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . ............... . ...4-26
4 5.3) Manufacturing .. ... . .. ..... ........ ... ........ ........ ............... ........ ........ .................4-30
4 5.4) Functional dimensioning. . . . . . . . . . .. ... . .. . . .. .. ... . .. . .............. . ..4-35
4 5.5) Tole『anci ng . . .. ... . .. ..... ........ ...... ... ........ ............... ........ ........ .................4-44
4.6) APPLYING WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED .........….........….............................….........…......4-49
DIMENSIONING QUESTIONS .........................................................................................….......4-53
DI MENSI。NING PROBLEMS ...............................................….........……........................…........4-57
C hapter 5 : Sectioning
5.1) SECTI。NAL V IEWS.........................….........….................…................…….......…..................5-2

51 . 1 ) C陀ati ng a section view .. . ... . . . .. .. . .. ... . .. . . .. .. ... . .. . ..... . .. ... . .. . . . . 5-2
5 1.2) Lines used in sectional views .... …….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·….....5-5
5 1.3) Rules of sectioning . .. . . . ... . . . . ... .. .. ... . .... . . .. ... . .. . .................. .. . 5-6
5.2) BASIC SECTI。NS ...........................................................….......................................…........ 5-7
5 2 1) Full section . . .. ... ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·…-….•• •.….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…....5-7
5 2 2) Half section. … … … … … . .. .. . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . 5-7
5 2 3) 0仔set section .. ... . ....…·…-….•• •.……· ........ ......….•• •.….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·….....5-9
5.3) ADVANCED SECTIONS .................….......................................…....................................... 5-14
5 3.1) Aligned section ... . .. .................. ...... ........ ............... ........ ........ ................. 5斗4
5 3 2) Rib and web sections .. .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. ... . .. . . ............. . ... 5斗 5
5 3 3) Broken section . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . 5-16
5 3.4) Removed section .. … …··…-….•• •.….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·…... 5-16
5 3 5) Revolved section . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . 5-17
5 3.6) Non-sectioned parts ........ ........ ...…………………·…-….. ..……………··…... 5-17
5 3.7) Thin sections . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. . .. . ......... . .... . ... 5-17
5.4) APPLYING WHAT WE HAV E LEARNED .............….................….........….......................... 5-23
SECTIONING QUESTI。NS ........…..................…….........……….........…·…..................................5-27
SECTIONING PROBLEMS ...............................................................................................……...5-29
V
Chapter 6: Advanced Drawing Tec hniques
6.1) ADVANCED VIEW TECHNIQUES. …..........…........................….........…................................6-2

6.1.1) Removed and revolved orthog『aph ic views ................................................................. 6-2
6 1 2) Detail views . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . .. . .. ....... ... 6-2
6 1 3) Partial views ......................…·…- ….• •. ……·......…·…-…. •• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. ..•.•. •6-2
6 1 4) Auxiliary views . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .... 6-7
6 1 5) Related parts ..................…·…- ….• •. ……·......…·…-…. •• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. . •.•. •6-7
6.2) ADVANCED PART TECHNIQUES ........…..........................................................................6-14
6 2 1) Cast and molded parts ...........................................…·…- ….• •. ……..... 6-14
6 2 2) Welded pa由．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．…·… …. •• •. …................. 6-21
ADVANCED DRAWING TECHNIQUES QUESTIONS …….................….......…............…··….... 6-23
H
ADVANCED DRAWING TECHNIQUES PROBLEMS ......…................….........….......................6-25
Chapter 7: T o lerancing
7.1) T。LERANCING AND INTERCHANGEABILITY ...........…….........……..................................7 -2

7.2) T。LERANCING STANDARDS .…...................................................................…...................7 -2
7.3) T。LE RANCE TYPES ........…………·…………........……..................………..................................7 -2
7.4) SHAFT-H。LE ASSEMBLY ........................….........…........…...............................….......….....7-4
7 .5) INCH TOLERANCES ...............................…................................….......................................7 -4
7 5 1) Types of fits ....................................................................................... 7-6
7.5.2) ANSI standa『d limits and fits (English) ....................................................................... 7-7
7.6) METRIC TOLERANCES ..............….................................…….........……·…........……............7-10
7.6.1) ANSI standa『d limits and fits (Metric) ....................................................................... 7-11
7 6 2) Tole『ance designation ......................... …… …………………· ……· …........ 7-11
7 6 3) Basic hole and basic sha由 systems .............................................................. 7-13
7.7) SELECTING TOLERANCES .................…..................…..................….........…….........…….. 7-14
7.8) T。LERANCE ACCUM U LATI。N ........…….........….........….........………..................…...........7-15
7.9) F。RMATTING TOLERANCES ....................….......................................…..........................7-17
7 9 1) Metric tolerances ............................ …… ……………··…- ….• •. …........ 7-17
792) 1nch tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .... ...... ...... ... . .. . . ........ 7-18
7.10) APPLYING WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED ........……….......…·……….......….........……........7-21
T。LERANC ING QUESTI。NS .................……….........……..................………...................…..........7-27
TOLERANCING PROBLEMS ........…..................….......................................…..........................7-31
C hapter 8: Threads and Fasteners
8.1) FASTENERS ..........................…............................................................….........….................8-2

8.2) SCREW THREAD DEFINITI。NS .............….................….........….................……·……............8-2
8.3) TYPES OF THREAD ........….........…..................…......................................................…........8-5
8.4) MANUFACTURING SCREW THREADS .....................….........….................…......................8-5
8.5) DRAWING SCREW THREADS ................……......……··……......………………………··……......8-6
8 5 1) Detailed rep「esentation . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . 8-6
8 5 2) Schematic 『ep『esentation ..……………. .•• •. …… ……………··…- ….• •. ….......... 8-6
8 5 3) Simplified rep陀sentation . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . .. ....... ... 8-7
8.6) UNIFIED THREADS ...................................…........................……….........………·….................8-9
8 6 1) Unified th read note ..……………. . . •. ... •. .. ... . .. . . •. .. . . .. . .. ... •. . . . 8-9
8 6 2) Unified th『ead tables ............…·…-…. •• •. ……·..............…. •• •. ….• •. …......... 8-11
8.7) METRIC THREADS .….......….........……….........……….........….........…….........…….................8-12
8 7 1) Met「ic thread note . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . 8-12
8 7 2) Metric h「ead tables ...................…. •• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…- ….• •. ……..... 8-14
8.8) DRAWING B。LTS ....................…·……..........................………................…........…·…·……....8-15
8.9) B。LT AND SCREW CLEARANCES .........….........................….........….................…..........8-15
8.10) STANDARD PARTS ........…..................….........…...........................….........…….........….....8-19
vi
Engineering G『aphics Essentials
8 10 1) General fastene「 specifications . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. .. 8-19

8.刊） APPLYING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED .................…....................................……........ 8-21
THREAD AND FASTENER QUESTIONS .......................……….........……........................……..... 8-27
THREAD AND FASTENER PROBLEMS ............................................….........…....................... 8-31
Chapter 9 : Assembly Drawings
9.1) DEFI NITI。NS ..................................................................................….................…............... 9-2

9 1.1) 0『awi ng order. .. .. .... ............ ...... ... .... .. ............... ........ ........ ................... 9-2
9.2) COMPONENTS OF AN ASSEMBLY DRAWING ................................................................. 9-3
9 2 1) Assembly drawing views .......... .... .. ... .... .. ............... ........ ........ ................... 9-3
9 2 3) Part identification ..............…. •• •.….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·…..... 9-3
9 2 4) Pa 『ts list I biII of material . . .. . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . 9-3
9 .到 SECTI。N VIEWS .................….........….............................….........….........................…..........9-6
9.4) THINGS TO INCLUDE/NOT INCLUDE. …......................................…....................................9-6
9 4.1) Hidden and cente『 l ines .................... ......…·…-…·…-… ……··........…·…..... 9-6 h
9 4.2) Dimensions. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. . 9-6

