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Electrical Systems 2
Electrical Systems 2
From Diagnosis to Prognosis
Edited by
Abdenour Soualhi
Hubert Razik
First published 2020 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA
www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2020

The rights of Abdenour Soualhi and Hubert Razik to be identified as the authors of this work have been
asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2019956924
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-608-1
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Chapter 1. Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by

External Field Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Remus PUSCA, Eric LEFEVRE, David MERCIER, Raphael ROMARY and
Miftah IRHOUMAH
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. Extracting indicators from the external magnetic field . . . . . . 3
1.2.1. External field classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2. Attenuation of the transverse field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3. Measurement of the transverse field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4. Modeling a healthy machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5. Modeling a faulty machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.6. Effect of the load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3. Information fusion to detect the inter-turn
short-circuit faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.1. Belief function theory: basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.2. Fault detection with the fusion method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.3. Calculation example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4. Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.1. Presentation of rotating electrical machines . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.2. Presentation of experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.6. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
vi Electrical Systems 2
Chapter 2. Signal Processing Techniques for

Transient Fault Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
José Alfonso Antonino DAVIU and Roque Alfredo Osornio RIOS
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 37
2.2. Fault detection via motor current analysis . . . . . . . . . . . ... 41
2.2.1. Classical tools (MCSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 41
2.2.2. New techniques based on transient analysis (ATCSA) .. 45
2.3. Signal processing tools for transient analysis . . . . . . . . . ... 47
2.3.1. Example of a discrete tool: the DWT . . . . . . . . . . . ... 48
2.3.2. Example of a continuous tool: the HHT . . . . . . . . . . ... 54
2.4. Application of transient-based tools for electric motor
fault detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 67
2.4.1. Application of the DWT for the detection of
rotor damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 68
2.4.2. Application of the HHT for the detection of
rotor damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 70
2.5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 71
2.6. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 72
Chapter 3. Accurate Stator Fault Detection in an Induction

Motor Using the Symmetrical Current Components . . . . . . . 77
Monia BOUZID and Gérard CHAMPENOIS
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 77
3.2. Study of the SCCs behavior in an IM under different
stator faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 79
3.2.1. Simulation study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 79
3.2.2. Analytical study of the SCCs in an IM under
different stator faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 86
3.3. Extracting stator fault indicators from an IM . . . . . . . ..... 97
3.4. Automatic and accurate detection and diagnosis of
stator faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 98
3.4.1. Description of the monitoring system of the
IM operating state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 98
3.4.2. Improving the accuracy of incipient stator
fault detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.4.3. Automatic incipient stator fault diagnosis in an IM . . . . . 114
3.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.6. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Contents vii
Chapter 4. Bearing Fault Diagnosis in Rotating Machines . . 123

Claude DELPHA, Demba DIALLO, Jinane HARMOUCHE,
Mohamed BENBOUZID, Yassine AMIRAT and Elhoussin ELBOUCHIKHI
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.1.1. Bearing fault detection and diagnosis overview . . . . . . . . 124
4.1.2. Problem statement and proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.2. Method description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.1. The global spectral analysis description . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.2. Discrimination of faults in the bearing balls using LDA . . 133
4.3. Experimental data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.1. Experimental test bed description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.2. Time-domain detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.4. Global spectra bearing diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4.1. Data preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4.2. Global spectra results with PCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.4.3. Global spectra results with LDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.6. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Chapter 5. Diagnosis and Prognosis of Proton Exchange

Membrane Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Zhongliang LI, Zhixue ZHENG and Fei GAO
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.2. PEMFC functioning principle and development status . . . . . . 154
5.2.1. From a PEMFC to a PEMFC system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.2.2. Current status of the PEMFC technology . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3. Faults and degradation of PEMFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.3.1. Degradation related to the aging effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.3.2. Degradation related to system operations . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.3.3. Variables used for PEMFC degradation evaluation . . . . . 161
5.4. PEMFC diagnostic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.4.1. Model-based diagnostic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.4.2. Data-driven diagnostic methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.4.3. Case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.5. Prognosis of PEMFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.5.1. Health index and EoL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.5.2. Model-based prognostic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.5.3. Data-driven and hybrid prognostic methods . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.5.4. Case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.6. Remaining challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.7. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
viii Electrical Systems 2
List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Summary of Volume 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Introduction
The diagnosis and prognosis of electrical systems is still a relevant field

of research. The research that has been carried out over the years has made
it possible to acquire enough knowledge, to build a base from which we can
delve further into this field of research. This study is a new challenge that
estimates the remaining lifetime of the analyzed process. Many studies have
been carried out to establish a diagnosis of the state of health of an electric
motor, for example. However, making a diagnosis is like giving binary
information: the condition is either healthy or defective. Of course, this
may seem simplistic, but detecting a failure requires the use of suitable
sensors that provide signals. These will be processed to monitor health
indicators (features) for defects. Then, we witnessed a multitude of research
activities around classification. It was indeed appropriate to distinguish the
operating states, to differentiate them from one another and to inform
the operator of the level of severity of a failure or even of the type of failure
among a predefined panel. A major effort has been made to estimate the
remaining lifetime or even the lifetime consumed. This is a challenge that
many researchers are still trying to meet.
This book, which has been divided into two volumes, informs readers
about the theoretical approaches and results obtained in different laboratories
in France and also in other countries such as Spain, and so on. To this end,
many researchers from the scientific community have contributed to this
book by sharing their research results.
Introduction written by Abdenour SOUALHI and Hubert RAZIK.

x Electrical Systems 2
Chapter 1, Volume 1, “Diagnostic Methods for the Health Monitoring of

Gearboxes”, by A. Soualhi and H. Razik, presents state-of-the-art diagnostic
methods used to analyze the defects present in gearboxes. First of all, there is
a bibliographical presentation regarding different types of gears and their
defects. We conclude that gear defects represent the predominant defect at
this level, thus justifying the interest in detecting and diagnosing them. Then,
we present various gear analyses and monitoring techniques proposed as part
of the condition-based maintenance and propose a diagnostic method. Thus,
we show the three main phases of diagnosis: First, the analysis presented as a
set of technical processes ensuring control of the representative quantities of
operation; then the monitoring that exploits the fault indicators for detection;
finally, the diagnosis which is the identification of the detected defect.
Chapter 2, Volume 1, “Techniques for Predicting Defects in Bearings and

Gears”, by A. Soualhi and H. Razik, deals with strategies based on features
characterizing the health status of the system to predict the appearance of
possible failures. The prognosis of faults in a system means the prediction of
the failure imminence and/or the estimation of its remaining life. It is in this
context that we propose, in this chapter, the three methods of prognosis. In
the first method, the degradation process of each system is modeled by a
hidden Markov model (HMM). In a measured sequence of observations, the
solution consists of identifying among the HMMs the one that best
represents this sequence which allows predicting the imminence of the next
degradation state and thus the defect of the studied system. In the second
method (evolutionary Markov model), the computation of the probability
that a sequence of observations arrives at a degradation state at the moment
t+1, given the HMM modeled from the same sequence of observations, also
allows us to predict the imminence of a defect. The third method predicts the
imminence of a fault not by modeling the degradation process of the system,
but by modeling each degradation state.
Chapter 3, Volume 1, “Electrical Signatures Analysis for Condition

Monitoring of Gears in Complex Electromechanical Systems,” written by
S. Hedayati Kia and M. Hoseintabar Marzebali, deals with a review of their
most remarkable research, which has been carried out in the last 10 years. A
particular emphasis has been placed on the topic of noninvasive fault
detection in gears using electrical signatures analysis. The main aim is to
utilize the electrical machine as a sensor for the identification of gear
defects. In this regard, a universal approach is developed for the first time by
the authors which allows evaluating the efficacy of noninvasive techniques
in the diagnosis of torsional vibration induced by the faulty gear located
Introduction xi
within the drive train. This technique can be considered an upstream phase
for studying the feasibility of gear fault detection using noninvasive
measurement in any complex electromechanical system.
Chapter 4, Volume 1, “Modal Decomposition for Bearing Fault

Detection”, by Y. Amirat, Z. Elbouchikri, C. Delpha, M. Benbouzid and D.
Diallo, deals with induction machine bearing faults detection based on modal
decomposition approaches combined to a statistical tool. In particular, a
comparative study of a notch filter based on modal decomposition, through
an ensemble empirical mode decomposition and a variational mode
decomposition, is proposed. The validation of these two approaches is based
on simulations and experiments. The achieved simulation and experimental
results clearly show that, in terms of fault detection criterion, the variational
mode decomposition outperforms the ensemble empirical mode
decomposition.
Chapter 5, Volume 1, “Methods for Lifespan Modeling in Electrical

Engineering”, by A. Picot, M. Chabert and P. Maussion, deals with the
statistical methods for electrical device lifespan modeling from small-sized
training sets. Reliability has become an important issue in electrical
engineering because the most critical industries, such as urban transports,
energy, aeronautics or space, are moving toward more electrical-based
systems to replace mechanical- and pneumatic-based ones. In this
framework, increasing constraints such as voltage and operating frequencies
enhance the risk of degradation, particularly due to partial discharges (PDs)
in the electrical machine insulation systems. This chapter focuses on
different methods to model the lifespan of electrical devices under
accelerated stresses. First, parametric methods such as design of experiments
(DoE) and surface responses (SR) are suggested. Although these methods
require different experiments to organize in a certain way, they reduce the
experimental cost. In the case of nonorganized experiments, multilinear
regression can help estimate the lifespan. In the second part, the
nonparametric regression tree method is presented and discussed, resulting
in the proposal of a new hybrid methodology that takes advantages of both
parametric and nonparametric modeling. For illustration purpose, these
different methods are evaluated on experimental data from insulation
materials and organic light-emitting diodes.
Chapter 1, Volume 2, “Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by External

Field Measurement”, by R. Pusca, E. Lefevre, D. Mercier, R. Romary and
M. Irhoumah, presents a diagnostic method that exploits the information
xii Electrical Systems 2
delivered by external flux sensors placed in the vicinity of rotating electrical

machines in order to detect a stator inter-turn short circuit. The external
magnetic field measured by the flux sensors originates from the airgap flux
density and from the end winding currents, attenuated by the magnetic parts
of the machine. In the faulty case, an internal magnetic dissymmetry occurs,
which can be found again in the external magnetic field. Sensitive harmonics
are extracted from the signals delivered by a pair of flux sensors placed at
180° from each other around the machine, and the data obtained for several
sensor positions are analyzed by fusion techniques using the belief function
theory. The diagnosis method is applied on induction and synchronous
machines with artificial stator faults. It is shown that the probability of
detecting the fault using the proposed fusion technique on various series of
measurements is high.
Chapter 2, Volume 2, “Signal Processing Techniques for Transient Fault

