Electromagnetic Shielding Salvatore Celozzi Full Chapter PDF

Electromagnetic Shielding Salvatore
Celozzi
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/electromagnetic-shielding-salvatore-celozzi/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Neuroradiology Imaging Case Review Salvatore V Labruzzo
https://ebookmass.com/product/neuroradiology-imaging-case-review-
salvatore-v-labruzzo/
Electromagnetic radiation Richard Freeman
https://ebookmass.com/product/electromagnetic-radiation-richard-
freeman/
Integral Equations for Real-Life Multiscale

Electromagnetic Problems (Electromagnetic Waves)
Francesca Vipiana
https://ebookmass.com/product/integral-equations-for-real-life-
multiscale-electromagnetic-problems-electromagnetic-waves-
francesca-vipiana/
Towards a Unified Italy 1st ed. Edition Salvatore

Dimaria
https://ebookmass.com/product/towards-a-unified-italy-1st-ed-
edition-salvatore-dimaria/
Resonance Self-Shielding Calculation Methods in Nuclear
Reactors Liangzhi Cao
https://ebookmass.com/product/resonance-self-shielding-
calculation-methods-in-nuclear-reactors-liangzhi-cao/
The Many and the One: A Philosophical Study of Plural

Logic Salvatore Florio
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-many-and-the-one-a-
philosophical-study-of-plural-logic-salvatore-florio/
Multifrequency Electromagnetic Data Interpretation for

Subsurface Characterization Siddharth Misra
https://ebookmass.com/product/multifrequency-electromagnetic-
data-interpretation-for-subsurface-characterization-siddharth-
misra/
Electromagnetic Technologies in Food Science Vicente M.

Gómez-López
https://ebookmass.com/product/electromagnetic-technologies-in-
food-science-vicente-m-gomez-lopez/
Electromagnetic Metasurfaces: Theory and Applications

(Wiley - IEEE) 1st Edition Karim Achouri
https://ebookmass.com/product/electromagnetic-metasurfaces-
theory-and-applications-wiley-ieee-1st-edition-karim-achouri/
Electromagnetic Shielding
Theory and Applications
Second Edition
Salvatore Celozzi
Rodolfo Araneo
Paolo Burghignoli
Giampiero Lovat
Electrical Engineering Department “La Sapienza” University Rome, Italy
This edition first published 2023
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Edition History
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1e, 2008)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this
title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Salvatore Celozzi, Rodolfo Araneo, Paolo Burghignoli, and Giampiero Lovat to be
identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered Office
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
Editorial Office
111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley
products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content
that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written
permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty
While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no
representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work
and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales
representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an
organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of
further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services
the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold
with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The
advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with
a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may
have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the
publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including
but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Celozzi, Salvatore, author.
Title: Electromagnetic shielding : theory and applications / Salvatore
Celozzi, Rodolfo Araneo, Paolo Burghignoli, Giampiero Lovat.
Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, 2023. | Series:
Wiley series in microwave and optical engineering | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022052851 (print) | LCCN 2022052852 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119736288 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119736295 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119736301 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Shielding (Electricity) | Magnetic shielding.
Classification: LCC TK454.4.M33 C45 2022 (print) | LCC TK454.4.M33
(ebook) | DDC 621.34–dc23/eng/20221107
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022052851
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022052852
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Zita/Shutterstock
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Chennai, India
iii
Contents
About the Authors ix

Preface xiii
1 Electromagnetics Behind Shielding 1

1.1 Definitions 1
1.2 Notation, Symbology, and Acronyms 3
1.3 Macroscopic Electromagnetism and Maxwell’s Equations 4
1.4 Constitutive Relations 6
1.5 Discontinuities and Singularities 11
1.6 Initial Conditions, Boundary Conditions, and Causality 12
1.7 Poynting’s Theorem and Energy Considerations 13
1.8 Fundamental Theorems 16
1.8.1 Uniqueness Theorem 16
1.8.2 Reciprocity Theorem 16
1.8.3 Equivalence Principle 18
1.8.4 Duality 19
1.8.5 Symmetry 20
1.8.6 Image Principle 21
1.8.7 Babinet’s Principle 21
1.9 Wave Equations, Helmholtz’s Equations, Potentials, and Green’s
Functions 23
1.10 Basic Shielding Mechanisms 28
1.11 Source Inside or Outside the Shielding Structure and Reciprocity 29
References 30
2 Shielding Materials 33
2.1 Standard Metallic and Ferromagnetic Materials 33
2.2 Ferrimagnetic Materials 39
2.3 Ferroelectric Materials 41
2.4 Thin Films and Conductive Coatings 43
2.5 Other Materials Suitable for EM Shielding Applications 45
iv Contents
2.5.1 Structural Materials 45

2.5.2 Conductive Polymers 45
2.5.3 Conductive Glasses and Transparent Materials 46
2.5.4 Conductive (and Ferromagnetic or Ferrimagnetic) Papers 46
2.6 Special Materials 46
2.6.1 Metamaterials and Chiral Materials 46
2.6.2 Composite Materials 49
2.6.3 Graphene 50
2.6.4 Other Nanomaterials 53
2.6.5 High-Temperature Superconductors 54
References 54
3 Figures of Merit for Shielding Configurations 61