9.5) APPLYING WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED ........…….......…................…..........….................... 9-7
ASSEMBLY QUESTIONS ........……....................................…….........….........…….........…...........9-17
ASSEMBLY PROBLEMS .................…..................…...............…................................................ 9-19
Appendi x A : Limits and Fi ts
A.1 ) LIMITS AND FITS (INCH) .................................................................................................... A -2

A 1.1) Running or sliding clearance fits ...……· .......................……·….. .. .................. A-2
A 1.2) Locational clearance fits . . . . . . .. .. .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. A-4
A 1.3) Locational transition fits …....……·…··.......................··……. ........ ................. A-6
A 1.4) Locational interference fits ...........……· ..............…………····……. .................. A-7
A 1.5) Fo『ce and shrink fits . . . . . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. A-8
A.2) METRIC LIMITS AND FITS ...............................................……….........…….........….............. A -9
A 2 1) Hole basis clearance fits . . . . . . . . .. . ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. A-9
A 2 2) Hole basis transition and interference fits ........ ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·….. A-10
A 2 3) Shaft basis clea『a nee fits . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . A-11
A 2 3) Shaft basis clearan但他．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．……·… .. .. ... ...... ....... A-11
A 2 4) Shaft basis transition and inte『ierence fits .... .. ......…·…-…. •• •.……. ........ ....... A-12
Appendi x B : Threads and Fastener Tables
8.1 ) UNIFIED NATIONAL THREAD FORM....................……….........…….........….........……......... B-2

8.2) METRIC THREAD F。RM ..............….........…..................…..................…............................. 8 -3
8.3) FASTENERS (INCH SERIES) .........….........….................….........….........................…......... B-4
B.3.1) Dimensions of hex bolts and heavy hex bolts .............................................................. B-4
B.3.2) Dimensions of hex nuts and hex jam nuts ... .......... .......... .......... ................................. B-5
B.3.3) Dimensions of hexagon and spline socket head 臼P SC『ews ....…… …......… …..... B-6 h 8
B.3.4) D「ill and cou nte『bo「e sizes fo『 socket head cap screws.. ..... ... ................................. B-7
B.3.5) Dimensions of hexagon and spline socket flat cou ntersunk head cap screws.…........ B-8
B.3.6) Dimensions of slo忧ed flat cou ntersunk head 臼P SC「ews .. .. . .. . .. ... .. . ....................... B-9
B.3. 7) Dimensions of slo出d round head 臼p screws .. .............……·….. .. ........ ......... B-9
B.3.8) Dimensions of prefeπed sizes of type A plain washers ... ........... ..... ... ....... ..... ..... ..... 8 -10
B.3 .9) Dimensions of 陀gu lar heli臼l sp「ing-lock washe『s .......... .......................................... B-11
8.4) METRIC FASTENERS ........……….........….........…….........……..................……·…................ 8 -12
B 4.1) Dimensions of hex bolts . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. . B斗 2
B.4.2) Dimensions of hex nuts, style 1 . ...... ... .... .. .....…·…-….. ..……· ......…·….. B-13
B.4句 Di mensions of met「ic socket head 臼P SC『ews ...... ................................................... 8 -14
VII
B.4.4) Drill and counte「bo「e sizes fo『 socket head cap screws........................................... B-15
B.4.5) Dimensions of metric counte『sunk socket head cap screws. …………......……….. B-16
B.4.6) Drill and countersink sizes for flat countersunk head cap sc陀WS …· … ...... …h …... B-17
8.5) BOLT AND SCREW CLEARANCE H。LES .........................................…......................... B-18
B.5.1) Inch clea『ance holes. …………………·· … ………………··…- ….. .. ………. B-18 h
B.5.2) Met「ic clea『a nee holes . . . .. ... .. .. . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. ... .. . . B-19
Appendix C: Referenc es
REFERENCES ..........................…..................….........…...........................….........…….................. C-1
viii
[ Chapter 1 - lntroducti。n to engineering d『awings J
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1) DESIGN ..............…….........……....................................….........…….........…….........…................ 2

1.2) C。MMUNICATING A DESIGN ......................................….........……........................................ 2
1.2 1) Sketching ... ... ... ............................. ............................... ........ ................ .. . 2
1.2 2) Technical Drawing ... ......................... ........ ............................... ................... . 2
1.2 3) Computer-Aided Drawing . ... . .. . . ... .. .. ... .. .... . . .. ... . .. . .. ... .. .. ... .. .... . . . 4
1.3) STANDARDS ........…..................…..................................................….......…............................ 4
1.4) HISTORY OF TECHNICAL DRAWING .............….........…....................................…................ 5
1.5) MANUFACTURING ..............................................................…........….......….........……·…......... 5
1.6) ENGINEERING DRAWING F。RMAT AND CONTENTS .........…........….......…....................... 6
1.6 1) Sheet Sizes. . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . .. ... . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. . . . . 7
1.6 2) Drawing . .. . ... .. .. ... . .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. ... .. .... . . .. ... . .. . .. ... .. .. ... .. .... . . . 8
1.6 3) Zoning ... ... ........ ............................... ....................................... ................... . 9
1.6 4) S臼I e . . .. . .. ...... .. ...... .........……·…··.. .....................··……. .••.•. •. .••.•. •.•.••.•. •.•. • 9
1.6 5) Notes .... ... ........ ......…·…- ….• •. ……· ......…·…-….•• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…. •.• . • 9
1.6 6) Title Block .. ... ... .........…- ….• •. ……………··……. .•• •. … ………………··…… . . 9 h
1.6 7) Revision Hi sto「y Block ..... ....... ........... ................................ ........ .................. 10
1.6 8) Tolera nce and P叫ection Blocks .... .. ... ... ... .............….• •. ……………··……. . 11
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS QUESTIONS .........….......….......................... 13
INTRODU CTI。N TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS PROBLEMS................................................. 17
1-1
( Chapter 1 - Introduction to engineering d用阳ngs I
CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter you will learn the importance of eng的eering drawings, how they relate to
design and manufacturing, and the general arrangement and placement of the components on a
print. In addition, the information that is contained within the various blocks (e.g. title bloc均 will be
described.
1.1) DESIGN
Design is a strategic approach t o pro blem solv ing. The design process may
involve considerable research, thought, modeling, adjustments, and redesign. In the field
of Engineering , the design process leads to the creation of a plan for the construction of
an obj ect or system. These plans define things such as the specifications, parameters,
costs , processes, and constraints of the system. Designing often necessitates considering
the aesthetics, functionality, economics, and sociopolitical aspects of the system. In
mechanical engineering, the designed obj ect is most likely a manufactured part or
machine that pe斤orms a required function. In the field of electrical engineering, the design
could be a computer algorithm or a circuit. In civil engineering, the design could be
subdivision or bridge plans. No ma扰er what kind of design is required, you will be requ ired
to communicate this design to someone. You『 audience may vary from you『 cl assmates ,
instructor, boss, or potential investors.
1.2) COMMUNICATING A DESIGN
Why would you want to communicate your design? Most likely, you want to attract,
inspire, and motivate people to respond to your design. Methods of design
communications can be written or oral. Written communication could be in the form of
reports, memos, or drawings. Design communication throug h drawings may be as simple
as a sketch or as complex as a computer generated technical drawing.
1.2.1) Sketching
A sketch is a quickly executed freeha nd drawing that is not intended to be a