Diagnosis”, by J.A. Daviu and R.A.O. Rios, revises the most relevant signal
processing tools employed for condition monitoring of electric motors. First,
the importance of the predictive maintenance area of the electric motors due to
the extensive use of these machines in many industrial applications is pointed
out. In this context, the most important predictive maintenance techniques are
revised, showing the advantages such as the simplicity, remote monitoring
capability and broad fault coverage of motor current analysis methods. In this
regard, two basic approaches based on current analysis are explained: the
classical methods, relying on the Fourier transform of steady-state current
(motor current signature analysis – MCSA), and novel methods based on the
analysis of startup currents (advanced transient current signature
analysis – ATCSA). In the chapter, the most significant signal processing tools
employed for MCSA and ATCSA are explained and revised. For MCSA, the
basic problems derived from the application of the Fourier transform as well
as other constraints of the methodology are explained. For ATCSA, the most
suitable signal processing techniques are described, classifying them into
continuous and discrete transforms. One representative of each group is
accurately described (the discrete wavelet transform for discrete tools and the
Hilbert-Huang transform for continuous tools), accompanying the explanation
with illustrative examples. Finally, we discussed several examples of the
application of each tool to electric motor fault diagnosis.
Chapter 3, Volume 2, “Accurate Stator Fault Detection in an Induction

Motor Using the Symmetrical Current Components”, by M. Bouzid and
G. Champenois, deals with the accurate detection of stator faults such as
inter-turns short circuit, phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground faults of the
Introduction xiii
induction motor, using the symmetrical current components. The detection

method is based on the monitoring of the behavior of the negative and zero
sequence stator currents of the machine. This chapter also develops
analytical expressions of these components obtained using the coupled
inductance model of the machine. However, despite its efficiency, the
negative sequence current-based method has its own limitations to detect
accurate incipient stator faults in an induction motor. This limit can be
explained by the fact that the negative sequence current generated in a faulty
motor does represent not only the asymmetry introduced by the fault, but
also by other superposed asymmetries, such as the voltage imbalance, the
inherent asymmetry in the machine and the inaccuracy of the sensors. This
aspect can generate false alarm and make the achievement of accurate
incipient stator fault detection very difficult. Thus, to increase the accuracy
of the fault detection and the sensitivity of the negative sequence current
under different disturbances, this chapter proposes an efficient method able
to compensate the effect of the different considered disturbances using
experimental techniques having the originality to isolate the negative
sequence current of each disturbance. The efficiency of all these proposed
methods is validated experimentally on a 1.1-kW motor under different
stator faults. Moreover, an original monitoring system, based on neural
networks, is also presented and described to automatically detect and
diagnose incipient stator faults.
Chapter 4, Volume 2, “Bearing Fault Diagnosis in Rotating Machines”,

by C. Delpha, D. Diallo, J. Harmouche, M. Benbouzid, Y. Amirat and E.
Elbouchikhi, is focused on detection, estimation and diagnosis of mechanical
faults in electrical machines. Nowadays, it is necessary to rapidly assess the
structural health of a system without disassembling its elements. For this in
situ diagnosis purpose, the use of experimental data is very imperative.
Moreover, the monitoring and maintenance costs must be reduced while
ensuring satisfactory security performances. In this chapter, we focus on
vibration-based signals combined with statistical techniques for bearing fault
evaluation. Based on a four-step diagnosis process (modeling, preprocessing,
feature extraction and feature analysis), the combination of several
techniques such as principal components analysis and linear discriminant
analysis in a global approach is explored to monitor the condition of
vibration-based bearings. The main advantage of this approach is that prior
knowledge on the bearing characteristics is not required. A particularly
reduced frequency analysis has led to efficiently differentiate the bearing
fault types and evaluate the bearing fault severities.
xiv Electrical Systems 2
Chapter 5, Volume 2, “Diagnosis and Prognosis of Proton Exchange

Membrane Fuel Cells”, by Z. Li, Z. Zheng and F. Gao, deals with the
diagnostic and prognostic issues of fuel cell systems, especially the proton
exchange membrane (PEMFC) type. First, the basic functioning principle of
PEMFCs and their current development and application status are presented.
Their high cost, low reliability and durability make them unfit for
commercialization. In the following sections, degradation mechanisms
related to both the aging effect and the system operations are analyzed. In
addition, typical variables and characterization tools, such as polarization
curve, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, linear sweep voltammetry
and cyclic voltammetry, are introduced for the evaluation of PEMFC
degradation. Various diagnostic and prognostic methods in the literature are
further classified based on their input-to-output process model of the system,
namely model-based, data-driven and hybrid methods. Finally, two case
studies for diagnosis and prognosis are given at the end of each part to give
the readers a general and clearer illustration of these two issues.
1
Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by

External Field Measurement
1.1. Introduction
Rotating electrical machines are found in all areas of modern domestic

and industrial life [TAV 08]. They are the main electromechanical energy
conversion devices in all industrial processes and have been widely used in
different industrial applications for several decades. They account for
approximately 70% of all electricity consumed on the grid and 80% of
industrial engines involved in manufacturing processes. Regardless of the
size of these units, from 1 kilowatt to several megawatts, the production
losses due to a shutdown relating to an engine failure are greater than those
induced by the actual engine efficiency. The failure of the machines,
therefore, reduces the production rate and increases production and
maintenance costs. It is then important to reduce maintenance costs and
avoid unplanned downtime for these machines. Electrical machines must be
monitored during the production process to improve their reliability and
reduce their downtime [STO 04, ESE 17, NOR 93]. Monitoring of rotating
electrical machines is still an essential part to increase reliability and
operational safety of electrical systems and has been the subject of much
research in recent decades [STO 04, HAN 10, PET 17].
Electric motors encounter a wide range of mechanical problems common

to most machines, such as imbalance, misalignment, bearing faults and
resonance [FOU 15, HAM 15, KAT 16]. But electric motors also encounter
Chapter written by Remus PUSCA, Eric LEFEVRE, David MERCIER, Raphael ROMARY and
Miftah IRHOUMAH.
Electrical Systems 2: From Diagnosis to Prognosis,

First Edition. Edited by Abdenour Soualhi and Hubert Razik.
© ISTE Ltd 2020. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 Electrical Systems 2
their specific problems, which are the result of electromagnetic phenomena.

The methods conventionally used for the diagnosis of electrical machines are
based on measurements of current, voltage, vibration and noise. Although
their effectiveness has been demonstrated, the generalization of these
methods in the industrial environment remains limited on account of their
relatively important cost.
Other methods based on magnetic field measurements outside the

machine are interesting because they are inexpensive and easy to implement.
Thus, monitoring devices based on the information provided by the magnetic
flux produced by the imbalances in the magnetic or electrical circuit of the
motors can be effectively used in addition to, or as an alternative to the
current monitoring more conventionally used. Thus, many recent methods,
used for the diagnosis of electrical machines, are based on the analysis of
combining measurements of current and magnetic flux, where, on the basis
of an evaluation of many tests, the stator current and the external leakage
flux were selected as the most practical signals containing the information
needed to detect broken bars and short circuit between turns of the stator
winding [CEB 12a, YAZ 10].
The methods presented in this chapter propose solutions to improve the

detection of stator inter-turn short-circuit fault by external field analysis
[CEB 12b]. For this, it uses the processing of data obtained by several field
sensors and fusion methods suitable for applications in signal processing.
In this area, the information fusion must take into account the specificities
of the data in considered process [DAS 01]. In our case, information fusion
tools use the belief function theory [SHA 76, PUS 12, IRH 18]. This theory
is a mathematical framework that offers modeling and fusion tools, and it
also enables a relatively natural integration of the data imperfections in the
analysis. For implementation of the proposed method, the measurements of
the external magnetic field are exploited in order to construct two specific
pieces of information: the difference of variation and the ratio of the
amplitudes. In order to make a more relevant decision, a fusion process is
applied to merge these two pieces of information by transforming them
into belief functions. After their fusion, a decision can be made.
The method proposed in this chapter is fully noninvasive and can be

implemented for asynchronous (AM) and synchronous machines (SM). Its
main advantage is that it does not require the knowledge of the healthy state
of the machine. In the analysis, it exploits the load variation of sensitive
spectral lines instead of their magnitude. The sensitive lines are chosen
Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by External Field Measurement 3
considering the AM or SM specificity as presented in the following

section.
1.2. Extracting indicators from the external magnetic field
One of the main issues for exploiting the external magnetic field is to
define reliable indicators from it. This requires a good knowledge of the
electromagnetic behavior of the machine in the faulty condition. Here, we
present an analytical modeling of an electrical machine with a stator inter-
turn short circuit fault, associated with a simplified decomposition of the
external magnetic field.
1.2.1. External field classification
From a physical point of view, an external magnetic field appears in the

vicinity of an electrical machine because the internal magnetic field is not
perfectly channeled by the ferromagnetic parts of the machine. This external
magnetic field can be decomposed in transverse and axial components. The
axial field is in a plane that contains the machine axis. It is generated by the
winding overhang effects. The transverse field is located in a perpendicular
plane to the machine axis. It is an image of the airgap flux density b which is
attenuated by the stator magnetic circuit. Figure 1.1 shows a simplified
representation of both fields.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1. (a) Axial field. (b) Radial field
Using a simple wound sensor, it is possible to discriminate the transverse

component from the axial component. Figure 1.2 shows different positions
of a wound sensor around the machine.
In position A, only the axial field is measured. Position E, although defined

as being a position for measuring the transverse field, can also embrace a part
of the axial field depending on whether the sensor is more or less distant from
the end coils. Position D is described as “pure radial” since, in theory, no axial
line field can cross the section of the sensor in this position. It should be
pointed out that the amplitude of the signal delivered by the sensor in positions
B and D are generally lower. Actually, in these positions, the sensor is further
away from the motor compared to position E where the sensor is pressed
against the external frame. It is, therefore, possible to define the ideal position
of the sensor that it is placed against the motor, in the center to limit the end
coil effect, and when possible at design, between the stator sheets and the
external frame. In this position, the sensor mainly measures the transverse
field. However, practically, the sensor setting depends on the construction of
the machine, its environment and the accessibility places.
Figure 1.2. Different sensor positions
In the following sections, only the transverse field will be considered and
particularly its normal component that requires us to define an attenuation
coefficient that affects the airgap flux density.
1.2.2. Attenuation of the transverse field
Let us define the airgap flux density as the following double sum
expression:
b bK ,H , [1.1]
K ,H
where bK,H is an elementary flux density component defined as
bK , H bˆK , H cos( K t H s
K ,H ) [1.2]
with K being the frequency rank and H the pole pair number of the
component.
Figure 1.3 shows a simplified representation of an electrical machine,

with smooth airgap, where the main dimensions are presented. The external
transverse field can be itself decomposed in a normal component bn and a
tangential component bt. An elementary component generated in the airgap
of the machine is attenuated across the stator yoke and is found in the air
outside the machine and can be measured by a coil flux sensor.
 M
Bx  x
B M
bn
bt s s
0
sy
Rint ds
0
sy
Rext
Figure 1.3. Simplified geometry of the machine