3.1 (Local) Shielding Effectiveness 61
3.2 The Global Point of View 64
3.3 Other Proposals of Figures of Merit 65
3.4 Energy-Based, Content-Oriented Definition 69
3.5 Performance of Shielded Cables 69
References 70
4 Shielding Effectiveness: Plane Waves 73

4.1 Electromagnetic Plane Waves: Definitions and Properties 73
4.2 Uniform Plane Waves Incident on a Planar Shield 75
4.2.1 Transmission-Line Approach 76
4.2.2 The Single Planar Shield 79
4.2.3 Multiple (or Laminated) Shields 84
4.3 Plane Waves Normally Incident on Cylindrical Shielding Surfaces 86
4.4 Plane Waves Against Spherical Shields 93
4.5 Extension of the TL Analogy to Near-Field Sources 94
4.5.1 Examples 101
References 106
5 Shielding Effectiveness: Near-Field Sources 109

5.1 Spectral-Domain Approach 109
5.1.1 Maxwell’s Equations in the Spectral Domain 110
5.1.2 TM/TE Decomposition and Equivalent Transmission Lines 112
5.1.3 Spectral Dyadic Green’s Functions 116
5.1.4 Field Evaluation in the Spatial Domain 119
5.2 LF Magnetic Shielding of Metal Plates: Parallel Loop 122
5.2.1 Spectral-Domain Approach 122
5.2.2 Vector Magnetic-Potential Approach 126
5.2.3 Approximate Formulations 127
Contents v
5.3 LF Magnetic Shielding of Metal Plates: Perpendicular Loop 130

5.4 LF Magnetic Shielding of Metal Plates: Parallel Current Line 134
References 137
6 Transient Shielding 141

6.1 Performance Parameters: Definitions and Properties 141
6.2 Transient Sources: Plane Waves and Dipoles 145
6.2.1 Transient Uniform Plane Waves 145
6.2.2 Transient Dipoles 148
6.3 Numerical Solutions via Inverse-Fourier Transform 149
6.4 Analytical Solutions in Canonical Configurations 150
6.4.1 Transient Plane Waves on a Single-Layer Screen 151
6.4.2 Transient Dipoles: The Cagniard–de Hoop Method 155
6.4.2.1 Thin Conductive Sheet 159
6.4.2.2 Graphene Sheet 161
6.4.2.3 Generalizations: Thick Shields, Multilayered Shields 164
References 164
7 Numerical Methods for Shielding Analyses 169

7.1 Finite-Element Method 171
7.2 Method of Moments 187
7.3 Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method 208
7.4 Finite Integration Technique 221
7.5 Transmission-Line Matrix Method 226
7.6 Partial Element Equivalent Circuit Method 230
7.7 Test Case for Comparing Numerical Methods 239
References 242
8 Apertures in Planar Metal Screens 257

8.1 Historical Background 258
8.2 Statement of the Problem 259
8.3 Low-Frequency Analysis: Transmission Through Small
Apertures 260
8.4 The Small Circular Aperture 261
8.4.1 Bethe’s Theory 262
8.4.2 Spectral-Domain Formulation 267
8.5 Small Noncircular Apertures 269
8.6 Finite Number of Small Apertures 269
8.7 Apertures of Arbitrary Shape: Integral-Equation Formulation 272
8.8 Rules of Thumb 275
References 277
vi Contents
9 Enclosures 283
9.1 Modal Expansion of Electromagnetic Fields Inside a Metallic
Enclosure 284
9.2 Oscillations Inside an Ideal Source-Free Enclosure 287
9.3 The Enclosure Dyadic Green Function 288
9.4 Excitation of a Metallic Enclosure 291
9.5 Damped Oscillations Inside Enclosures with Lossy Walls and Quality
Factor 292
9.6 Apertures in Perfectly Conducting Enclosures 294
9.6.1 Small-Aperture Approximation 295
9.6.2 Rigorous Analysis: Integral-Equation Formulation 297
9.6.3 Aperture-Cavity Resonances 299
9.7 Small Loading Effects 301
9.8 The Rectangular Enclosure 302
9.8.1 Symmetry Considerations 306
9.9 Shielding Effectiveness of a Rectangular Enclosure with an
Aperture 307
9.9.1 Numerical Models 307
9.9.2 Analytical Models 311
9.10 Case Study: Rectangular Enclosure with a Circular Aperture 315
9.10.1 External Sources: Plane-Wave Excitation 316
9.10.2 Internal Sources: Electric and Magnetic Dipole Excitations 321
9.11 Overall Performance in the Frequency Domain 326
9.12 Overall Performance in the Time Domain 328
References 332
10 Cable Shielding 339

10.1 Transfer Impedance in Tubular Shielded Cables and Aperture
Effects 340
10.2 Relationship Between Transfer Impedance and Shielding
Effectiveness 345
10.3 Actual Cables and Harnesses 347
References 348
11 Components and Installation Guidelines 351