drawing used to manufacture a fi nished pa『t It is only used to express an idea. Sketching
is a useful skill that may be used to quickly convey an idea in a design meeting or to have
as a record of an idea for later use.
1.2.2) Technical Drawing
Technical drawing may be used as both a noun and a verb. Tec hnical drawing
is the process of C「eating an engineering drawing. Technical drawing is governed by a
set of ru les or standards that allow you to create an engineeri ng drawing that is
understandable and unambiguous.
A technical drawing is a drawing or a set of drawings that communicate an idea,
design, schematic, or model. They a「e often used to show the look and function of an
0时ect or system. Each engineering field has its own type of techn i创 drawi ngs . For
example, electrical engineers draw circuit schematics and circuit boa 「d layou怡， civil
engineers draw plans for bridges and road layouts, and mechanical engineers draw parts
and assemblies that need to be manufactu red. This book focuses on the technical
drawings of parts and systems for manufacture. This is not to say that only students in a
1-2
mechanical engineering curriculum will benefit from learning the skills necessary to read
and create part drawings. It benefits everyone from the weekend carpenter who wants to
draw plans for his/her new bookshelf to the electri创 eng ineer who wants to analyze
electri臼I component cooling using a CAE (i.e. computer aided engineering) program.
Technical drawing teaches you how to visualize and see all sides of an object in your
mind. Being able to visualize in your mind will help you in several aspects of critical
thinking.
Engineering drawings , a type of tech ni臼l drawing, are used to fully and clearly
define requirements for an engineered part or system. It communicates all the needed
information 付om the engineer who designed the part to the machinist who will make it.
The process of producing an engineering drawing is often referred to as technical drawing
or drafting. The person that generates the drawing may be called the designer or drafter.
Before the advent of computers, copies of the engineering drawing were duplicated
through the process of blueprinting. Therefore, engineering drawings are often referred
to as prints. Figure 1.2-1 shows one example of an engineering drawing.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ，。 11
REVISION HISTORY
:c ZONE REV DESCRIPTION DATE APPROVED :c
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1. DIMENSIONS ANO TOLERANCES PE只 ASMEY1 4.岳2009 电：，
2. REMOVE ALL BURRS ANO SHARP EDGES
UNLESS OTHERWI S司E SPECIFIED

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APPROVALS DATE
DIMARE IN INCHES AM CO 口ESIGN INC.
X ORAFτER 口PM 2010107123
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ，。 11
Figure 1.2-1: Engineering drawing example
1-3
1.2.3) Computer-Aided Drawing
Today, the mechanics of drafting have been automated through the use of
computer-aided drawing or design (i.e. CAD) systems. Computer-aided drawing or
design refers to computer software that allows an engineer to create drawings of their
design ideas. There are two types of CAD systems used to create technical drawings.
The first type allows you to draw two-dimensional drawings from scratch. The other types,
and more prevalent today, are programs that start from a three-dimensional model and
automatically create the two-dimensional drawing from the model. Communicating ideas
is critical fo『 developing the best possible solution, and solid models allow you to show a
th『ee dimensional version of your system instead of the traditional two-dimensional
drawing. Many people are able to more quickly understand the idea if they are shown a
three-dimensional representation of the design.
Figure 1.2-2: Three-dimensional CAD model
1.3) STANDARDS
An engineering drawing is a legal document because it communicates all the

needed information about what is wanted to the people who will expend resources turning
the idea into reality. Therefore, if the resulting product is wrong, the manufacturer is
protected from liability as long as they have faithfully executed the instructions conveyed
by the drawing. Mistakes made by the designer during the drawing phase and
manufacturers misreading prints a『e costly. This is the biggest reason why the
conventions and standards of engineering drawings have evolved over decades toward a
very precise and unambiguous state.
In the pursuit of unambiguous communication, engineering drawings often follow
certain national and international standards, such as ASME Y 14.5M or a group of ISO
standards. Standa 「d ization also aids with globalization. Standards allow people from
di仔erent countries who speak di仔erent languages to share a common language of
engineering drawing .
Standards define how to create an orthographic projection, apply dimensions,
symbols use, perspectives, and layout conventions among many other things. This
enables the drafter to communicate more concisely by using a commonly understood
convention.
1 -4
1.4) HIST。RY OF TECHNICAL DRAWING
For centuries, all engineering drawings were done manually by using pencil and
paper. This process took time, precision, and a certain degree of a『tistic ability. Since the
advent of computers, an increasing number of engineering drawings are drawn within the
virtual world of a computer-aided design or drawing (i.e. CAD) program. Currently, it is
very hard to find any company that still practices manual drafting.
Some of the tools used in manual drafting include pencils, erasers, straightedges,
T-square, French curves, triangles, rulers, protractor, compass, and drawing board. The
English saying "Go back to the drawing board ” means to rethink something altogether. It
was inspired by the literal act of discovering design errors and returning to a drawing board
to revise the design.
An engineering drawing is usually reproduced multiple times. These copies are
distributed to the shop floor, vendors, supervisors, and to the company archives.
Historically, a process called blueprinting was used which produced a copy that was blue
in appearance. This is why engineering drawings a「e still referred to as blueprints or
simply prints. Drawings today a「e simply reproduced using a plo忧er or printer.
Figure 1.4-1 : Drafting implements
1.5) MANUFACTURING
Engineering drawings provide an understanding of how a product will function and

be manufactured . Historically, two-dimensional engineering drawings have served as the
sole method of transferring information from design into a manufactured pa『t However,
there are always challenges involved in trying to describe a 30 world in a 20 drawing.
Many companies are realizing that two-dimensional drawings alone are not sufficient and
often lead to design errors and higher manufacturing costs.111 Recently, 30 solid modeling
software has been developed that take the computer drawing or model information and
produce a G-code, which is executed by a CNC (i.e. computer numerical control) machine.
However, two-dimensional drawings still play an important role in the design process by
providing tolera n ci吨， annotations, pa付s lists and other information that is criti创 to
manufacturing and quality control.111
Engineering drawings transform ideas into products and communicate information
between engineering and manufacturing. Orawings originate in the engineering
department and give the manufacturing department all the information that is needed to
1-5
manufacture the part. These prints also give the inspection department all the information
that is needed to inspect the part.
1 .6) ENGINEERING DRAWING FORMAT AND CONTENTS
The drawing format, arrangement, and organization of information within a drawing

is controlled by ASME Y14.1 and Y14.1 M. A drawing sheet's main elements are the
drawing, various blocks, notes and zones as shown in Figure 1.6-1 . However, there are
other components that are optional and may be included on the drawing sheet. First and
foremost, engineering drawings contain all the information needed to make the product.
A drawing could be anything from a simple part print to a complex assembly drawing. Note
that the drawing format may vary slightly depending on the drawing size and orientation.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Revisi。n h istory bloc k
F
Z o nes
E E
Bo「der －二二’l
D D『awi ng area D
C C
N。tes
B B
Toleranc e a nd
丁itle bl。ck
projection block s
A A
皇 7 皇呈主 2
Figure 1.6-1: Engineering drawing format
1-6
[ Chapter 1 - lntroducti。n to engineering d『awingsJ
1.6.1) Sheet Sizes
The physical size of the printed drawing is controlled by ASME Y14.1 and
ASME Y14. 1M. Each drawing size is identified by a letter or a letter number combination.
For examp怡， drawing size A is an 8.5 x 11 inch sheet. A complete list of drawing sizes
are given in Tables 1.6-1 through 1.6 - 4. Note that a flat sheet is a sheet that is usually
stored flat, and a roll or elongated sheet is rolled due to its elongated length.
Format size Vertical Horizontal Recommended number of

desianation On) On) zones
A /Horizontal) 8.50 11.00 2x2
A (Vertical) 11.00 8.50 2x2
B 11.00 17.00 2x4
C 17.00 22.00 4x4
D 22.00 34.00 4x8
E 34.00 44.00 8x8
F 28.00 40.00 6x8
Table 1.6-1: Drawing sheet flat sizes 121
Format size Vertical Horizontal Recommended number of

desianation (in) (in) zones
G 11.00 22.50- 90.00 4 X (6 - 24)
H 28.00 44.00- 143.00 Bx 8- 26
J 34.00 55.00- 176.00 Bx 10.32
K 40.00 55.00- 176.00 Bx 10.32
Table 1.6-2: Drawing sheet roll sizes 121
Desianation Vertical (mm) Horizontal (mm) Recommended number of zones