An attenuation coefficient CH is defined as the ratio between the

magnitude of the normal component of the transverse filed at the level of the
external periphery of the stator and the magnitude of the component in the
airgap. This attenuation coefficient depends on the inner and the outer radii
s s
of the stator laminations, respectively, denoted by Rint and Rext , and the
magnetic permeability r [ROM 09]. It has been shown that CH can be
expressed as
2
CH H 1
. [1.3]
s
r (( R / R )
int
s
ext
s
( Rint s
/ Rext ) H 1)
s
Figure 1.4 shows the evolution of CH versus H for Rint 82.5mm,
s
R 121mm and r = 1,000. We can observe that the more H increases, the
ext
more the components are attenuated.
CH
Figure 1.4. CH versus H
1.2.3. Measurement of the transverse field
We will assume that the measurement is performed with a wound flux

sensor placed very closely to the stator core such that only the CH attenuation
coefficient will be considered. Let bx denotes the normal transverse flux
s
density at radius x Rext . Here bx is defined by
bx CH bˆK , H cos( K t H s
K ,H ). [1.4]
K ,H
Let introduce bKx the harmonic of K rank of bx at the given point

s s s
M (x Rext , 0 ), corresponding to the center of the wound flux sensor.
x
b can be defined by
K
bKx bˆKx cos( K t x

K ), [1.5]
where bˆKx can be computed by introducing complex quantities:
bˆKx CH bˆK , H e
s
j( H )
0 K ,H
. [1.6]
H
The measurements are performed with a coil flux sensor constituted of an

nc turn coil (see Figure 1.3) of area S. The angular frequency flux K linked
by the sensor results from integration of bKx on S:
x
K bKx dS . [1.7]
S
The integration depends on the sensor shape, the nc value, S, H

and x. By introducing these parameters in the coefficient K Hx , Kx is
given by
x
K C Kx , H K Hx Bˆ K , H cos( K t x
K ,H ). [1.8]
H
x
Among the components which constitute K , only few of them,
relative to low pole number (low H), have a significant contribution,
whereas the other components will be absorbed by the ferromagnetic
parts of the machine. The induced emf ex delivered by the sensor is
given by
ex eKx sin( K t x
K ) [1.9]
K
with
K Hs K Hx bˆK , H e
s
j( H )
eˆKx K 0 K ,H
,
H
[1.10]
K K bˆK , H e
s
x s x j( H )
K arg H H
0 K ,H
.
H
1.2.4. Modeling a healthy machine
The airgap flux density b results from the product between the airgap
permeance and the magneto-motive force (mmf) . The following
analytical developments consider a general case relating to a p pole
pair AM.
To determine the airgap flux density b, the following assumptions are

formulated:
– the magnetic permeability of the iron is high enough to neglect the
ampere-turns consumed in the iron compared to those in the airgap,
– the stator inter-turn short circuit only affects the stator flux density.
Therefore, even for the healthy machine, we will focus only on the flux
density components generated by the stator.
– the p pole pair three-phase stator winding, made up by diametrical
opening coils, is energized by a balanced three-phase system of sinusoidal
s
currents iq (q=1, 2 or 3) of rms value IS and angular frequency :
2
iqs I s 2 cos t q 1 .
3
Let us define as space references:
– the d s axis which is confounded with the stator phase 1 axis,

– the d r axis which corresponds to one tooth axis.
Any point M in the airgap can be located by the variables s in relation to

d and r in relation to d r . The axes d s and d r are distant of .
s
1.2.4.1. Airgap permeance

The airgap permeance model is based on rectangular-shaped slots,
assuming that the field lines which cross the airgap are radial. As the field
lines never join the bottom of the slots, practically, in order to express , the
airgap can be modeled considering a fictitious slot with a depth equal to the
fifth of their opening and assuming the field lines are radial. In such
conditions, can be expressed as
kskr cos (ksN s krN r ) p s

pkrN r . [1.11]
ks kr
Here, kskr is a permeance coefficient that depends on the slot geometry.

N s and N r are, respectively, the number of stator and rotor slots per pole
pair. ks and kr are positive, negative or null integers. s is the angular
abscissa of any point in the airgap related to the stator referential d s .
represents the angular position of the rotor tooth 1 axis relatively to d s.
When the machine rotates R angular frequency, can be expressed as
Rt 0
. For an SM, R is given by R (1 s) t / p, where s is the slip
of the machine.
1.2.4.2. Healthy machine mmf

s
The mmf generated by a healthy stator can be expressed as
s
Is Ahss cos( t hs p s
), [1.12]
s
h
s
where hs is defined by hs=6k+1, where k varies between to + . Ahs is a
function that takes into account the winding coefficient tied to the rank hs.
1.2.4.3. Airgap flux density

s
The calculus developments lead to define b= in the reference frame
related to d s as follows:
∑ , , cos 1 1
[1.13]
with bˆhs kskr I 0s Ahss kskr

After regrouping the components of same frequency and same polarity,

we obtain
b bK , H [1.14]
K ,H
with
bK , H bˆK , H cos( K t H s
K ,H ) [1.15]
and
K 1 krN r (1 s ),
[1.16]
H p (hs ksN s krN r ).
1.2.5. Modeling a faulty machine
For modeling the faulty machine, we will consider a three-phase stator

winding. It is supposed that y turns from the n s turns of an elementary
section belonging to the phase q are short-circuited. If y is small compared
with pns, the total number of turns per phase, then it is possible to consider
that the currents flowing in the three phases remain practically unchanged in
faulty conditions. This hypothesis can, therefore, characterize the short
circuit, thanks to a model that preserves the original structure of the
machine. This model assumes that the stator winding in default is equivalent
to the healthy winding, associated with y independent turns in which
circulate the short-circuit current. It will be assumed that these two circuits
are independent. The healthy part of the winding generates, therefore, the
same flux density components without fault.
s s
iqsc iqsc
iqs iqs
= s
+
is
q
s
i
qsc
n turns y s.c.turns
Figure 1.5. Model of a faulty machine

Figure 1.5 shows an elementary section with short-circuit turns. In this

way, the resulting airgap flux density b* is equal to the initial airgap flux
density b, to which is added the flux density bsc generated by the y turns
s
flowing through by the current iqsc : b b bsc .
The short-circuit current is defined as

s
iqsc I sc 2 cos( t sc ), [1.17]
where sc is the phase lag between the short-circuit current and the phase 1
current (see Figure 1.6). This phase actually depends on several parameters
such as the impedance that limits the short-circuit current, the short-circuit
winding, and the position of the fundamental airgap flux density relative to
the phase current q (depending on the load).
i1 s
sc
iqscs
Figure 1.6. Diagram of current
The mmf generated by the y short-circuit turns, shifted of from ds,

is shown in Figure 1.7 in the case of a four-pole machine. It is also shown
the mmf generated by the healthy elementary winding.
is an unidirectional mmf and can be decomposed in rotating fields

which rotates in the opposite direction. In a stator referential, can be
written as
s
qsc I scs Ahs cos( t h s
h ), [1.18]
h
s
where Ahs is a function obtained from the Fourier series of qsc and h is a
not null relative integer, which can take consequently all the values of hs. h
s
is defined as h h q sc .
s
qel
s
i
s q
n
2 2
s 0 s
i
s q
n
2
(a)
s
s qsc
iqsc 2
y
4 0 s
s
iqsc
3y s
4 q
(b)
Figure 1.7. mmf generated by the faulty turns
s
As bsc qsc , the calculus developments lead us to define this quantity
in the reference frame related to ds. After regrouping the components of
same frequency and same polarity, we obtain
bsc bˆscKsc , Hsc cos( K sc t H sc s

sc, K sc , H sc ) [1.19]
K sc , H sc
with
Ksc 1 kr N r (1 s),
[1.20]
H sc h p(ks N s kr N r ),
ks and kr are equivalent to ks and kr, respectively, where they vary from
to + . The resultant flux density appears, after attenuation, at the level of
the external transverse field.
Considering the values that K can take as given by [1.16] and Ksc by
[1.20], it results that Ksc does not bring new frequencies. This means that
with the traditional method of diagnosis, the presence of failure will be
appreciated through the variation of the amplitudes of already existing lines
in the spectrum. This makes the diagnosis by analysis of the changes in the
amplitudes of the measured components difficult.
Concerning the polarities H and Hsc, we can observe that Hsc can take all
positive and negative integers, whereas H is multiple of p. Hsc can
particularly be equal to 1 corresponding to components that are weakly
attenuated by the stator iron. In the following, the properties relating to the
dissymmetry generated by such components will be exploited.
1.2.6. Effect of the load
The analysis concerns the behavior, when the load varies, of the
amplitude of the sensitive harmonic of rank Ksc measured using two sensors
C1 and C2 shifted by 180° with respect to each other to a radius x from the
axis of the machine (as shown in Figure 1.8). To simplify the analysis, we
will consider the main effects generated by the components having the
lowest polarities, namely of polarity p (H = 1) for the healthy machine and
with polarity Hsc = 1 for the components generated by the fault. These low
polarities lead to the lowest attenuation of the flux density components
through the stator laminations.
Figure 1.8. Positioning of two coil sensors. For a color version of the
figures in this book, see www.iste.co.uk/soualhi/electrical2.zip
For both positions: 0 (position 1 for sensor C1) and

(position 2 for sensor C2), the flux density components • and • of rank
K = Ksc can be expressed as the sum of a term relative to the healthy machine
of amplitude and a term related to the faulty turns of amplitude , :
Position 1: bKx1 bˆKx cos( K t x
K ) bˆsc,
x
Ksc cos( K sc t
x
sc, Ksc ), [1.21]
Position 2: bKx 2 bˆKx cos( K t x

K ) bˆsc,
x
Ksc cos( K sc t
x
sc, Ksc ). [1.22]
The only change between positions 1 and 2 is the change in the sign of
the faulty term. This is due to the polarity Hsc=1 that changes the sign of the
cosinus (cos( )= cos( )). The vector diagram for the rank K harmonic
associated with a variation of the load is given in Figure 1.9 (in this diagram,
we take ∅ 0). To make this diagram, it is considered that the current
of the short-circuit part is modified in phase when the load varies, which
leads to a change in the phase of the flux density bsc generated by the short
circuit and consequently the sensitive harmonics of rank Ksc. The load
variation also modifies the flux density coming from the healthy part of the
machine because of the increase in the in-line current .
We can observe several properties concerning the harmonic of rank K.