11.1 Gaskets 351
11.2 Shielded Windows 355
11.3 Electromagnetic Absorbers 357
11.4 Shielded Connectors 358
11.5 Air-Ventilation Systems 358
11.6 Fuses, Switches, and Other Similar Components 359
References 359
Contents vii
12 Frequency Selective Surfaces 363

12.1 Analysis of Periodic Structures 364
12.1.1 Floquet Theorem and Spatial Harmonics 364
12.1.2 Plane-Wave Incidence on a Planar 1D Periodic Structure 366
12.1.3 Plane-Wave Incidence on a Planar 2D Periodic Structure 367
12.1.4 Integral Equation Formulation for Plane-Wave Incidence and Periodic
Green’s Function 369
12.1.5 Dipole Excitation of Planar 2D Periodic Structure 373
12.2 High- and Low-Pass FSSs 376
12.3 Band-Pass and Band-Stop FSSs 380
12.3.1 Center-Connected Elements or N-Pole Elements 381
12.3.2 Loop-Type Elements 382
12.3.3 Solid-Interior-Type Elements 382
12.3.4 Combinations and Fractal Elements 382
12.4 Recent Trends in FSSs 383
12.4.1 Multilayer and Cascaded FSSs 383
12.4.2 3-D FSSs 385
12.4.3 2.5-D FSSs 387
12.4.4 Reconfigurable and Active FSSs 387
12.5 Absorbing FSSs 388
12.5.1 Circuit Analog Absorbers 389
12.5.2 Absorptive Frequency Selective Reflection/Transmission
Structures 390
12.5.2.1 AFSR Structures 391
12.5.2.2 AFST Structures (Frequency-Selective Rasorbers) 391
12.6 Modeling and Design of FSSs 392
References 394
13 Shielding Design Guidelines 409

13.1 Establishment of the Shielding Requirements 410
13.2 Assessment of the Number and Types of Functional
Discontinuities 412
13.3 Assessment of Dimensional Constraints and Non-Electromagnetic
Characteristics of Materials 413
13.4 Estimation of Shielding Performance 413
References 414
14 Uncommon Ways of Shielding 417

14.1 Active Shielding 417
14.2 Partial Shields 422
14.3 Chiral Shielding 425
14.4 Metamaterial Shielding 426
References 432
viii Contents
Appendix A Electrostatic Shielding 439

A.1 Basic Laws of Electrostatics 440
A.2 Electrostatic Tools: Electrostatic Potential and Green’s Functions 442
A.3 Electrostatic Shields 446
A.3.1 Conductive Electrostatic Shields 446
A.3.2 Dielectric Electrostatic Shields 450
A.3.3 Aperture Effects in Conductive Shields 455
References 457
Appendix B Magnetic Shielding 459

B.1 Magnetic Shielding Mechanism 460
B.2 Calculation Methods 463
B.3 Boundary-Value Problems 465
B.3.1 Spherical Magnetic Conducting Shield 465
B.3.2 Cylindrical Magnetic Conducting Shield in a Transverse Magnetic
Field 471
B.3.3 Cylindrical Magnetic Conducting Shield in a Parallel Magnetic
Field 475
B.4 Ferromagnetic Shields with Hysteresis 477
References 478
Appendix C Statistical Electromagnetics for Shielding Enclosures 483

C.1 Statistical Analyses 486
C.2 Examples 489
References 495
Appendix D Standards and Measurement Methods for Shielding

Applications 499
D.1 MIL-STD 285 and IEEE STD-299 501
D.2 NSA 65-6 and NSA 94-106 506
D.3 ASTM E1851 506
D.4 ASTM D4935 508
D.5 MIL-STD 461G 510
D.6 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 47, Part 15 517
D.7 ANSI/SCTE 48-3 520
D.8 MIL-STD 1377 521
D.9 IEC Standards 522
D.10 ITU-T Recommendations 527
D.11 Automotive Standards 529
References 535
Index 539
ix
About the Authors
Salvatore Celozzi was born in Rome, Italy, in 1964. He received the Laurea (cum
laude) and Ph.D. degrees from La Sapienza University of Rome in 1988 and 1994,
respectively.
He is a Full Professor at the University of Rome “La Sapienza” since 2005. He has
authored more than 150 papers in international journals or conference proceed-
ings, mainly in the fields of electromagnetic shielding and transmission lines. He
is the co-author of the first edition of the book Electromagnetic Shielding (Wiley,
2008).
Prof. Celozzi has been the Chair of the EMC Chapter of the IEEE Central and
South Italy Section from 1997 to 2006. He was the recipient of the Best Symposium
Paper Award in 1998 and 2011 at the IEEE EMC Conferences. In 2002, he was the
recipient of the IEEE EMC Society Award “Certificate of Technical Achievement”
for outstanding contributions to the EMC Society, especially in the field of shield-
ing and transmission line theory applied to printed circuit boards. He was serving
as an Associate Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY
from 1995 to 2000 and is serving in the same role since 2016.
Rodolfo Araneo was born in Rome, Italy, in 1975. He received the Laurea (cum
laude) and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from La Sapienza University of
Rome in 1999 and 2002, respectively. He is Full Professor in the same University
since 2021.
In 1999, he was a Visiting Student at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Boulder, CO, USA, where he was engaged in TEM cells and shield-
ing. In 2000, he was a Visiting Researcher at the Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, University of Missouri-Rolla (UMR), Rolla, MO, USA,
where he was engaged in printed circuit boards and finite-difference time-domain
techniques. He is currently a Full Professor at La Sapienza University of Rome.
He has authored more than 200 papers in international journals and conference
proceedings. He is the co-author of the first edition of the book Electromagnetic
x About the Authors
Shielding (Wiley, 2008). He serves as a reviewer for several international journals.