AO 841 1189 16x24
A1 594 841 12 X 16
A2 420 594 8 X 12
A3 297 420 6x8
A4 297 210 6x4
Table 1.6-3: Basic sheet sizes (metric ) 131
Desianation Vertical (mm) Horizontal (mm) Recommended number of zones

A1.0 594 1189 12x24
A2.1 420 841 8 X 16
A2.0 420 1189 8 X 24
A3.2 297 594 6 X 12
A3.1 297 841 6 X 16
A3.0 297 1189 6 X 24
Table 1.6-4: Elongated sheet sizes (metri c) 131
1- 7
1.6.2) Drawing
The most important part of a print is the drawing and the most important pa『t of
reading the print is the ability to visualize the part. The drawing area (see Figure 1.6-1)
may contain an orthographic projection and a pictorial of the object as shown in
Figure 1.6-2. The o同hographic projection is a two-dimensional representation of a three-
dimensional object. It usually contains three views (e.g. front view, top view, right side
view) but it may contain more or less than three. The number of views needed is
determined by the complexity of the part. A pictorial is a pseudo 3D drawing. Pictorials
are very useful in helping the reader visualize the object.
Dimensions a『e an important part of the drawing that give the size, shape and
finish of the pa『t Without the dimensions, the part would not be able to be manufactured.
Dimensions communicate more than just the size of the part, they also give the
manufacturing depa同ment an idea of the object’ s function and important surfaces.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2
F F
Orth og raphic p rojection
E R.38 E
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Figure 1.6-2: The drawing component of an engineering drawing
1-8
1.6.3) Zoning
The zone letters and numbers are located in the drawing ma 「g i ns outside the
border. The letter-number combinations allow you to indicate a specific location on an
engineering drawing. Zones are simila 「 to how cells are identified in a spread sheet
application. For example, zone B6 is located where row B and column 6 intersect (see
Figure 1.6-1 ). On inch drawings, zone sizes a「e equal, not less than 1 inch, and not more
than 5.50 inches. On metric drawings, the zone size selected is equal on the horizontal
and the ve『tical , except that the upper and far left zones may be an odd size to
accommodate the size of the sheet.
1.6.4) Scale
The drawing scale expresses the ratio of the object ’s size as pri nted to its actual
physical size. If a drawing is printed fu ll-scale, it implies that a feature dimensioned as
1 inch measures 1 inch with a ruler on the printed drawing. This is referred to as a 1 to 1
scale. Printing full scale, in most cases, is difficult to achieve unless you have access to
a la『ge plotter. In a classroom setting, most engineering drawings are printed on a
standard 8.5” X 1 1 飞heet of paper regardless of the o问ect’s size. The s臼le at which the
pa『t is printed should allow all details of the part to be seen clearly and accurately. Even
tho ugh a drawing may not be able t o be printed full scale, they sho uld always be
drawn full s cale in the CAD env iro nment.
Since it is impractical to print all drawings full scale, we employ printing to half
sca怡， quarter-scale and so on. For example, if a drawing is printed half-sca le, a feature
that is dimensioned 1 inch will measure 0 .5 inch on the printed drawing. The scale at
which the drawing is printed should be indicated in the drawing’ s title block next to the text
“ SCALE. ” On a drawing, half-scale may be denoted in the following ways.
1/2 or 1:2 or 0.5
Although it is nice to print to scale, the ASME standard states that no dimension
should be measured directly 付om the printed drawing. For drawings that are not prepared
to any scale, the word “ NONE" should be entered after “ SCALE” in the title block.
1.6.5) Notes
Drawing notes provide information that clarify a particular requirement or specifies

new information necessary to manufacture the obj ect correctly. This concept will be
discussed in the chapte『 on dimensioning.
1.6.6) Title Block
Every engineering drawing should have both a border and a title block. The border
defines the drawing a 「ea and the title block gives pertinent information about the part or
assembly being drawn . There are several d i何erent types of title blocks, but they all contain
similar information. The information that is included depends on the drawing type, field of
engineering, and viewing audience.
The title block is located in the lower right corner of the sheet as shown in
Figure 1 .6- 1. The information common to all drawings is shown in Figure 1.6-3 where the
identification letters refer to the following information. For a more complete explanation,
see ASME Y14.100.
1-9
A. Company name and address.

B. Drawing title.
C. Drawing number.
D. Sheet revision. This block may be omitted when a revision history block is
included.
E. This block may contain sub-blocks such as DRAFTER, CHECKER, and
ENGINEER.
F. This block is used for approval by the design activity when d i仔erent from the
source preparing the drawing. This block may be necessary when a
contractor-subcontractor condition exists.
G. Approval by an activity other than those described for blocks E and F.
H. Scale of the drawing sheet.
I. DAI (Design activity identification).
J. Drawing size.
K. Actual or estimated weight of the item.
L. Sheet number.
④
TITLE
①
⑤
----------------
才一－－－－－降百队1 ①
DRWNO
@
SHEET
① ①
Figure 1.6-3: Title block contents
1.6.7) Revision Hist ory Block
The revision history block is used to record changes to the drawing and is located
in the upper rig ht corner of the d『awing sheet as shown in Figure 1.6-1. The block is
extended downward as required. Revisions are necessary when the part is redesig ned.
The information contained in the revision history block is shown in Figure 1.6-4 where the
identification letters refer to the following information. For a more complete explanation,
see ASME Y1 4 .100.
A . Specifies the zone location of the revision.
B. The revision letter or number is found in this location.
C. Gives a short description of the change.
D. The revision date is given numerically in order of year-month-day. For
example, the date, May 31 , 2016, would be indicated as 2016-05-31 or
2016/05/31.
E. The initials of the person approving the change.
1 - 10
REVISION HISTORY
ZONE REV 。巨SCRIPTION DATE APPROVED
①⑤ @ ⑤ ⑤
Figure 1.6-4: Revision history block
1.6.8) To lerance and Projection Blocks
The tolerance and projection blocks are lo臼ted to the left of the title block as
shown in Figure 1.6-1. The angle of projection block shown in Figure 1.6-5 indicates the
projection method that was used to create the drawing. The two methods of projection
are third angle projection and first angle projection. What projection is and how to interpret
it will be discussed in the chapter on orthographic projection.
The dimension and tolerancing block shown in Figure 1.6-5 gives information
relating to dimensioning and tolerancing that apply to the drawing as a whole.
Dimensioning and tolerancing will be discussed in late「 chapters.
UNLESS OT HERWISE SPECIFIED

DIM ARE IN INCHES
TOL ON ANGLE ±.XX0
2 PL ±.X)< 3 PL ±.XXX
INTERPRET DIM AND TOL PER
ASME Y· 4.5 - XXXX
THIRD ANGL =PROJECTION
Figure 1.6-5: Tolerance and projection blocks
1 - 11
且♀工E豆
1 - 12
I NTR。DUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS QUESTIONS
Name: Date:
Q1-1 ) Design is ．（白II in the blank)
Q1 刽 A technical d 「awing is one way of commun i臼ting ... (circle all that apply)
a) an idea.
b) a design.
c) information used to manufacture a pa同．
d) inspection specifications.
Q1-3) The two organizations that control the content of engineering drawings.
a) ASME
b) AMCE
c) ISO
d) EAU
Q1-4) Historically, engineering drawings are also called ...
a) copies.
b) drafting.
c) prints.
d) details.
Q1-5) CAD stands for .. (circle all that apply)
a) computer achieved drafting .