First, we note that the amplitudes of the resulting complex quantities •
and • are different in the presence of a fault (except in the case where
∅ , would be close to /2). For the healthy machine, as the faulty
component , does not exist, then the amplitude of the harmonic should
remain identical all around the machine. This property related to the
difference in amplitude can be used for the detection of an inter-turn short-
circuit fault. However, the magnetic attenuation effects that are in theory
independent of the position around the machine can disturb the analysis
based on this property. Indeed, practically, structural asymmetries due to the
presence of ferromagnetic parts in the environment close to the machine will
possibly lead to a non-uniform attenuation of the flux density according to
the angular position. It will thus be possible to obtain different amplitudes
even in the case of a healthy machine. Nevertheless, in this case, the
amplitudes • and • , even different, will at least evolve in the same
direction as load variations.
To overcome this problem, we can exploit the behavior of the sensitive

harmonics in the case of load variation. We can see in Figure 1.9 that a load
variation, which induces a change in , and ∅ (and consequently
∅ , ), will lead to a difference in the amplitude variation between • and
•
. This difference in amplitude variation is likely to change when the load
varies.
Actually, the positioning of the sensors regarding the axis of the faulty
winding affects the results. Indeed, the best positioning is when the sensors
are placed perfectly in the axis of the faulty winding. In this position, the
difference in amplitude variation is maximum, and in this case, the
amplitudes may vary in the opposite direction [PUS 10], which is a very
reliable indicator of fault.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.9. Phasor diagram variation: (a) load 1; (b) load 2
Figure 1.10 shows the variations with the load level of the Ksc rank
harmonic of the emf delivered by the two sensors positioned at 180° from
each other around an electrical machine. Two cases are presented: the
healthy case and the case with a stator inter-turn short-circuit fault. The
following observations are consistent with the theoretical analyses:
– in the healthy case, the harmonics vary in the same direction and have
in this case almost the same amplitudes;
– in the faulty case, the harmonics vary differently, and sometimes in
opposite directions.
These types of curves obtained in different machines can be analyzed

from two indicators:
– the ratio of amplitudes (RA), which gives the ratio between the
amplitudes of the harmonics measured on both sides of the machine,
– the difference of variation (DV), which is a Boolean quantity: either the
harmonics vary in the same direction, or they vary in opposite directions.
As the detection performance depends on the position of the sensors

regarding the localization of the fault in the winding, it is possible to
improve the diagnosis using several sensor positions around the machine.
The pair-forming sensors will be shifted by π as shown in Figure 1.11, where
six sensors are used. However, it will not be possible to cover the entire
periphery of the machine, for example, it is not possible to place a sensor
under the base of the machine.
Figure 1.10. Variation of sensitive harmonic versus the load
Figure 1.11. Measurements with three pairs of sensors
1.3. Information fusion to detect the inter-turn short-circuit faults
As shown previously, to improve the reliability of the approach,

measurements at several positions will be performed. Each measurement
constitutes a piece of information regarding the presence of a fault. Fusion
technique [BLO 07, KHA 13] using the belief function theory [DEM 67,
SHA 76, SME 94] is used here as a frame to represent and combine
information to make a final decision. This theory is a powerful mathematical
framework used to deal with partial and unreliable information [DUB 10] in
many fields [DEN 16].
In our case, this theory enables us to model the uncertainty of the

information and to make a decision concerning the question of the presence
of a fault in the winding of a tested machine.
In this section, the basic concepts of the belief functions are first exposed
in section 1.3.1. Then, in section 1.3.2, the proposed approach is introduced.
Finally, an illustrative example is presented in section 1.3.3.
1.3.1. Belief function theory: basic concepts
Basic useful concepts of the belief function theory are exposed in this
section. Belief functions offer a rich and flexible mathematical frame to
represent and manipulate imperfect information.
1.3.1.1. Representation of available information

Let us consider a variable of interest x taking its values in a finite set
{x1 , x2 , x3 , , xK } called the frame of discernment. A piece of
information regarding the true value taken by x can be represented by a mass
function (MF) m defined as an application from the power set of denoted
by A A , x1 , x2 , x1 , x2 , to [0, 1] such that
m( A) 1. [1.23]
A
With A a subset of , a mass m(A) represents the degree of knowledge in

favor of the fact that the true value of x belongs to A. The mass m( )
represents the degree of total ignorance regarding the value taken by x,
especially m ( ) 1 represents a total uncertainty on the value taken by x
(indicating x does not bring any new piece of evidence concerning the
searched value taken by x).
1.3.1.2. Combining evidence

Two pieces of information represented, respectively, by MFs m1 and m2,
and coming from two distinct sources, can be combined using the
conjunctive rule of combination (CRC) [DEM 67, SME 07] defined by
m1 m2 ( A) m1 ( B)m2 (C ) A . [1.24]
B C A
This rule being associative and commutative, the order in which the
sources are combined does not affect the combination result.
Let us consider as an example a very simple diagnosis problem with a

frame composed of two elements y and n, where y means “yes, there is a
fault in the inspected winding” and n means “no, there is no fault”. Let us
suppose two independent and reliable experts E1 and E2 expressing their
opinions regarding the presence of a fault with, respectively, the two
following MFs m1 and m2 defined, respectively, by m1 ({y})=0.1,
m1( ) = 0.9, m1 ({y})=0.2 and m2( ) = 0.8. Both experts think there is a
little chance that there is a fault but are not sure at all of the presence of a
fault. A large mass (90% for expert E1 and 80% for expert E2) is on the
ignorance regarding the fact that there is a fault.
The combination or fusion, denoted by m, of pieces of information m1

and m2 using CRC rule [1.24] is illustrated in Table 1.1 and is given by
m({ y}) 0.02 0.08 0.18 0.28 and m( ) 0.72 . The mass supports
the fact that there is a fault that has then been reinforced using the CRC
rule.
m1 {y}
m2 0.2 0.8
{y} ⋂ ⋂Ω
0.1 0.1 0.2 0.02 0.1 0.8 0.08
Ω⋂ Ω⋂Ω Ω
0.9 0.9 0.2 0.18 0.9 0.8 0.72
Table 1.1. Conjunctive combination of MFs m1 and m2
1.3.1.3. Decision making

A way to make a decision [DEN 97] once the available information
concerning the true value taken by x is represented by a single MF m
consists of transforming this MF into the following probability measure BetP
defined by
m( A)
BetP ( x) , x . [1.25]
x A, A | A | (1 m( ))
The chosen decision maximizes BetP. As an example, the BetP measure

associated with MF m depicted in Table 1.1 is given by
Ω /2
0.72
0.28 0.64
2
and
Ω /2
0.72
0 0.36
2
The chosen decision maximizes BetP and is in favor of y, meaning “there

is a fault”.
1.3.2. Fault detection with the fusion method
In this section, we detail how to use the measurements of two flux

sensors obtained at different positions around the electrical machine to
indicate the presence of a fault. More precisely, we propose a fusion process
taking into account, for each position of the sensors:
– the DV of the measurements output by each sensor while the load
increases;
– the RA computed with the sensor measures.
Information DV and RA can be obtained for different positions of the two

sensors. The number N of possible positions, which can be used, depends on
the size of the machine and the possibility to place sensors on the housing of
the machine. To model the fusion and how far each piece of information
indicates a fault, we use the belief function framework presented in previous
section.
In the present application, the main question of interest is “Is there a

fault?”. Let us then define a variable of interest x which takes as possible
values y standing for “yes there is a fault” or n for “no, there is no fault”.
Then, the frame of discernment is Ω = {y,n}.
For a given position i, i = 1,…,N, of the sensors, it remains to build the

pieces of information mDV,i and mRA,i regarding the presence of a fault, which
comes, respectively, from the pieces of evidence DV and RA.
So, the MF mDV,i has been defined as follows:

– If there is at least one difference of evolution between sensor
measurements while the load increases, then mDV,i ({y}) = 0.95 and
mDV,i (Ω) = 0.05. It represents the fact that there is surely a fault.
– Otherwise (there is no opposite evolutions), we do not know if there is
a fault, and there is a little chance that there is no fault, so we define mDV,i by
mDV,i ({n}) = 0.05 and mDV,i (Ω) = 0.95.
The second piece of evidence mRA,i regarding the presence of a fault is

defined using the following ratio RAi between amplitudes measurements
AC1,i and AC2,i obtained, respectively, from sensors C1 and C2 in position i
(in the following equation ch corresponds to the load with ch = 0,…,chmax):
, , ,
min : → [1.26]
, , ,
Values of ratio RAi belong to [0, 1]. When RAi is close to 1, it means that
the two measurements are close and then the machine is in a healthy state.
When it is close to 0, we are almost sure that there is a fault. Between 0 and
1, we suppose the existence of two thresholds S1 and S2 representing a
transition. One example of the evolution of the MF according to the ratio
RAi is given in Figure 1.12 with S1 = 0.45 and S2 = 0.55. The area between
S1 and S2 represents a transition area between the two views.
With N being the number of possible positions, we have 2N MFs

(mDV,1,…,mDV,N and mRA,1,…,mRA,N) corresponding to 2N pieces of
information regarding the presence of a fault on the machine. These pieces
of information are then combined using CRC [1.24]. The resulting MF m is
given by
⋂ , ⋂ ⋂ , ⋂ [1.27]
The chosen decision maximizes the probabilistic transformation BetP of

m [1.25].
Figure 1.12. Definition of MF mRA,i according to the ratio value with

S1 = 0.45 and S2 = 0.55
1.3.3. Calculation example
In this section, we expose a calculation example for the proposed

approach. For that, we take measurements obtained from the induction
machine presented in the following section. In this case, the four possible
positions are considered and loads increase has been chosen equal to 0 (no
load), 600 W, 1,000 W and 1,400 W (in this example, this last load
corresponds to chmax). The measurements obtained by sensors C1 and C2 are
summarized in Table 1.2. In this example, the machine has a short-circuit
fault.
Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Position 4

Load
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
(W)
( V) ( V) ( V) ( V) ( V) ( V) ( V) ( V)
0 46 126 98 206 101 122 84 146
600 24 235 160 337 175 192 147 217
1000 34 316 232 514 276 303 176 267
1400 163 387 368 625 389 401 248 356
Table 1.2. Measurements obtained by sensors C1

and C2 using the induction machine
Differences of variations, according to the load, for each sensor at

position 1 are exposed in Table 1.3.
Load Sensor C1 Sensor C1 Sensor C2 Sensor C2 Same

(W) ( V) Variation ( V) Variation direction?
0 46 126
600 24 22 235 109 No
1000 34 10 316 81 Yes
1400 163 129 387 71 Yes
Table 1.3. DV obtained from sensors C1 and C2 using the

induction machine for position 1
It can be observed from Table 1.3 that in position 1, when the load
increases from 0 to 600 W, measurements from sensor C1 decrease from 46
to 24 V, whereas those of sensor C2 increase from 126 to 235 V.
Variations in opposite direction are obtained. Table 1.4 summarizes the
number of different variations observed for all positions.