His research interests include electromagnetic compatibility, energy harvesting,
piezotronics based on piezoelectric ZnO nanostructures, graphene electrodynam-
ics, development of numerical and analytical techniques for modeling high-speed
printed circuit boards, shielding, transmission lines, periodic structures, and
devices based on graphene.
Dr. Araneo was the recipient of the Past President’s Memorial Award in 1999
from the IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility Society. He is currently a General
Chair of the IEEE International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engi-
neering. In 2011, he was the recipient of the Best Paper Symposium Award at the
2011 IEEE EMC-S International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility.
Paolo Burghignoli was born in Rome, Italy, in 1973. He received the Laurea
degree (cum laude) in electronic engineering and the Ph.D. degree in applied elec-
tromagnetics from La Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy, in 1997 and 2001,
respectively.
In 1997, he joined the Department of Electronic Engineering, Sapienza Univer-
sity of Rome, where he is currently Associate Professor with the Department of
Information Engineering, Electronics and Telecommunications. In 2004, he was a
Visiting Research Assistant Professor at the University of Houston, Houston, TX,
USA. From 2010 to 2015, he was an Assistant Professor at La Sapienza University
of Rome, where he has been an Associate Professor since 2015. In 2017, he received
the National Scientific Qualification for the role of a Full Professor of electromag-
netic fields at Italian Universities. He is currently teaching courses in electromag-
netic fields, advanced antenna engineering, and analytical techniques for wave
phenomena for B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D. programs in the ICT area at La Sapienza
University of Rome. He has authored about 250 articles in international journals,
books, and conference proceedings. His research interests include the analysis and
design of planar antennas and arrays, leakage phenomena in uniform and peri-
odic structures, numerical methods for integral equations and periodic structures,
propagation and radiation in metamaterials, electromagnetic shielding, transient
electromagnetics, and graphene electromagnetics.
Dr. Burghignoli was a recipient of the “Giorgio Barzilai” Laurea Prize in
1996–1997 presented by the former Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engi-
neers (IEEE) Central and South Italy Section, the 2003 IEEE MTT-S Graduate
Fellowship, and the 2005 Raj Mittra Travel Grant for junior researchers presented
at the IEEE AP-S Symposium on Antennas and Propagation, Washington, DC,
USA. He was a Secretary of the 12th European Microwave Week in 2009 and a
member of the Scientific Board and the Local Organizing Committee of the 41st
Photonics and Electromagnetics Research Symposium in 2019. In 2016 and 2020,
the IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society recognized him as an outstanding
About the Authors xi
reviewer for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION. He is currently