b) computer aided drawing.
c) computer aided design.
d) computer aided development.
Q1-6) What are the four basic components of an engineering drawing?
Q1-7) What is the most im po同ant part of a print?
a) Title block
b) Zones
c) Drawing
d) Notes
1 - 13
Q1-8) How many views a「e generally used to describe the shape of a part?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Q1-9) What is the function of dimensions?
Q1-10) The letters and numbers along the ma『g i ns that allow you to specify a location on
the drawing is called ...
a) referencing.
b) zoning .
c) mapping.
d) celling .
Q1-11) The area inside the border lines and outside the various blocks is called the.
a) drawing area.
b) zone
c) revision area.
d) plot.
Q1-12) The s臼le of a drawing is the ratio of the ...
a) printed size of the pa同 to its actual size.

b) actual size of the pa时 to its printed size.
c) the pa吭’s size to the sheet size.
d) sheet size to the part’s size.
Q1-1 3) What scale should a part be drawn in the CAD environment?
Q1-14) This block gives information about the drawing such as title, sheet size and scale.
a) Revision history block

b) Dimension and tolerance block
c) Angle of projection block
d) Title block
e) Note
1 - 14
Q1-15) This block gives information about the drawing's projection method .

d) Title block
e) Note
Q1-16) This block gives information about the drawing's modifications.

d) Title block
e) Note
Q1-17) This block gives information about general dimensions and tolerancing
specifications.

d) Title block
e) Note
1 - 15
且♀工E豆
1 - 16
I NTR。DUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS PR。BL EMS
Name: Date:
P1-1 ) Given the following title block, name and briefly describe each space.
APPROVALS DATE
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
DRAFTER @
DIM ARE IN INCHES
TOLONANGLE 主.xx• CHECKER
τtτLE
2PL 主 . XX
3 P L 主 .xxx
ENGINEER
INTERPRET DIM AND TOL PER
ASME Y14.5 • XXXX @
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION
＠一＠
@-
M① DRWNO
w @
SCALE Q) ①
0
A
B
C
D
E
F
J
K
L
M
N
。
1 - 17
且♀工E豆
1 - 18
Name: Date:
P1-2) Given the following revision history block, name and briefly describe each space.
REVISION HISTORY
ZONE REV DESCRIPTION DATE APPROVED
①⑤ @ ⑤ ⑤
A 一B －
c －D －E
1 - 19
且♀工E豆
1 - 20
Name: Date:
P1-3) Given the print shown on the next page，们II in the following information.
Company name
Print title
Print number
Print scale
Sheet size
Number of revisions
Revision A zone location
Number of sheets
Material
Projection method
Finish requirements
Approving drafter
Approving checker
Approving engineer
Tolerance for a .XXX
dimension
Number of notes
1 - 21
斗 ’NN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
REVISION HISTORY
工工
ZONE REV DESCRIPTION DATE APPROVED
F6 A ECN 1510 2010/08/30 HJE
E3 B ECN 1511 2010/11/20 HJE
。。
①
2.75
u. U」
1.59
①
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.75 • .50 •
w 丛』
.
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。
2X 0.25 一 2X 1/4 - 20 UNC - 2A 。
2X SR.39
NOTES:
()
1. DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES PER ASME Y14.5-2009 止J
2. REMOVE ALL BURRS AND SHARP EDGES
UNLESS OTH ER阶nsE SPECIFIED APPROVALS DATE

口I M ARE IN INCHES AMCO DESIGN INC.
.x ±.1 DRAFTER DPM 2010/07/23
∞ .xx 企.01
CHECKED DAM 2010/07/26 TITLE
国
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ANGULAR 企3
MATERIAL SAE 4320
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION SIZE CAGE CODE DWGNO REV
FINISH B MS2344 B
< ($ E REMOVE BURRS
DO NOT SCALE DRPI叭/ING
SCALE
2:1
SHEET
1 of 1
<
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Name: Date:
P1-4) Given the print shown below, fill in the following information.
Company name
Print title
Print number
Print scale
Sheet size
Number of revisions
Revision A zone location
Sheet number
Number of sheets
Material
Projection method
Finish requirements
Approving drafter
Approving checker
Approving engineer
Tolerance for a .XX dimension
1 - 23
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Siellä eräässä kulmassa puolittain lepäsi suloisen ihana nuori äiti,

uinuva pienokainen käsivarrellaan. Lapsi saateltiin sillä tavoin
iltapäivä-uneen, ja taiteellinen kauneus koko Antonian asennossa,
hänen uneksivat silmänsä, purppurankuumat huulensa, jotka olivat
painettuina lapsen vaaleita kiharoita vasten, joille varjon tavoin
putosivat hänen omat tummat suortuvansa — kaikki nämä
yksityiskohdat muodostivat kokonaisuuden, joka pakoitti
vastahakoisen aviomiehen muuttamaan sanomalehtineen
takkavalkean ääreen lukusaliin, missä myöskin houkutteleva
keinutuoli ojensi käsivarsiaan häntä kohti.
Kun tämä tapahtui ensi kerran, oli Antonia todellakin nukahtanut.

Mutta epäilemättä oli magneettista voimaa niissä katseissa, jotka
olivat vakavasti kiintyneet häneen, sillä hän heräsi tietoisena siitä,
että joku oli häntä lähellä, ja ettei tämä joku ollut välinpitämätön
hänestä.
Salaperäisen onnen valtaamana Antonia varoi heräämästä,

ennenkuin hänen miehensä oli istunut keinutuoliin, koettaen
sanomalehti silmien tasalle kohotettuna kääntää pois huomiotaan
sohvasta.
Nyt Antonia heräsi ja tekeytyen aivan tietämättömäksi virkkoi:
— Teit oikein, rakas Wolrat, istuutuessasi tänne takkavalkean

ääreen — sali on niin suuri, että siellä tulee vilu.
— Se on totta, — myönsi hänen miehensä haukotellen, —

varsinkin kun seurana ovat vain omat ajatukset.
— Olen ollut huomaavinani, ystäväiseni, että sinä olet tyytynyt

parhaiten juuri siihen seuraan — muuten minä mielelläni…
— Ei mitään anteeksipyyntöjä! Sinun ei tarvitse muuttaa tapojasi.

Voin yhtä hyvin välistä lukea sanomalehteäni ja nukahtaa täällä kuin
salissa.
Ja tämä "välistä" sattui aina useammin. Antonia lepäsi

pienokaisen kanssa sohvalla ja kapteeni keinutuolissa
sanomalehden suojassa. Antonia mietti: Hyvä Jumala, enkö koskaan
pääse häntä lähemmäs… enkö koskaan saa tietää, millaisesta
teeskentelystä hän minua syyttää?
Tällaisen vieraan tuttavallisuuden vallitessa saapui vihdoin joulu.