Number of different
1 0 0 0
variations
Table 1.4. Number of different variations detected for each

position of the sensors
Consequently, the obtained MFs mDV,i, for each position i, i 1, , N,

are given in Table 1.5.

, 0.95 , 0.05 , 0.05 , 0.05
, Ω 0.05 , Ω 0.95 , Ω 0.95 , Ω 0.95
Table 1.5. MFs mDV,i obtained from the measurement exposed in Table 1.2
As a difference of evolution was detected in position 1, MF mDV,1

indicates the presence of a fault, whereas it is not the case for positions
2, 3 and 4.
We can combine these four MFs using [1.27]. The result of this
combination is the following:
0.814
0.007
Ω 0.043
∅ 0.136
Now we consider the RA as a second piece of information regarding the

presence of a fault. Ratios obtained in position 1 are presented in Table 1.6.
Only the smallest is conserved for RA1.
Load Sensor Sensor

Ratio RA1
(W) C1 ( V) C2 ( V)
0 46 126 0.365
600 24 235 0.102
0.102
1000 34 316 0.107
1400 163 387 0.421
Table 1.6. MFs mDV,i obtained from the measurement exposed in Table 1.2
Ratios RA2, RA3 and RA4 are similarly computed for all positions.
Associated MFs are then computed using Figure 1.12. For instance, by
plotting the value of RA1 in Figure 1.12, the MF obtained for position 1 is
defined as follows:
, 0.95
, 0
, Ω 0.05
The same method is used to compute mRA,2, mRA,3 and mRA,4. These MFs
are presented in Table 1.7.
Position 2 Position 3 Position 4

RA2 = 0.475 RA3 = 0.828 RA4 = 0.575
, 0.71 , 0.05 , 0
, 0,02 , 0 , 0.05
, Ω 0.27 , Ω 0.95 , Ω 0.95
Table 1.7. MFs mRA,i from the measurement exposed in Table 1.2
The combination of these MFs yields
0.872
0.003
Ω 0.012
∅ 0.113
Combining mDV and mRA gives an MF m defined by
0.757
0.001
Ω 0.001
∅ 0.241
Finally, the transformation of m into a probability [1.25] is given by
0.999
0.001
It follows a decision in favor of {y} (i.e. there is a fault in the winding of

this machine).
1.4. Application
1.4.1. Presentation of rotating electrical machines
The proposed method has been tested considering two specific electrical
machines whose parameters are presented in Table 1.8. These two machines
allow us to simulate a damaged coil (short-circuit coils) and to test the
method.
AM SM
Machine type Asynchronous Synchronous
Power (kW) 11 10
Frequency (Hz) 50 50
Poles 4 4
Stator slots 48 54
Rotor slots 32 32
Balanced line voltage (V) 380/660 230/400
Synchronous speed (rpm) 1500 1400
Rated speed (rpm) 1450 1400
cos 0.83 0.7
Table 1.8. Characteristics of the tested machines
The AM shown in Figure 1.13, with 32 rotor slots (Nr=16) leads to

sensitive spectral lines at 750 and 850 Hz. Actually, both harmonics have
rather low magnitude, and for better robustness of the method, it is
preferable to take the harmonic with higher magnitude.
For the AM, the considered frequency depends on the slip, but it will be
still denoted as “the line at 850 Hz”. In a practice, without any prior
information about harmonic magnitudes, it can be advised to extract both
harmonics from the signal, with an FFT.
In the presented test bench, the flux sensors measuring the external
magnetic field of the three-phase induction machine are placed around the
machine. The machine can operate under no load or load conditions and the
connecting box above the machine allows us to simulate a fault by short-
circuiting coils.
Figure 1.13. Test bench with an 11-kW AM used for the experiments
For this machine, the stator winding has been modified to offer the
possibility to make different levels of short-circuit faults as it can be seen in
the electrical winding scheme presented in Figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14. Electrical winding scheme of an 11-kW AM
This configuration allows us to short circuit any elementary coil (turns

placed in one slot) in the stator windings that correspond to 12.5% of a full
phase. A rheostat is used to limit the value of the short-circuit current during
the tests.
Figure 1.15. Test bench for a 10-kW SM
The SM illustrated in Figure 1.15 is a machine with a smooth rotor

similar to the rotor of a turbo generator (contrary to a salient pole machine).
The rotor is regularly slotted similar to the stator, and its winding is supplied
with a DC current. It has also 32 rotor slots (Nr=16) but some slots are not
filled by the winding. The analytical model also leads to sensitive spectral
lines at 750 and 850 Hz, but for the SM, the 750-Hz spectral line has a
higher magnitude than the 850-Hz spectral line, contrary to the AM.
Therefore, the 750-Hz line will be chosen for the analysis. This choice is
realized in correlation with experimental tests which take into consideration
the solid iron frame of the SM which acts as a low-pass filter for magnetic
fields that leads to a higher magnitude for the 750-Hz harmonic compared to
the one at 850 Hz.
In experimental tests on the SM operating as a motor, the elementary

sections have been chosen such that it is possible to study a short circuit
close to the input of the phase (phase A), in phase medium (phase B) or
near the neutral (Phase C) as presented in Figure 1.16. The global number
of turns in phase A is 126 and a short-circuit between 1 and 2 corresponds
to one short-circuit turn (0.8% of a full phase), between 2 and 3 to three
short-circuit turns (2.38%), and between 1 and 4 to five short-circuit
turns (4%).
a) external access at different turns positions between

the four poles of each phase
b) electrical winding schema
Figure 1.16. Stator configuration of an SM
As mentioned earlier, for this machine, the analyzed amplitude is realized

for the harmonic at 750 Hz.
1.4.2. Presentation of experimental results
The rewinding of the AM and SM allows us to simulate a damaged coil

(short-circuit coils) and to test the proposed method considering a wide
variety of fault positions. The detection of short-circuit faults depends on the
severity of the fault and its position relative to the location of the sensors.
For this reason, for the AM, eight sensors are used, that is to say four
possible positions (P1, P2, P3 and P4) where the pairs of sensors are placed
at 180° from each other. For this purpose, a number of experiments are
carried out on the considered machines. Each one is assembled and designed
to study the behavior of the motor in a faulty condition. The total number of
measurements for the AM test is 260 corresponding to the healthy and faulty
machine for 12 different connections in the stator windings (four per phase)
as presented in Figure 1.14:
– healthy machine,
– with two faults in phase A (short circuit between the coils 1-2 and 1-3),
– with two faults in phase B (short circuit between the coils 9-10
and 9-11),
– with two faults in phase C (short circuit between the coils 17-18
and 17-19),
– with two faults in phase A (short circuit between the coils 25-26
and 25-27),
– with two faults in phase B (short circuit between the coils 33-34
and 33-35),
– with two faults in phase C (short circuit between the coils 41-42
and 41-43).
Position Position Position Position Fusion

1 2 3 4 results
Results obtained
with DV 69.23 (4) 46.15 (7) 53.85 (6) 53.85 (6) 84.61 (2)
information
Results obtained
with RA 76.92 (3) 69.23 (4) 76.92 (3) 76.92 (3) 92.31 (1)
information
Results obtained
by fusion of 84.61 (2) 76.92 (3) 84.61 (2) 84.61 (2) 92.31 (1)
DV and RA
Table 1.9. Percent of correct decisions obtained, for the AM in the case of different
short circuit positions in the stator windings, obtained by using direct information signals
and fusion of signals. The numbers in parentheses indicate the numbers of errors
The percent results obtained by the information fusion tools using the
belief function theory are illustrated in Table 1.9. We have 13 considered
configurations. The first analysis is based only on information concerning
the fusion of sense of variation indicators (DV), the second by the fusion of
the ratio of the amplitude indicators (RA) and the last one by fusion of DV
and RA. For each case, the fusion of information obtained by the four
positions of the sensors is realized and the thresholds used to obtain the MFs
are S1 = 0.45 and S2 = 0.55.
For all the presented tests, the short-circuit current intensity Isc always
remains equal to 12 A rms and four levels of load were imposed for each
considered case: 0, 600, 1,000 and 1,400 W. From Table 1.9, we perform
common analyses between the methods by analyzing the results of each
position and the results obtained by measurement according to the sensor
belt. It appears that when the measurements are limited to a single position,
we are not able to detect all faulty cases.
We remark for DV indicator that, the fusion process increases at 84.61%

the good decision for detection of the faulty case (only two cases from 13 are
not detected). The result obtained by fusion of DV and RA gives 92.31%
good decisions, similar to results obtained from the RA.
Another test realized with the AM is presented in Table 1.10. Here the
information DV and RA are obtained from three positions of the sensors
considering several levels of fault severity. The winding of the machine
limits the short-circuit positions but allows us to create three levels of faults
on the accessible elementary coils. The studied configurations are the
following:
– healthy machine (without short circuit)
– with two faults in phase A,
– with two faults in phase B,
– with two faults in phase C,
that corresponds to 19 analyzed cases (18 with faults and one healthy). The
values of the short-circuit currents measured in each case are:
– Isc = 5 A,
– Isc = 10 A,
– Isc = 15 A.
In Table 1.10, the detection percent for each short-circuit severity level
with fusion or without fusion of information is presented.
Healthy Fault with Fault with Fault with Fusion