an Associate Editor of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET)
Electronics Letters and the International Journal of Antennas and Propagation
(Hindawi). He is a senior member of the IEEE.
Giampiero Lovat was born in Rome, Italy, in 1975. He received the Laurea degree
(cum laude) in electronic engineering and the Ph.D. degree in electromagnetics in
2001 and in 2005, respectively, both from La Sapienza University of Rome. Since
2010, he is an Assistant Professor in the Astronautical, Electrical, and Energetic
Engineering Department (DIAEE) at the same University, and since 2015, he has
been qualified for the role of Full Professor in a National Scientific Competition.
He has been doing research activity on leaky waves, periodic structures, electro-
dynamics of graphene, transient electromagnetics, and electromagnetic shielding.
He is the co-author of more than 170 papers on international books, journals, and
conference proceedings. He is the co-author of the first edition of the book Elec-
tromagnetic Shielding (Wiley, 2008).
In 2005, he was the recipient of the Young Scientist Award at the URSI General
Assembly in New Delhi, India. He is the author of Fast Breaking Papers, October
2007 in EE and CS, about metamaterials (a paper that had the highest percentage
increase in citations in Essential Science Indicators, ESI). In 2011, he was the recip-
ient of the Best Paper Symposium Award at the 2011 IEEE EMC-S International
Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility. In 2020, he has been included in
the ranking of the top 2% world scientists recently published on Plos One (https://
doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000918). In 2021, he has been selected as a distin-
guished reviewer of IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY.
xiii
Preface
This is the second edition of our book Electromagnetic Shielding. As for the first
edition, the assumed background of the reader is limited to standard undergradu-
ate topics in physics and mathematics.
This edition has been completely updated according to theoretical and techno-
logical progress in the field of electromagnetic shielding: the book now comprises
14 chapters and 4 appendices; an overview of their content is provided next, high-
lighting the changes with respect to the first edition. Chapter 1 introduces the
basic electromagnetic theory behind electromagnetic shielding; the fundamental
theorems are now also presented in the time domain, while symmetry, duality,
and Babinet principles have been added for their importance in treating classi-
cal shielding problems. An introduction to wave equations and potentials and
Green functions in the time domain has also been added to cover all the basic tools
to analyze transient shielding problems. Chapter 2 describes the arsenal of con-
ventional and less conventional materials for electromagnetic shielding; an entire
new paragraph has been devoted to the electromagnetic description of graphene,
a material that has become one of the most attractive materials in the field of elec-
tromagnetic loss and absorption. Chapter 3 introduces all the figures of merit for
a quantitative analysis of the shielding performance of a given structure. Chapter
4 covers the subject of electromagnetic shielding of planar, cylindrical, and spher-
ical screens against plane waves; an entire new paragraph is devoted to presenting
examples that help to understand the extension of the transmission line analogy
to near-field sources. Chapters 5 and 6 are entirely new. Chapter 5 considers the
important topic of near-field sources in the presence of planar screens and provides
an extensive introduction to the spectral domain approach. Chapter 6 introduces
the reader to the emergent area of transient shielding analysis offering suitable
figures of merit, defining the fundamental transient sources, and describing the
numerical and analytical approaches to analyze basic configurations. Chapter 7
is a thorough introduction to the principal numerical methods used in electro-
magnetics and are here presented in connection with electromagnetic shielding
xiv Preface
problems; moreover, many illustrative examples have been added to present the
characteristics of different numerical approaches with particular reference to the
analysis of the shielding characteristics of enclosures. Chapter 8 treats the impor-
tant topic of electromagnetic penetration through apertures in planar screens; the
circular aperture is now analyzed in detail, illustrating the very last developments.
Enclosures are considered in Chapter 9: the fundamental case of a rectangular
enclosure with a rectangular aperture is now described in detail, considering both
a numerical solution based on the Method-of-Moments and approximate analyti-
cal approaches. Moreover, two entirely new paragraphs have been added to present
the overall performance of an enclosure in both frequency and time domains.
Chapter 10 consists in a brief introduction to cable shielding, while Chapter 11
deals with the most common components installed in most of shielding configu-
rations. Chapter 12 introduces the important topic of frequency-selective surfaces;
here, the analysis has been extended to include not only a plane wave excitation
but also a finite source: for this reason, an integral equation formulation for the
solution of the electromagnetic problem is presented together with an introduction
to the periodic Green function calculation. The literature on this topic is growing
almost exponentially, and a plethora of new structures have been proposed so that
some new paragraphs have been added to present some of the most recent devel-
opments. Finally, Chapter 13 covers some issues in shielding design procedures,
while Chapter 14 introduces to some uncommon ways of shielding: in particular,
the use of metamaterials has been extensively reviewed.
As in the first edition, two appendices are devoted to electrostatic and magneto-
static shielding. A new Appendix C has been added, which provides an introduc-
tion to the use of statistical electromagnetics in electromagnetic shielding, while
the last appendix (Appendix D) covers standards and measurement procedures
and has been obviously updated with respect to the first edition.
We would like to acknowledge the support provided within Wiley-Interscience
by all the Staff and in particular the patient assistance given by Teresa Netzler.
Rome Salvatore Celozzi

29 June 2022 Rodolfo Araneo
Paolo Burghignoli
Giampiero Lovat
1
Electromagnetics Behind Shielding
Shielding an electromagnetic field is a complex and sometimes formidable task.

The reasons are many, since the effectiveness of any strategy or technique aimed
at the reduction of the electromagnetic field levels in a prescribed region depends
largely upon the source characteristics, the shield geometry, and the involved
materials. Moreover, as it often happens when common terms are adopted in a
technical context, different definitions of shielding exist. In electromagnetics the
shielding effectiveness (SE) is a concise parameter generally applied to quantify
shielding performance. However, a variety of standards are adopted for the
measurement or the assessment of the performance of a given shielding structure.
Unfortunately, they all call for very specific conditions in the measurement setup.
The results therefore are often useless if the source or system configurations
differ even slightly. Last among the difficulties that arise in the solution of
actual shielding problems are the difficulties inherent in both the solution of the
boundary value problem and the description of the electromagnetic problem in
mathematical form.
1.1 Definitions
To establish a common ground, we will begin with some useful definitions. An

electromagnetic shield can be defined as [1]:
[A] housing, screen, or other object, usually conducting, that substantially

reduces the effect of electric or magnetic fields on one side thereof, upon
devices or circuits on the other side.
This definition is restrictive because it implicitly assumes the presence of a