Nyt kai tapahtuisi jokin muutos. Mutta mitään muutosta ei
tapahtunut.
Taasen oli herrasväki Brandt kutsuttu päärakennukseen, ja joulu

kului pienimmättäkään vivahduksetta siihen lämpimään ja hyvään
sävyyn, minkä tämä juhla tuo mukanansa jäykkäänkin perhepiiriin.
Oli joulukuusi, lapset leikkivät, annettiin joululahjoja ja tarjottiin
mainiota juhlapuuroa — siinä kaikki.
Muuan onni oli Antonian mielestä kuitenkin hyvin suuri, nimittäin
että herrasväki Brandt toisena joulupäivänä matkusti Sofie-rouvan
vanhempien luokse jäädäkseen sinne kahdenteenkymmenenteen
päivään saakka. Kunpa nyt vaan ei saapuisi mitään kutsuja! Mutta
kuten ja kuului, ei niistä kuitenkaan tulisi olemaan puutetta. Ja niin
väsynyt oli Antonia sellaiseen touhuun, niin ruumiin kuin sielun
verhojen alituiseen muuttamiseen — sillä viimemainittu ei saanut
koskaan pukeutua mustiin, mikä sille olisi kuulunut parhaiten — että
kun heitä kutsuttiin uudenvuodenpäiväksi erääseen uuteen
tuttavaperheeseen kaupungissa, selitti hän miehelleen täytyvänsä
jäädä kotiin, koska "pienokaisen hammas oli kipeä".
— Jos se on välttämätöntä, — vastasi kapteeni, kun tästä asiasta

uudenvuoden aamuna keskusteltiin, — niin… niin .. — Hän näytti
mietiskelevän, eikä Antonia auttanut häntä millään kysymyksellä.
— Täytyykö sinun ehdottomasti jäädä kotiin, rakas Antonia?

Ovathan täällä hoitajatar ja Pekka…?
— Minun on mahdoton lähteä tänään minnekään… olen jo

laittanut valmiiksi pienen kuusen, jolla on tarkoitus huvittaa pikku
Woll-Wolliani illalla. — Antoniaa oli mahdoton taivuttaa lähtemään.
— No niin, silloin minäkin lähetän omasta puolestani peruutuksen.
— Älä millään muotoa — sinulle tulee täällä varmaan tavattoman

ikävää.
— Niinpä tietysti, koska minun pieni lohduttajani ei itse voi ottaa

vastaan lohdutusta keneltäkään, paitsi ehkä sinulta. Mutta vuoden
ensimäisenä päivänä kuuluu perhetapoihin, että kärsitään ikävää —
yhdessä.
XXV
Pikku Wolrat oli koko aamupäivän tavattoman kärtyisä. Antonia sai

tuskin aikaa olla sisällä niin kauan kun hänen miehensä luki saarnan
hänelle, Pekalle ja kotonaolevalle palvelusväelle. Kapteeni oli tänä
päivänä hyvin kärsivällinen ja kotoisella tuulella; hän ei näyttänyt
läheskään niin jäykältä ja hienolta kuin tavallisesti, ja hän kävi kolme
kertaa lastenkamarissa ottamassa pienokaisen lopen väsyneeltä
äidiltä. Mutta hän huomasi pian, ettei poika välittänyt hänen
tunteistaan, vaan aina kun tuskat lisääntyivät piti enemmän Pekan
hauskoista ilveistä, mikä seikka aiheutti sen, että kapteenin käynnit
lyhenivät. Onneksi lapsi tyyntyi aterian lähestyessä, jotta Antonia sai
aikaa pukeutua huolellisesti päivällistä varten.
Antonialle oli hyvä, että hän muisti miehensä tavattoman

heikkouden aistikkaita naisten pukimia kohtaan ja kun Wolrat sitten
astui sisään saliin mustassa juhlapuvussa ja rinnastaan niin
valkoisena ja hienona kuin lähdössä suurille juhlapäivällisille, oli
Antonia oikein jyvillään esiintyessään yhtä sirona uudessa
safiirinsinisessä hameessaan, joka somin poimuin kietoutui hänen
uhkean, nuortean vartalonsa ympäri. Mutta molemmat hymyilivät
hieman hämillään toisilleen, kun he yksinään kaikessa
komeudessaan olivat vieraina pöydässä.
Tähän saakka olivat pieni Woll-Woll ja hänen opettajansa Pekka

olleet aina mukana aterialla, mutta nyt, sen jälkeen kun kapteeni
ritarillisesti oli johtanut naisensa pöytään, alkoivat he syödä kahden
syvän hiljaisuuden vallitessa; lukuunottamatta muutamia
välttämättömiä lauselmia jatkui ateriaa samalla lailla aina siihen
saakka, kunnes he pääsivät jälkiruokaan.
— Sinä ainoastaan maistelet viiniä, — virkkoi Wolrat kiintyneenä

katselemaan vaimonsa punastuvia poskia, ja tämä puna johtui siitä,
että tämä luuli huomaavansa hänen katseessaan jotain, mikä
muistutti suloisesta menneisyydestä.
— Jos saan itse esittää maljan, — vastasi Antonia hymyillen, —

niin juon lasini pohjaan.
— Minulla ei ole mitään sitä vastaan… Sen jälkeen tulee minun

vuoroni.
— No niin, rakas Wolrat, siinä tapauksessa me juomme sen

vihollisen luodin maljan, joka on otettu pois sinun olkapäästäsi. Jos
se olisi sattunut vähän alemmas, olisi se osunut sydämeesi ja
samalla minunkin sydämeeni, sillä kuinka olisin voinut enää sitten
elää… Kilistäkäämme siis sille järkevälle luodille, joka osoitti
voivansa totella korkeampaa käskyä kuin ihmisten antamaa.
Hänen ojentaessaan kätensä pöydän yli putosi helmi hänen

silmästään lasiin, jonka hän syvästi liikutettuna tyhjensi pohjaan.
— Kiitos, Antonia! Se oli ylevän vaimon esittämä malja, ja kuten
olet lausunut toivovasi, me kiinnitämme sen luodin johonkin… Mutta
nyt on minun vuoroni, ja minun esittämäni malja täytyy meidän
myöskin juoda pohjaan. — Wolrat täytti molempien pikarit
kukkuralleen. — Minä — tavoitteli hän — minä juon ensi
uudenvuoden maljan, sillä kun se saapuu, olemme me silmä silmää
vasten kuluttaneet kaksitoista kuukautta aikaa, tuota vaativaa
valtiasta, sekä oppineet käsittämään, onko se meidän vihollisemme
vai ystävämmekö… Suostutko ehdottamaani maljaan?
Ilosta väristen — sillä tämähän merkitsi, että asiat alkoivat muuttaa

— kiiruhti Antonia tyhjentämään lasinsa, noustakseen samalla
pöydästä tapansa mukaan nukuttamaan pienokaista ennen kahvin
juontia.
— Anna takkavalkean leimuta kirkkaana, — virkkoi kapteeni. —

Minä tulen perässä heti kun olen vaihtanut ylleni mukavamman
nutun nauttimaan pienen päivällislevon keinutuolissa, sillä siinä on
korkeampi selkänoja kuin salissa olevassa.
Mutta kapteeni ei tullutkaan pian, joku alustalaisista oli herra