machine Isc= 5 A Isc = 10 A Isc = 15 A results
Results
obtained
100 (0) 100 (0) 83.33 (1) 16.66 (5) 68.42 (6)
with DV
information
Results
obtained
100 (0) 100 (0) 100 (0) 100 (0) 100 (0)
with RA
information
Results
obtained by
100 (0) 100 (0) 100 (0) 100 (0) 100 (0)
fusion of DV
and RA
Table 1.10. Percent of correct decisions obtained for the AM in the case of different
levels of short-circuit severity using direct information signals and fusion of signals.
The numbers in parentheses indicate the numbers of errors
The global results show that the fusion of information concerning only
the DV information can detect 68.42% of faulty cases (13 from 19
analyzed). For this approach, high fault levels give low percent detection
value (16.66% corresponding to five cases not detected from six). With
information concerning only the RA parameter, the presented method detects
100% of the faulty cases; by fusion of the DV and RA, also 100% of the
faulty cases are detected. We can remark that for this test, the use of fusion
(DV + RA) allows us to obtain the best results.
For SM, the measurements were carried out in the generator mode using
a resistive load and with only one sensor position. For this machine, it is
possible to access to 1, 3 and 5 turns on certain elementary coils distributed
on the three phases. The studied configurations are the following:
– without short circuit;
– three faults (short circuit between coils 1-2, 2-3 and 1-4; see Figure
1.4(a)) for the three phases (A, B and C).
The value of the current measured in each case of short circuit depends
on the number of short turns:
– one coil (short circuit between the output connection 1-2, Isc = 3 A);
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described; and the value of his work has been very differently
appraised. Cuvier had small opinion of it. Camper and Saint-Hilaire
considered the author the greatest naturalist of modern times, the
French Aristotle. Topinard (1885, p. 33) thus describes the opinion of
the public: “Le public, lui, n’hésita pas; dans l’Histoire naturelle des
animaux il sentit un souffle nouveau, vit un pressentiment de l’avenir.
La libre pensée était dans l’air, 89 approchait; l’œuvre de Buffon,
comme l’Encyclopédie, Voltaire, Rousseau et Bougainville, contribua
à la Révolution française.”
The genius of Linnæus lay in classification. Order and method
were with him a passion. In his Systema Naturæ he fixed the place
of Man in Nature, arranging Homo sapiens as a distinct species in
the order Primates,[14] together with the apes, the lemurs, and the
bats. He went further and classified the varieties of man,
distinguishing them by skin colour and other characters into four
groups—a classification which holds an honourable place at the
present day.
14. The tenth edition, 1758, is the first in which the order Primates occurs. Earlier
editions have the order Anthropomorpha. See Bendyshe, p. 424.
All this was abominable in the eyes of Buffon. “Une vérité

humiliante pour l’homme, c’est qu’il doit se ranger lui-même dans la
classe des animaux”; and in another place he exclaims: “Les genres,
les ordres, les classes, n’existent que dans notre imagination.... Ce
ne sont que des idées de convention.... Il n’y a que des individus!”
And again: “La nature ne connait pas nos definitions; elle n’a jamais
rangé ses ouvrages par tas, ni les êtres par genres.”
Nevertheless both rendered incalculable service to the science.
Linnæus “found biology a chaos and left it a cosmos.”
“L’anthropologie,” says Flourens, “surgit d’une grande pensée de
Buffon; jusqu-là l’homme n’avait été étudié que comme individu,
Buffon est le premier qui l’ait envisagé comme espèce.”
But Buffon was no believer in the permanent stability of species.
“Nature is far from subjecting herself to final causes in the formation
of her creatures.” He went so far as to make a carefully veiled hint
(the Sorbonne having eyes on him) of a possible common ancestor
for horse and ass, and of ape and man. At least, he says, so one
should infer from their general resemblance; but, since the Bible
affirms the contrary, “of course the thing cannot be.”[15] In 1751 the
old naturalist was constrained by the Sorbonne to recant his
geological heresies in these words: “I declare that I had no intention
to contradict the text of Scripture; that I believe most firmly all therein
related about the Creation, both as to order of time and matter of
fact.”
15. Quoted from Clodd’s Pioneers of Evolution, 1897, p. 101.
J. F. Blumenbach
Blumenbach. It was fortunate for the nascent science that the

next great name on its roll was that of a man of
very wide reading, endowed with remarkable reasoning powers, and
with an exceptional perspicuity for sifting out the true from the false.
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840) was Professor in the
Faculty of Medicine at Göttingen, and early turned his attention to
the special study of man. He was the first to place anthropology on a
rational basis, and in his De generis humani varietate nativa (1775-
1795) laid the foundations of race classification based on
measurement. He noted the variations in the shape of the skull and
of the face, and may therefore be regarded as the founder of
craniology (see below, p. 28). Besides the services rendered by
Blumenbach to the science of anthropology in classification and in
laying the foundations of craniology, there was a third field in which
his work was perhaps even more valuable to his contemporaries.
Monsters. Every successive age is astonished at the
credulity of its predecessor; but when we
remember the grave difficulties which beset the explorer in the
eighteenth century, and the wild “travellers’ tales” which it was
impossible either to verify or to disprove, it is easy to sympathise
with the credence given to the beliefs in “Anthropophagi, and men
whose heads do grow beneath their shoulders.” Tyson, in his
Philological Essay, gives a list, chiefly derived from classical writers,
of the “monstrous Productions,” belief in which had not altogether
died out in the seventeenth century. In fact, it was not long before
Tyson’s time that a distinguished naturalist had given a serious
description of the mermen who lived in the sea and had their hinder
parts covered with scales.[16] Tyson’s account of “Monstrous sorts of
Men” is taken mainly from Strabo:—
16. v. Cunningham, p. 24.
Such are the Amukteres or Arrhines, that want Noses, and have only
two holes above their Mouth; they eat all things, but they must be raw;
they are short lived; the upper part of their Mouths is very prominent. The
Enotokeitai, whose Ears reach down to their Heels, on which they lye and
sleep. The Astomoi, that have no Mouths—a civil sort of People, that
dwell about the Head of the Ganges; and live upon smelling to boil’d
Meats and the Odours of Fruits and Flowers; they can bear no ill scent,
and therefore can’t live in a Camp. The Monommatoi or Monophthalmoi,
that have but one Eye, and that in the middle of their Foreheads: they
have Dogs’ Ears; their Hair stands on end, but smooth on the Breasts.
The Sternophthalmoi, that have Eyes in their Breasts. The Panai
sphenokephaloi with Heads like Wedges. The Makrokephaloi, with great
Heads. The Huperboreoi, who live a Thousand years. The Okupodes, so
swift that they will out-run a Horse. The Opisthodaktuloi, that go with their
Heels forward, and their Toes backwards. The Makroskeleis, the
Steganopodes, the Monoskeleis, who have one Leg, but will jump a great
way, and are call’d Sciapodes, because when they lye on their Backs,
with this Leg they can keep the Sun from their bodies.
Wild Men. Linnæus did not include these in his Homo

Monstrosus; but various questionable creatures
are inserted by his pupil Hoppius in the treatise Anthropomorpha of
Linnæus, read in 1760.[17] Such were the Satyr of Vulpius, who,
“when it went to bed, put its head on the pillow, and covered its
shoulders with the counterpane, and lay quite quiet like a
respectable woman”; Lucifer (Homo caudatus), the “dreadful foul
animals—running about like cats,” who rowed in boats, attacked and
killed a boatload of adventurers, cooking and eating their bodies; and
the Troglodyta (Homo nocturnus), who in the East Indies “are caught
and made use of in houses as servants to do the lighter domestic
work—as to carry water, lay the table, and take away the plates.” But
all these were classed among the Simiæ. Within the species Homo
sapiens Linnæus included wild or natural man, Homo sapiens ferus,
whose existence was widely believed in at the time. The most
authentic case was that of “Wild Peter,” the naked brown boy
discovered in 1724 in Hanover. He could not speak, and showed
savage and brutish habits and only a feeble degree of intelligence.
He was sent to London, and, under the charge of Dr. Arbuthnot,
became a noted personage, and the subject of keen discussion
among philosophers and naturalists. One of his admirers, more
enthusiastic than the others, declared that his discovery was more
important than that of Uranus, or the discovery of thirty thousand
new stars.
17. Bendyshe, p. 447.
Blumenbach alone, apparently, took the trouble to investigate the
origin of Wild Peter, and in the article he wrote on the subject
disposed for all time of the belief in the existence of “natural man.”
He pointed out that when Peter was first met he wore fastened round
his neck the torn fragments of a shirt, and that the whiteness of his
thighs, as compared with the brown of his legs, showed that he had
been wearing breeches and no stockings. He finally proved that
Peter was the dumb child of a widower, who had been thrust out of
his home by a new step-mother.[18]
18. Cunningham, pp. 24-5.
Chapter II.
THE SYSTEMATISERS OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Hitherto we have been dealing with the great pioneers in