“victim.” The definition is also based on the misconception that the source and
observation points are in opposite positions with respect to the shield, and it
Electromagnetic Shielding: Theory and Applications, Second Edition.
Salvatore Celozzi, Rodolfo Araneo, Paolo Burghignoli, and Giampiero Lovat.
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 1 Electromagnetics Behind Shielding
includes the word “substantially” whose meaning is obscure and introduces an

unacceptable level of arbitrariness.
Another definition of electromagnetic shielding even more restrictive is [2]:
[A] means of preventing two circuits from electromagnetic coupling by

placing at least one of the circuits in a grounded enclosure of magnetic
conductive material.
The most appropriate definition entails a broad view of the phenomenon:
[A]ny means used for the reduction of the electromagnetic field in a

prescribed region.
Notice that no reference to shape, material, and grounding of the shield is nec-
essary to define its purpose.
In general, electromagnetic shielding represents a way toward the improvement
of the electromagnetic-compatibility (EMC) (defined as the capability of electronic
equipment or systems to be operated in the intended electromagnetic environment
at design levels of efficiency) performance of single devices, apparatus, or systems.
Biological systems are included, for which it is correct to talk about health rather
than EMC. Electromagnetic shielding is also used to prevent sensitive information
from being intercepted, that is, to guarantee communication security.
Electromagnetic shielding is not implemented only for such purposes. Some
sort of electromagnetic shielding is almost always used in electrical and electronic
systems to reduce their electromagnetic emissions and to increase their electro-
magnetic immunity against external fields. In cases where the available method-
ologies for reducing the source levels of electromagnetic emission or strengthening
the victim immunity are not available or are not sufficient to ensure the correct
operation of devices or systems, a reduction of the coupling between the source
and the victim (either present or only potentially present) is often the preferred
choice.
The immunity of the victims is generally obtained by means of filters that are
analogous to electromagnetic shielding with respect to conducted emissions and
immunity. The main advantage of filters is that they are “local” devices. Thus,
where the number of sensitive components to be protected is limited, the cost
of filtering may be much lower than that of shielding. The main disadvantage of
using a filter is that it is able to arrest only interferences whose characteristics
(e.g., level or mode of transmission) are different from those of the device, so the
correct operation in the presence of some types of interference is not guaranteed.
Another serious disadvantage of the filter is its inadequacy or its low efficiency for
the prevention of data detection.
1.2 Notation, Symbology, and Acronyms 3
In general, designing a filter is much simpler than designing a shield. The filter
designer has only to consider the waveform of the interference (in terms of voltage
or current) and the values of the input and output impedance [3], whereas the
shield designer must include a large amount of input information and constraints,
as it will be discussed throughout the book.
Any shielding analysis begins by an accurate examination of the shield geometry
[4–7]. Although the identification of the coupling paths between the main space
regions is often trivial, sometimes it deserves more care, especially in complex con-
figurations. The complexity of a shield is associated with its shape, apertures, the
components identified as the most susceptible, the source characteristics, and so
forth. Subdividing its configuration into several subsystems (each simpler than the
original one and interacting with the others in a definite way) is always a useful
approach to identify critical problems and find ways to fix and improve the overall
performance [5]. This approach is based on the assumption that each subsystem
can be analyzed, and hence its behavior can be characterized, independently of the
others components/subsystems. For instance, in the frequency domain and for a
linear subsystem, for each coupling path and for each susceptible element, it is pos-
sible to investigate the transfer function T (𝜔) relating the external source input
S (𝜔) and the victim output V (𝜔) characteristics as V (𝜔) = U (𝜔) + T (𝜔) S (𝜔),
where U (𝜔) represents the subsystem output in the absence of external-source
excitation. In the presence of multilevel barriers, the transfer function T (𝜔) may
ensue from the product of the transfer functions associated with each barrier level.
The foregoing approach can be generalized for a better understanding of the
shielding problem in complex configurations. However, it is often sufficient to
consider only the most critical subsystems and components, on one hand, and the
most important coupling paths, on the other hand, in order to solve the principal
shielding problems and thus improve the overall performance [8]. The general
approach is obviously suitable in a design context. A complete analysis of the
relations between shielding and grounding is left to the specific literature [4, 9–11].
1.2 Notation, Symbology, and Acronyms