Brandtin poissaollessa kääntynyt asiassaan itse isännän puoleen, ja
valkea lukuhuoneen takassa leimusi enää heikosti ja olisi luonut
kammioon liian huonon valaistuksen, ellei sillä aikaa olisi lamppua
tuotu sisään.
Yöllisestä valvomisesta väsyneenä teki Antonia kaikkensa

pysyäkseen hereillä, mutta kuten silloinkin, jolloin Wolrat oli ensi
kerran hänen levätessään käynyt tässä huoneessa, niin tapahtui
nytkin, että hänen tahtonsa antoi myöten ja seurasi hänen
väsähtäneitä aistejaan unien maailmaan. Ja se uni, joka nyt valtasi
hänet piiriinsä, oli niin suloinen, ettei hän tahtonut herätä.
Miellyttävässä horrostilassa ollessaan hänestä tuntui kuin hänen
miehensä olisi astunut sisään, hiipinyt varpaillaan sohvan viereen,
kuunnellut tarkkaan, kumartunut sen jälkeen painamaan hänen
suortuvilleen suudelman, jossa oli sellainen entisajan intohimon
hehku, että Antonia tunsi sen käyvän läpi koko olentonsa. Voi, miten
erilainen tämä suudelma olikaan verrattuna siihen, jolla Wolrat kotiin
palatessaan oli häntä tervehtinyt, ja kuinka erilaisia kaikki ne, jotka
hän oli saanut miehensä lähtiessä pienille matkoilleen ja niiltä
palatessa! Antonia heräsi huoahtaen ja valittaen sitä, että oli tuntenut
onnea ainoastaan unessa.
Aukaistessaan silmänsä hän havaitsi pienokaisen lepäävän

käsivarrellaan aivan rauhallisesti ja ymmärtäväisesti ja katsellen
häntä suurilla, täysin kehittyneillä silmillään. Poikanen oli jo terve, ja
koska Antonia huomasi, että hänen miehensä oli tullut sisään ja
istuutunut keinutuoliin, aikoi hän viedä pojan pois, ettei tämä häiritsisi
isää. Mutta kun keinutuoli oli lähellä takkaa, ei hän voinut vastustaa
kiusausta pysähtyä sen viereen ja ristien lapsen kädet kuiskata:
— Pikku Woll-Woll, auta minua rukoilemaan Jumalaa, että Hän

saattaisi isän uskomaan minua!
— Isä, isä! — huusi poika, kurkoittaen pienet kätensä

korkeavartaloista miestä kohti, joka täysin heränneenä istui
keinutuolissa liikkumattomana, pää nojautuneena kättä vasten.
Kuiskaus ja lapsen huudahdus eivät olleet jääneet häneltä
kuulematta. Hän katsahti ylös, ja hänen ottaessaan pojan polvelleen
näki Antonia vilauksen hänen kasvoistaan. Niissä kuvastui liikutus, ja
suurissa mustissa silmissä oli surun ilme, mikä vaikutti Antoniaan
valtavasti.
— Ehkä otat tämän rakkaan pienokaisen hetkeksi, — virkkoi W, ja
hänen äänessään ei ollut tavallista syvää sävyä. — Tule sitten
takaisin, mutta käske, että kahvia ja kuusta viivytellään vielä puolisen
tuntia.
Antonia riensi täyttämään määräystä ja jättämään pojan Pekan

huostaan. Sen jälkeen hän palasi, istuutuen aivan lähelle miestään.
Hän ei koettanut pienimmälläkään tavalla herättää Wolratin
huomiota, joka näytti keskittyvän vallan sisäänpäin.
Viimein tämä loi nuoreen vaimoonsa lempeän katseen.
— Mitä Jumalan pitäisi saattaa minut uskomaan? — kysyi hän.
— En rohkene sitä sanoa… en tiedä, voisinko kestää nähdä sinua

nyt samanlaisena kuin ensimäisenä iltana. Jumala on armollinen,
mutta sitä et ollut silloin sinä, rakas Wolrat!
— Muistan, etten valitettavasti voinut hallita mielenliikutustani.

Mutta olin hillinnyt itseäni niin koko päivän, etten jaksanut enää
enempää, kun sinä niin kovasti koettelit minua.
— Mutta juuri sitä minä en käsitä… Ja se, jota minä rukoilin

Jumalan saattamaan sinut uskomaan, oli, että minä en voi
teeskennellä sinulle, sai, rakas Wolrat, minä vannon, että en
teeskennellyt vakuuttaessani sinulle, etten koskaan kysyisi pikku
Karlin äidin nimeä… Olenko minä nyt sama ylpeä ja mustasukkainen
nainen kuin ennenkin? Eivätkö katumus ja kärsimys ole minua
puhdistaneet?
— Kuunnellessani sinua nyt en voi uskoa muuta kuin että sinun

huulesi erehtymättömästi puhuvat totta… Ja nyt kun olen tyyni,
tuntuu minusta, ettei sinun olentosi ole sen naisen, joka
kohoutuakseen ja voittaakseen hylkäämänsä sielun alentuu
arvottomaan narripeliin… Mutta toisaalta on totta, että järkeni kieltää
minua uskomasta mahdotonta. Etkö sinä terävänäköisyydelläsi jo
kaksi vuotta sitten käsittänyt, kuka on lapsen äiti? Ja kuitenkin sinä
annoit nämä vuodet kulua koskaan avoimesti kirjoittamatta minulle
niistä uusista vaikutelmista, joiden olisi pitänyt olla seurauksena siitä
mitä kuulit ja näit…
Kapteenin ei ollut vaikea huomata vaimonsa avomielisistä, ylpeistä

kasvoista kuvastuvaa rajatonta hämmästystä.
— Wolrat, — huudahti hän kiihkeän voimakkaasti, — äitini muiston

nimessä vannon, etten tiedä mitään siitä, mitä sinä näyt edellyttävän
minun tietävän! Olen elänyt aivan erilläni, ja kuka sitäpaitsi olisi
uskaltanut puhua minulle siitä?
— Sanohan — etkö sittemmin päässyt selville, kuka oli se henkilö,

jonka näit tulevan Jokitorpasta? Muistat kai minulle lähettämäsi
hullun kirjeen, jonka minä sanaakaan sanomatta palautin. Siihen
aikaan minä melkein vihasin sinua… Mutta enhän annakaan sinulle
aikaa vastata.
— Voi, muistan varsin hyvin sen kirjeen, jonka kirjoitin

mustasukkaisuuden raivossa. Ja kun sain tietää, että ratsumestari
Holst oli se mies, jonka olin luullut sinuksi, arvelin hänen käyneen
Jokitorpassa sinun pyynnöstäsi.
— Etkö arvellut mitään enempää?…
— En, olin niin väsynyt, etten jaksanut ajatella niitä muutamia

merkillisiä sanoja, jotka hän minulle lausui.
— Ja kun eversti otti pojan Melldaliin, etkö silloinkaan ajatellut
mitään?
— En muuta kuin että sisaresi, joka oli saavuttanut sinun

luottamuksesi, minkä vuoksi poika lähetettiin tänne, jalomielisesti otti
suorittaakseen sen tehtävän, jota sinä olisit voinut odottaa
vaimoltasi.
— Se kuulostaa uskomattomalta, ja kuitenkin näen katseestasi,

että puhut totta… Mutta kun eversti muutti testamenttinsa, kun hän
teki kasvattipoikansa Melldalin ainoaksi perilliseksi sekä määräsi
lesken menemään naimisiin sen miehen kanssa, jonka kihlattu tämä
oli ollut kauan, ennenkuin äidin ankaruus särki solmitun liiton, eikö
sinulle sittenkään selvinnyt mitään?
— Hyvä Jumala, kuinka sokea, kuinka umpisokea olen ollut! —

huudahti Antonia, joutuen kiihkeän liikutuksen valtaan. — Oi Wolrat,
sinun täytyy, sinun täytyy käsittää, miten huimaavan korkealla minun
hämärät ajatukseni ovat olleet tästä mahdollisuudesta, joka nyt
salaman tavoin iski tajuntaani! Leonore ei koskaan ollut tuttavallinen
minulle: hän eli saavuttamattomassa sädekehässä. Mutta vastaa, oi
vastaa, että sinä uskot minua!
— Odota, odota hetkinen!… Kun ratsumestari oli täällä — minun

täytyy sanoa sinulle, että hän jumaloi sinua kuin pyhimystä, sillä hän
luulee sinun hienotunteisuudesta käyttäytyneen välttelevästi — eikö
sinua silloin liikuttanut hänen avomielisyytensä, joka, sen olen kuullut
häneltä itseltään, oli sellaista laatua, että sinun oli melkein mahdoton
jäädä epätietoisuuteen?
— Kyllä, Wolrat, minua liikutti se, että hän jalomielisesti tahtoi