Anthropology, those who laid the foundations, brought order out of
chaos, and suggested the outlines of future work. Henceforward
Anthropology may claim the name of a science, and the work
developed on definite lines. It will be more convenient to treat these
separately, abandoning a strict chronological method.
The first branch to attract workers was Somatology, the physical
aspect of man, of which we have already noted the inception: not
until the nineteenth century can Archæology, or Prehistoric
Anthropology, be said to have developed into a science; while the
scientific study of Ethnology, or Cultural Anthropology, is barely half a
century old.
Craniology. Somatology had already been foreshadowed by
Norma Verticalis Vesalius, Spigel, and Linnæus; but Blumenbach
of Blumenbach. was the first to strike its keynote by recording the
shape of the skull and of the face. He was the
fortunate possessor of a large number of skulls—large, that is, for his
time, and he published a description of them (1790-1820), Decas
collectionis suae craniorum diversarum gentium illustrata, with 70
plates. He noted particularly the norma verticalis—i.e., the shape of
the skull as seen from above, distinguishing by its means three types
—the square shape of the Mongols, the narrow or “pressed in from
the sides” shape of the Negroes, and the intermediate form which he
recognised in the “Caucasians.” He was the first to popularise
craniology, and “it became the fashion to visit the Blumenbachian
Museum, to have the differences which distinguish the different
cranial types pointed out, and to indulge in sentimental rhapsodies
upon the beauty and symmetry of the young female Georgian skull,
which was considered to represent the highest type of all.”[19] But
Blumenbach does not seem to have taken advantage of his own
discoveries. In choosing the norma verticalis as a racial criterion he
made a valuable contribution to science, but he did not reproduce his
normæ in his plates, nor did he base his classification on them.
Indeed, his typical Caucasian skull is really squarer than his typical
Mongolian.
19. Cunningham, p. 26.
Peter Camper (1722-1789) had already been studying head-form,

though from a totally different standpoint, and his deductions were
not published until after his death.
His contributions to Anthropology were an essay on the Physical
Education of the Child, a lecture on The Origin and Colour of the
Negro, and a treatise on The Orang-outang and some other species
of Apes; but only his work on the facial angle has attained
permanent fame. His early inclinations were towards art, and he was
carefully trained in drawing, painting, and architecture; and it was in
the interests of Art, not of Anthropology, that the researches which
resulted in his determination of the facial angle came to be
undertaken. This he describes in his preface to his lectures:—
At the age of eighteen, my instructor, Charles Moor the younger, to
whose attention and care I am indebted for any subsequent progress I
may have made in this art, set me to paint one of the beautiful pieces of
Van Tempel, in which there was the figure of a negro, that by no means
pleased me. In his colour he was a negro, but his features were those of
a European. As I could neither please myself nor gain any proper
directions, I desisted from the undertaking. By critically examining the
prints taken from Guido Reni, C. Marat, Seb. Ricci, and P. P. Rubens, I
observed that they, in painting the countenances of the Eastern Magi,
had, like Van Tempel, painted black men, but they were not Negroes.
Upper and Side Views of Skulls of Men
belonging to the Neolithic and Bronze Age Races; photographed by
the Author from specimens in the Cambridge Anatomical Museum.
A, Long Barrow, Dinnington, Rotherham. Length, 204 mm.; breadth,

143 mm.; cranial index, 70. 1.
B, Winterbourne Stoke. Length, 177 mm.; breadth, 156 mm.; cranial
index, 88. 1.
Facial Angle of To obtain the necessary facial effects

Camper. distinguishing the Negro from the European,
Camper devised his system of measurements. He drew a line from
the aperture of the ear to the base of the nose, and another from the
line of the junction of the lips (or, in the case of a skull, from the front
of the incisor teeth) to the most prominent part of the forehead. “If,”
he said, “the projecting part of the forehead be made to exceed the
100th degree, the head becomes mis-shapen and assumes the
appearance of hydrocephalus or watery head. It is very surprising
that the artists of Ancient Greece should have chosen precisely the
maximum, while the best Roman artists have limited themselves to
the 95th degree, which is not so pleasing. The angle which the facial
or characteristic line of the face makes,” he continued, “varies from
70 to 80 degrees in the human species. All above is resolved by the
rules of art; all below bears resemblance to that of apes. If I make
the facial line lean forward, I have an antique head; if backward, the
head of a Negro. If I still more incline it, I have the head of an ape;
and if more still, that of a dog, and then that of an idiot.”
Camper’s facial angle may be of service to Art, but since the
points from which the lines are drawn are all variable, owing to the
disturbing influence of other factors, such as an increased length of
face or an unusually prominent brow-ridge, it cannot form an
accurate measurement for Anthropology. It was severely criticised by
Blumenbach, Lawrence, and Prichard, but adopted in France, and by
Morton in America.
Dr. J. Aitken Meigs[20] pointed out that as early as 1553 the
measurement of the head appears to have exercised the ingenuity of
Albert Dürer, who, in his De Symmetriâ Partium in Rectis Formis
Humanorum Corporum, has given such measurements in almost
every view. These, however, are more artistic in their tendency and
scope than scientific. A glance at some of the outline drawings of
Dürer shows incontestably that the facial line and angle were not
wholly unknown to him, and that Camper has rather elaborated than
invented this method of cranial measurement. The artist even seems
to have entertained more philosophical views of cephalometry, or
head measurement, than the professor.
20. North American Med.-Chir. Rev., 1861, p. 840.
Various Early The evolution of craniometrical measurements
Craniologists. is of interest to the physical anthropologist, but
even a brief recital of this progress would weary the non-specialist. A
history of Anthropology would, however, not be complete if it ignored
the general trend of such investigations.
Some of the early workers, such as Daubenton (1716-99) and
Mulder, Walther, Barclay, and Serres in the first half of the nineteenth
century, attempted to express the relation between the brain-case
and the face by some simple measurement or method of comparison
in their endeavour to formulate not only the differences between the
races of mankind, but also those which obtain between men and the
lower animals.
Others during the same period investigated the relations and
proportions of portions of the skull to the whole by means of lines.
Spix (1815) adopted five lines. Herder employed a series of lines
radiating from the atlas (the uppermost bone of the vertebral
column); but, more generally, the meatus auditorius (ear-hole) was
the starting-point (Doornik, 1815).
The internal capacity of the skull first received attention from
Tiedemann (1836), who determined it by filling the skull with millet
seed and then ascertaining the weight of the seed. Morton first used
white pepper seed, which he discarded later for No. 8 shot, while
Volkoff employed water. Modifications in the use of these three
media—seeds, shot, and water—are still employed by craniologists.
The most noteworthy names among the earlier workers in
craniology are those of Retzius and Grattan. Anders Retzius (1796-
1860) correlated the schemes of Blumenbach and Camper, and so
arrived at the methods of craniological measurements which are
almost universally in use at the present day.
Cephalic Index In 1840 he introduced his theory regarding
of Retzius. cranial shapes to the Academy of Science at
Stockholm, and two years later gave a course of lectures on the
same subject. He criticised the results attained by Blumenbach,
showing that his group contains varying types of skull form; and he
invented the cephalic index, or length-breadth index—i.e., the ratio of
the breadth of a skull to its length, expressed as a per-centage. The
narrower skulls he termed dolichocephalic, the broader ones
brachycephalic. By this method Retzius designed rather to arrange
the forms of crania than to classify thereby the races of mankind,
though he tried to group the European peoples more or less
according to their head-form. While thus elaborating the suggestion
of Blumenbach, he also recorded the degree of the projection of the
jaws, demonstrated by Camper, and he added the measurements of
the face, height, and jugular breadth. Thus was Craniology
established on its present lines.
Grattan. John Grattan (1800-1871), the Belfast
apothecary, has never received the recognition
that was his due. Having undertaken to describe the numerous
ancient Irish skulls collected by his friend Edmund Getty, he soon
became impressed by the absence of
that uniformity of method and that numerical precision without which no
scientific investigation requiring the co-operation of numerous observers
can be successfully prosecuted. The mode of procedure hitherto adopted
furnishes to the mind nothing but vague generalities ... until we can
record with something approaching towards accuracy the proportional
development of the great subdivisions of the brain, as indicated by its
bony covering, and by our figures convey to the mind determinate ideas
of the relation they bear towards each other, we shall not be in a position
to do justice to our materials.... No single cranium can per se be taken to
represent the true average characteristics of the variety from which it may
be derived. It is only from a large deduction that the ethnologist can
venture to pronounce with confidence upon the normal type of any race.
[21]
21. J. Grattan, Ulster Journal of Arch., 1858.
Grattan devised a series of radial measurements from the meatus

auditorius, and constructed an ingenious craniometer. As Professor
J. Symington points out, “Grattan’s work was almost
cotemporaneous with that of Anders Retzius, and nearly all of it was
done before the German and French Schools had elaborated their
schemes of skull measurements.”[22] He adopted the most useful of
the measurements then existing, and added new ones of his own
devising.
22. Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist. and Phil. Soc., 1903-4; and Journ. Anat. and Phys.
The distinguished American physician and physiologist Dr. J.
Aitken Meigs laid down the principles that “Cranial measurements to
be of practical use should be both absolute and relative. Absolute
measurements are necessary to demonstrate those anatomical
differences between the crania of different races which assume a
great zoological significance in proportion to their constancy. By
relative measurements of the head we obtain an approximate idea of
the peculiar physiological character of the enclosed brain ... the
craniographer, in fact, becomes the cranioscopist” (1861, p. 857). In
this paper Meigs gives craniometrical directions, some of which were
designed to give measurements for portions of the brain.
Broca. In France the greatest names are those of
Broca, Topinard, and de Quatrefages. Pierre Paul
Broca (1824-1880) was first destined for the army, but when the
death of his sister left him the only child he was unwilling to leave his
parents, and resolved to study medicine and share the work of his
father, an eminent physician. He soon distinguished himself,
especially in surgery, not only in practical work, but also in his
writings. With regard to the latter, Dr. Pozzi, in a memoir, says of him:
“There is hardly one of the subjects in which he did not at the first
stroke make a discovery, great or small; there is not one on which he
has not left the mark of his originality.”[23]
23. J.A.I., x., 1881, p. 243.
Paul Broca.
In 1847 he was appointed to serve on a Commission to report on
some excavations in the cemetery of the Celestins, and this led him
to study craniology, and thence to ethnology, in which his interest,
once aroused, never flagged. The story of the formation of the
Société d’anthropologie de Paris (1859) and of l’École
d’anthropologie (1876), of both of which Broca was the moving spirit,
affords a curious commentary on the suspicion in which
Anthropology was held. To the success of the School he devoted all
his energies, and during many years of anxiety he met and
overcame all obstacles, surmounted all difficulties, wore down all
opposition, and finally placed it in a secure position. He invented
several instruments for the more accurate study of craniology, such
as the occipital crochet, goniometer, and stereograph, and also
standardised methods; but, dissatisfied with the inconclusiveness of
mere cranial comparisons, he turned towards the end of his life to
the study of the brain. He was an indefatigable worker, and his
sudden death in his fifty-sixth year is attributed to cerebral
exhaustion.
“Broca was a man,” said Dr. Beddoe, “who positively radiated
science and the love of science; no one could associate with him
without catching a portion of the sacred flame. Topinard has been
the Elisha of this Elijah.”[24]
24. Anniversary Address, Anth. Inst., 1891.
Topinard. Paul Topinard, pupil, colleague, and friend of
Broca, made valuable investigations on the living
population of France, besides devoting much time to
anthropometrical studies; but his greatest service has been the
preparation and publication of l’Anthropologie (1876), a guide for
students and a manual of reference for travellers and others, voicing
the idea of Broca and his school, and “elucidating in a single volume
a series of vast dimensions, in process of rapid development.” In
1885 he published his classic Eléments d’anthropologie générale,[25]
which aimed at creating a new atmosphere for the science, breaking
free from the traditions of the monogenists and polygenists, and
incorporating the new ideas spread by Darwin and Haeckel.
25. General Anthropology, according to Topinard’s classification, is concerned
merely with man as an animal, and deals with anatomy and physiology,
pathology, and psychology.
De Quatrefages. Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau (1810-92)
was not only a distinguished zoologist, occupying
himself mainly with certain groups of marine animals, but also
Professor of Anthropology at the Paris Museum of Natural History,
and undertook several voyages along the coasts of the
Mediterranean and the Atlantic in search of information. In 1867 he
published Rapport sur le progrès de l’Anthropologie, “which reduces
to a complete and intelligible system the abstruse and difficult, and,
to many, the incomprehensible science of anthropology, embracing
during his investigations a wide range of topics, and arranging
disjointed facts in due order, so as at once to evince their bearing
upon the subject.”[26] He published many other works, among them
Les Pygmées (1887), L’espèce humaine (1877), Histoire générale
des races humaines (1889), and, together with E. T. Hamy, the
famous Crania ethnica (1875-79). Professor F. Starr, in the preface
to his translation of The Pygmies (1895), says:—
26. Anth. Rev., 1869, p. 231.
A man of strong convictions and very conservative, de Quatrefages