The abbreviations and symbols used throughout the book are briefly summarized
here in order to make clear the standard we have chosen to adopt. Of course, we
will warn the reader anytime an exception occurs.
Scalar quantities are shown in italic type (e.g., V and t), while vectors are shown
in boldface (e.g., e and H); dyadics are shown in boldface with an underbar
(e.g., 𝜺 and G). A physical quantity that depends on time and space variables is
indicated with a lowercase letter (e.g., e (r, t) for the electric field). The Fourier
transform with respect to the time variable is indicated with the corresponding
uppercase letter (e.g., E (r, 𝜔) while the Fourier transform with respect to the
spatial variables is indicated by a tilde (e.g., ẽ (k, t)); when the Fourier transform
with respect to both time and spatial variables is considered, the two symbologies
are combined (e.g., Ẽ (k, 𝜔)).
The sets of spatial variables in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates
are denoted by (x, y, z), (𝜌, 𝜙, z), and (r, 𝜙, 𝜃), respectively. The boldface Latin letter
u is used to indicate a unit vector and a subscript is used to indicate its direction:
( ) ( ) ( )
for instance, ux , uy , uz , u𝜌 , u𝜙 , uz , and ur , u𝜙 , u𝜃 denote the unit vectors in
the rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate system, respectively.
We will use the “del” notation ∇ with the suitable product type to indicate gra-
dient (∇ [⋅]), curl (∇ × [⋅]) and divergence operators (∇ ⋅ [⋅]); the Laplacian
√ oper-
ator is indicated as ∇2 [⋅]. The imaginary unit is denoted with j = −1 and the
asterisk ∗ as a superscript of a complex quantity denotes its complex conjugate. The
real and imaginary parts of a complex quantity are indicated by Re [⋅] and Im [⋅],
respectively, while the principal argument is indicated by the function Arg [⋅]. The
base-10 logarithm and the natural logarithm are indicated by means of the log (⋅)
and ln (⋅) functions, respectively.
Finally, throughout the book, the international system of units SI is adopted,
electromagnetic is abbreviated as EM, and shielding effectiveness as SE.
1.3 Macroscopic Electromagnetism and Maxwell’s

Equations
A complete description of the macroscopic electromagnetism is provided by
Maxwell’s equations whose validity is taken as a postulate. Maxwell’s equations
can be used either in a differential (local) form or in an integral (global) form,
and there has been a long debate over which is the best representation (e.g.,
David Hilbert preferred the integral form whereas Arnold Sommerfeld found
more suitable the differential form, from which special relativity follows more
naturally [12]). When stationary media are considered, the main difference
between the two representations consists in how they account for discontinuities
of materials and/or sources. Basically, if one adopts the differential form, some
boundary conditions at surface discontinuities must be postulated; on the other
hand, if the integral forms are chosen, one must postulate their validity across
such discontinuities [13, 14].
Maxwell’s equations can be expressed in scalar, vector, or tensor form, and differ-
ent vector fields can be considered as fundamental. A full description of all these
details can be found, e.g., in [12]. In this book we assume the following differential
form of the Maxwell equations:
1.3 Macroscopic Electromagnetism and Maxwell’s Equations 5
𝜕
∇ × e (r, t) = − b (r, t) ,
𝜕t
𝜕
∇ × h (r, t) = j (r, t) + d (r, t) , (1.1)
𝜕t
∇ ⋅ d (r, t) = 𝜌e (r, t) ,
∇ ⋅ b (r, t) = 0 .
From these equations the continuity equation can be derived as
𝜕
∇ ⋅ j (r, t) = − 𝜌 (r, t) . (1.2)
𝜕t e
In this framework the EM field—described by vectors e (electric field, unit of
measure V/m), h (magnetic field, unit of measure A/m), d (electric displacement,
unit of measure C/m2 ), and b (magnetic induction, unit of measure Wb/m2 or T)—
arises from sources j (electric current density, unit of measure A/m2 ) and 𝜌e (elec-
tric charge density, unit of measure C/m3 ). Further, except for static fields, if a time
can be found before which all the fields and sources are identically zero, the diver-
gence equations in (1.1) are a consequence of the curl equations [12], so under this
assumption the curl equations can be taken as independent.
It can be useful to make the Maxwell equations symmetric by introducing fic-
titious magnetic current and charge densities m and 𝜌m (units of measure V/m2
and Wb/m3 , respectively), which satisfy a continuity equation similar to (1.2) so
that (1.1) can be rewritten as
∇ × e (r, t) = − 𝜕t𝜕 b (r, t) − m (r, t) ,
∇ × h (r, t) = j (r, t) + 𝜕t𝜕 d (r, t) ,
(1.3)
∇ ⋅ d (r, t) = 𝜌e (r, t) ,
∇ ⋅ b (r, t) = 𝜌m (r, t) .
As it will be shown later, the equivalence principle indeed requires the introduc-
tion of such fictitious quantities.
It is also useful to identify in Maxwell’s equations some “impressed” source
terms, which are independent of the unknown fields and are instead due to other
external sources (magnetic sources can be only of this type). Such “impressed”
sources are considered as known terms in Maxwell’s differential equations and
indicated by the subscript “i.” In this connection, (1.3) can be expressed as
𝜕
∇ × e (r, t) = − b (r, t) − mi (r, t) , (1.4a)
𝜕t
𝜕
∇ × h (r, t) = j (r, t) + d (r, t) + ji (r, t) , (1.4b)
𝜕t
∇ ⋅ d (r, t) = 𝜌e (r, t) + 𝜌ei (r, t) , (1.4c)
∇ ⋅ b (r, t) = 𝜌mi (r, t) . (1.4d)