ottaa osaa minun onnettomuuteeni, mutta minä en käsittänyt mitään
ja vakuutin hänelle, että sinun ja minun eristäytyminen toisistamme
on aiheutunut siitä, että minä olen loukannut sinua. Ja enkö ollut
oikeassa? Se haava vuotaa verta ehkä vielä… Minä, sinun vaimosi,
joka rakastin sinua eniten maan päällä, annoin sinun valita joko eron
tai sellaisen teon, että pettäisit sen naisen, jota luulin sinun
rakastaneen… Kun nyt muistelen sitä hetkeä, tunnen niin syvää
häpeätä, että tuskin enää rohkenen…
Antonia ei saanut puhua loppuun. Ennenkuin hän oli ehtinyt

aavistaakaan sovituksen mahdollisuutta, oli Wolrat kiertänyt
käsivartensa hänen ympärilleen, ja hänen uskollinen
miehensydämensä sykki vaimon sydäntä vasten. Taivaan ihanuus
aukeni, ja mitä pitemmälle nämä pyhiinvaeltajat olivat kulkeneet eri
teitä, sitä lujemmin yhdistyivät he nyt yhteisellä tiellä, joka johtaisi
heidät heidän suuren matkansa maaliin.
— Antonia, rakas vaimoni, tämä kuukausi täällä sinun

läheisyydessäsi, mutta kuitenkin niin kaukana sinusta, on ollut
kauhea; ja pitkän aikaa ennenkuin minä tänä siunattuna
uudenvuodenpäivänä luin ääneen saarnan, olin pitänyt saarnan
itselleni kovuuteni, ylpeyteni ja sovittamattoman
suvaitsemattomuuteni johdosta. Mutta kuinka rakastettavasti ja
sovittavasti sinä minua aina kohtelitkin, kadottamatta kuitenkaan
naisellista arvokkuuttasi, en minä voinut unohtaa, että sinä, jonka
luulin arvanneen asian laidan kokonaisuudessaan, annoit minun
odottaa tunnustustasi sellaisen iankaikkisuuden ajan, suostuen liian
myöhään anteeksiantoon, mikä minun mielestäni oli teeskentelyä.
Vasta tätä aamua vastaisena yönä selveni totuus minulle… Jos sinä
puolestasi voit suoda minulle anteeksi, niin on sinulla lohdutuksena
se, että olen koko ajan uskollisesti rakastanut sinua; ja siitä olisit
saanut varman vakuuden, ellen olisi hävittänyt sitä kirjettä, jonka
jätin herra Brandtille annettavaksi sinulle siinä tapauksessa, jos olisin
kaatunut Krimillä. Oletko tyytyväinen minun tunnustukseeni?
— Oi Wolrat, ei ole rajoja sillä autuudella, joka on vallannut minut

voittaessani jälleen sinut takaisin! Ja ole varma siitä, että nämä kaksi
vuotta ovat! tehneet minut arvokkaammaksi elämään Jumalan
ihanassa maailmassa täyttämässä velvollisuuteni! Minä korvaan
kaikki sinulle tuottamani kärsimykset.
— Tiedän sen… ne on jo korvattu. Eikä minulla ole syytä katua

näitä vuosia, jotka olen uhrannut kunniata tuottaneeseen toimintaan;
minä voin nyt hyvällä syyllä asettautua lepoon ja ruveta
mahdikkaaksi maanviljelijäksi. Meidän onnemme kasvaa rajattomiin,
ja minä kiitän Jumalaa, ettet paljastanut mitään rakkaalle
langollemme. Armaani, tietoisuus siitä, ettei kukaan aavista eromme
syytä, paitsi me itse, tuottaa pyhää iloa. Varmaan se on herättänyt
arveluja, mutta silti se pysyy aina — salassa maailmalta.
— Niin, kaikeksi onneksi… Mutta kas tuollahan jo tuodaan kahvia

ja uudenvuodenkuusta ja…
— Pikkuherraa! — huudahti kapteeni ja hypähti paikaltaan iloisena

kuin uusi ihminen, vastaanottaen Hagestadin perillisen pehtoori
Pekan käsivarsilta.
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Engineering Drawings

1 .1) DESIGN ........….................................……….........……..................……….........…·….................. 1-2

1 6 2) Drawing ....…. .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . 1-8

1 6 5) Notes . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . ... .. . . .. 1-9

1 6 7) Revision History Block . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. ... .. . . . 1 斗 0

Chapter 2：。rthographic Projections

2.1) ORTH。GRAPHIC PROJECTION INTR。DUCTI。N .................…........................................2-2

2 5 5) Line Type Precedence......................................................................... 2-16

Chapter 3: Pictorial Drawings

3.1) PICT。RIALS INTR。DUCTI。N ........…....................................…….........…...........................3-2

3 4.1) Types of oblique pictorials . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ............... . ... . 3-8

4 .1) DETAI LED DRAWINGS ........................…….......….........…........................….........…….......... 4-2

5.1) SECTI。NAL V IEWS.........................….........….................…................…….......…..................5-2

Chapter 6: Advanced Drawing Tec hniques

6.1) ADVANCED VIEW TECHNIQUES. …..........…........................….........…................................6-2

ADVANCED DRAWING TECHNIQUES PROBLEMS ......…................….........….......................6-25

7.1) T。LERANCING AND INTERCHANGEABILITY ...........…….........……..................................7 -2

C hapter 8: Threads and Fasteners

8.1) FASTENERS ..........................…............................................................….........….................8-2

8 10 1) General fastene「 specifications . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. .. 8-19

Chapter 9 : Assembly Drawings

9.1) DEFI NITI。NS ..................................................................................….................…............... 9-2

9 4.2) Dimensions. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. . 9-6

Appendi x A : Limits and Fi ts

A.1 ) LIMITS AND FITS (INCH) .................................................................................................... A -2

Appendi x B : Threads and Fastener Tables

8.1 ) UNIFIED NATIONAL THREAD FORM....................……….........…….........….........……......... B-2

REFERENCES ..........................…..................….........…...........................….........…….................. C-1

1.1) DESIGN ..............…….........……....................................….........…….........…….........…................ 2

1.2) COMMUNICATING A DESIGN

A sketch is a quickly executed freeha nd drawing that is not intended to be a

1.2.2) Technical Drawing

一 E3 自 ECN 1511 201011 1120 HJE

UNLESS OTHERWI S司E SPECIFIED

Figure 1.2-1: Engineering drawing example

1.2.3) Computer-Aided Drawing

Figure 1.2-2: Three-dimensional CAD model

An engineering drawing is a legal document because it communicates all the

1.4) HIST。RY OF TECHNICAL DRAWING

Figure 1.4-1 : Drafting implements

Engineering drawings provide an understanding of how a product will function and

1 .6) ENGINEERING DRAWING FORMAT AND CONTENTS

The drawing format, arrangement, and organization of information within a drawing

1.6.1) Sheet Sizes

Format size Vertical Horizontal Recommended number of

Table 1.6-1: Drawing sheet flat sizes 121

Format size Vertical Horizontal Recommended number of

Table 1.6-2: Drawing sheet roll sizes 121

Desianation Vertical (mm) Horizontal (mm) Recommended number of zones

Table 1.6-3: Basic sheet sizes (metric ) 131

Desianation Vertical (mm) Horizontal (mm) Recommended number of zones

Table 1.6-4: Elongated sheet sizes (metri c) 131

Figure 1.6-2: The drawing component of an engineering drawing