was ever ready to hear the other side, and ever candid and kindly in
argument. He was one of the first to support the Society of Anthropology.
Those who know the story of the early days of that great association
understand what that means. When the claim for man’s antiquity was
generally derided, de Quatrefages championed the cause. A monogenist
[p. 53], a believer in the extreme antiquity of our race, he was never won
over by any of the proposed theories of evolution.... To the very end of a
long life our author lived happily and busily active among his books and
specimens.
Virchow. In Germany the greatest name is that of

Virchow. Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (1821-1902)
had already gained fame in the medical world, especially with regard
to histology, pathology, and the study of epidemics, and was the
prime leader in the “Medizinische Reform” movement before he
began his valuable contributions to the science of Anthropology.
His first anthropological writings were some papers on cretinism
(1851 and 1852), and from this date onwards his services to the
science can scarcely be over-estimated. Much of his energy was
also given to somatic anthropology, and in 1866 he started his
investigations into prehistoric archæology, combining scientific
method with spade-work.
In a notice of his work by Oscar Israel[27] (p. 656) we read:—
27. Smithsonian Report, 1902. Translated from the Deutsche Rundschau of
Dec., 1902.
Virchow devoted himself to ethnographic studies no less than to other

branches of anthropology, and here he became a center to which the
material streamed from all sides, and from which went forth suggestion,
criticism, and energetic assistance. This never-idle man did not disdain to
teach travelers schooled in other lines of investigation the anthropometric
methods; and, indeed, he found time for everything, and never left a
piece of work to others that he could possibly do himself. Thus, for
example, for ten years following its inception by him in 1876, he worked
up alone the data recorded in German schools as to the color of the eyes,
the hair, and the skin which has proved of such value for the knowledge
of the different branches of the German race.
Sergi. Professor Sergi at one time proposed to banish

measurements from craniology, and to rely solely
on observational methods. He has later modified his extreme
position, while, as a result of his crusade, he has induced most
anthropologists to pay more attention to the configuration of the
skull, and some of his descriptive terms have come into common
use.
Hagen’s Dr. Hagen relates the extreme specialisation
Criticism of into which craniologists were led:—
Craniometry.
A rage for skull measurements, vast, vigorous, and
heedless, set in on all sides, especially after Lucae had discovered and
perfected a method of accurately representing the irregular form of the
object studied. “More skulls” was henceforth the war-cry; the trunk,
extremities, soft tissues, skin and hair, might all go by the board, being
counted of no scientific value whatever. Anthropologists, or those who
aspired to the title, measured and delineated skulls; museums became
veritable cities of skulls, and the reputation of a scientific traveller almost
stood or fell with the number of crania which he brought back with him.
After two decades of measuring and collecting ever greater quantities
of material from foreign lands, and from the so-called primitive or
aboriginal races, the inadequacy of Retzius’s method became apparent.
Far too many intermediate forms were met with, which it was found
absolutely impossible to classify by its means. In accordance with the
suggestion of the French anthropologist Broca, and of Welcker, Professor
of Anatomy at Halle, a third type, the so-called Mesocephalic form, was
interposed between the two forms recognised by Retzius. Even this did
not suffice, however. In the face of the infinite variety of form of the crania
now massed together, a variety only comparable to that of leaves in a
forest, this primitively simple scheme, with its four and finally six types,
failed through lack of elasticity. Then began complication extending ever
further and further. Attention was no longer confined to the length and
breadth, but also to the height of the cranium, high and low (or flat) skulls
—i.e., hypsicephalic and chamaecephalic varieties being recognised. The
facial part of the skull was examined not only from the side, with a view to
recording the straightness or obliquity of the profile, but also from the
front; and there were thus distinguished long, medium, and short faces,
and also broad and narrow facial types. The nasal skeleton, the palate,
the orbit, the teeth, and the mandible were investigated in turn, and at last
all the individual bones of the cranium and face, their irregularities of
outline, and their relations to one another, were subjected to the closest
examination and most subtle measurements, with instruments of extreme
delicacy of construction and ingenuity of design, till, finally, the trifling
number of five thousand measurements for every skull found an advocate
in the person of the Hungarian Professor V. Török (whereby the wealth of
detail obscured the main objects of study); while, on the other hand,
observers deviated into scientific jugglery, like that of the Italian Professor
Sergi, who contrived to recognise within the limits of a single small
archipelago, the D’Entrecasteaux group of islets near New Guinea, as
many as eleven cranial varieties, which were all distinguished by high-
sounding descriptive names, such as Lophocephalus
brachyclitometopus, etc.
Macalister’s The misuse of Craniometry is also described by

Criticism of Professor Alexander Macalister[28]:—
Craniometry.
28. Presidential Address to Section H., Brit. Ass., 1892.
Despite all the labour that has been bestowed on the subject,
craniometric literature is at present as unsatisfactory as it is dull. Hitherto
observations have been concentrated on cranial measurements as
methods for the discrimination of the skulls of different races. Scores of
lines, arcs, chords, and indexes have been devised for this purpose, and
the diagnosis of skulls has been attempted by a process as mechanical
as that whereby we identify certain issues of postage-stamps by counting
the nicks in the margin. But there is underlying all these no unifying
hypothesis; so that when we, in our sesquipedalian jargon, describe an
Australian skull as microcephalic, phænozygous, tapeino-dolichocephalic,
prognathic, platyrhine, hypselopalatine, leptostaphyline, dolichuranic,
chamaeprosopic, and microseme, we are no nearer to the formulation of
any philosophic concept of the general principles which have led to the
assumption of these characters by the cranium in question, and we are
forced to echo the apostrophe of Von Török, “Vanity, thy name is
Craniology.”
It is significant that so many of the earlier craniologists recognised

that the really important problem before them was to gain a
knowledge of the size and relative proportions of the various regions
of the brain, this being a direct result of the phrenological studies
then so much in vogue. When phrenology became discredited, this
aspect of craniometry was largely neglected; but recently it has
exhibited signs of a healthy revival, and the inner surface of the
cranium is now regarded as more instructive than the outer.
Though for a time craniology was hailed as the magic formula by
which alone all ethnological tangles could be unravelled,
measurements of other parts of the body were not ignored by those
who recognised that no one measurement was sufficient to
determine racial affinities.
Anthropometry. Thus Anthropometry began to map out definite
lines of research, and detailed studies were made
of arms and legs, hands and feet, curves and angles, brains and
viscera; while, shorn of its extravagant claims, craniology took its
legitimate place as one in a series of bodily measurements. One of
the earliest workers in measurements other than that of the skull was
Charles White (1728-1813).

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Electrical Systems 2: From Diagnosis to

Prognosis Hubert Razik

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Ferroic materials for smart systems from fundamentals

From Diagnosis to Prognosis

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

© ISTE Ltd 2020

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019956924

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Chapter 1. Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by

Chapter 2. Signal Processing Techniques for

Chapter 3. Accurate Stator Fault Detection in an Induction

Chapter 4. Bearing Fault Diagnosis in Rotating Machines . . 123

Chapter 5. Diagnosis and Prognosis of Proton Exchange

List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Summary of Volume 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

The diagnosis and prognosis of electrical systems is still a relevant field

Introduction written by Abdenour SOUALHI and Hubert RAZIK.

Chapter 1, Volume 1, “Diagnostic Methods for the Health Monitoring of

Chapter 2, Volume 1, “Techniques for Predicting Defects in Bearings and

Chapter 3, Volume 1, “Electrical Signatures Analysis for Condition

Chapter 4, Volume 1, “Modal Decomposition for Bearing Fault

Chapter 5, Volume 1, “Methods for Lifespan Modeling in Electrical

Chapter 1, Volume 2, “Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by External

delivered by external flux sensors placed in the vicinity of rotating electrical

Chapter 2, Volume 2, “Signal Processing Techniques for Transient Fault

Chapter 3, Volume 2, “Accurate Stator Fault Detection in an Induction

induction motor, using the symmetrical current components. The detection

Chapter 4, Volume 2, “Bearing Fault Diagnosis in Rotating Machines”,

Chapter 5, Volume 2, “Diagnosis and Prognosis of Proton Exchange

Diagnosis of Electrical Machines by

Rotating electrical machines are found in all areas of modern domestic

Electric motors encounter a wide range of mechanical problems common

Electrical Systems 2: From Diagnosis to Prognosis,

their specific problems, which are the result of electromagnetic phenomena.

Other methods based on magnetic field measurements outside the

The methods presented in this chapter propose solutions to improve the

The method proposed in this chapter is fully noninvasive and can be

considering the AM or SM specificity as presented in the following

1.2. Extracting indicators from the external magnetic field

1.2.1. External field classification

From a physical point of view, an external magnetic field appears in the

Using a simple wound sensor, it is possible to discriminate the transverse

In position A, only the axial field is measured. Position E, although defined

Figure 1.2. Different sensor positions

1.2.2. Attenuation of the transverse field

where bK,H is an elementary flux density component defined as

Figure 1.3 shows a simplified representation of an electrical machine,

Figure 1.3. Simplified geometry of the machine

An attenuation coefficient CH is defined as the ratio between the

Figure 1.4. CH versus H

1.2.3. Measurement of the transverse field

We will assume that the measurement is performed with a wound flux