The impressed-source concept is well known in circuit theory. For example,

independent voltage sources are voltage excitations that are independent of possi-
ble loads.
Although both the sources and the fields cannot have true spatial discontinu-
ities, from a modeling point of view, it is useful to consider additionally sources
in one or two dimensions: surface- and line-source densities can be introduced in
terms of the Dirac delta distribution 𝛿, as (singular) idealizations of actual contin-
uous volume densities [12, 15].
Finally, in the frequency domain, Maxwell’s curl equations are expressed as
∇ × E (r, 𝜔) = −j𝜔B (r, 𝜔) − Mi (r, 𝜔) ,
(1.5)
∇ × H (r, 𝜔) = J (r, 𝜔) + j𝜔D (r, 𝜔) + Ji (r, 𝜔) ,
where the uppercase quantities indicate either the Fourier transform or the pha-
sors associated with the corresponding time-domain fields. Note that in this text
the following definition of temporal Fourier transform will be adopted:
+∞
F (𝜔) = f (t) e−j𝜔t dt, (1.6)
∫−∞
with the corresponding inverse Fourier transform:
+∞
1
f (t) = F (𝜔) e+j𝜔t d𝜔 , (1.7)
2𝜋 ∫−∞
( )
whereas in the phasor domain a time-harmonic dependence exp j𝜔t is assumed:
[ ]
f (t) = F0 cos (𝜔t + 𝛼) = Re F e+j𝜔t , (1.8)
where F0 ≥ 0 and F = F0 ej𝛼 is the phasor associated with f (t). The same defini-
tions also apply for vector functions.
1.4 Constitutive Relations
By direct inspection of Maxwell’s curl equations in (1.1), it is immediately clear

that they represent six scalar equations with 15 unknown quantities. With fewer
equations than unknowns no unique solution can be identified (the problem is
said to be indefinite). The additional equations required to make the problem def-
inite are those that describe the relations among the field quantities e, h, d, b, and
j, enforced by the medium filling the region where the EM phenomena occur. Such
relations are called constitutive relations, and they depend on the properties of the
medium supporting the EM field.
In non-moving media, with the exclusion of magnetoelectric and chiral mate-
rials, the d field depends only on the e field, b depends only on h, and j depends
only on e. These dependences are expressed as constitutive relations, with the e

and h fields regarded as causes and the d, b, and j fields as effects.
If a linear combination of causes (with given coefficients) produces a linear
combination of effects (with the same coefficients), the medium is said to be
linear (otherwise nonlinear). In general, the constitutive relations are described
by a set of constitutive parameters and a set of constitutive operators that relate
the above-mentioned fields inside a region of space. The constitutive parameters
can be constants of proportionality between the fields (the medium is thus said
isotropic), or they can be components in a tensor relationship (the medium is said
anisotropic). If the constitutive parameters are constant within a certain region
of space, the medium is said homogeneous in that region (otherwise, the medium
is inhomogeneous). If the constitutive parameters are constant with time, the
medium is said stationary (otherwise, the medium is nonstationary).
If the constitutive operators are expressed in terms of time integrals, the medium
is said to be temporally dispersive. If these operators involve space integrals, the
medium is said to be spatially dispersive. Finally, we note that the constitutive
parameters may depend on other nonelectromagnetic properties of the material
and external conditions (temperature, pressure, etc.).
The simplest medium is vacuum. In vacuum the following constitutive relations
hold:
d (r, t) = 𝜀0 e (r, t) ,
b (r, t) = 𝜇0 h (r, t) , (1.9)
j (r, t) = 𝟎.
The quantities 𝜇0 ≃ 4𝜋 ⋅ 10−7 H/m1 and 𝜀0 ≃ 10−9 ∕ (36𝜋) ≃ 8.854 ⋅ 10−12 F/m
are the free-space magnetic permeability and dielectric permittivity, respectively.
√
Their values are related to the speed of light in free space c0 through c0 = 1∕ 𝜇0 𝜀0 ,
whose exact value is c0 = 2.99792458 ⋅ 108 m/s; the above two values for 𝜀0 corre-
spond to approximating c0 ≃ 3 ⋅ 108 m/s and c0 ≃ 2.998 ⋅ 108 m/s, respectively.
For a linear, homogeneous, isotropic, and nondispersive material, the constitu-
tive relations can be expressed as
d (r, t) = 𝜀e (r, t) ,
b (r, t) = 𝜇h (r, t) , (1.10)
j (r, t) = 𝜎e (r, t) ,
where 𝜇 and 𝜀 are the magnetic permeability and dielectric permittivity of the
medium, respectively. These quantities can be related to the corresponding
1 Until May 20th 2020 this was an exact value. Since that date, a redefinition of the SI base units
assigned to the elementary charge (e.g., the electron charge) an exact value: qe = 1.602176634⋅
10−19 C, thereby making the reported value of the vacuum permeability 𝜇0 an approximate
quantity.
free-space quantities through the dimensionless relative permeability 𝜇r and

relative permittivity 𝜀r , such that 𝜇 = 𝜇r 𝜇0 and 𝜀 = 𝜀r 𝜀0 . The dimensionless
quantities 𝜒m = 𝜇r − 1 and 𝜒e = 𝜀r − 1 (known as magnetic and electric suscep-
tibilities, respectively) are also used. The third equation of (1.10) expresses the
Ohm law in local form, and 𝜎 is the conductivity of the medium (unit of measure
S/m).
For such a simple medium, thanks to (1.10), Maxwell’s equations (1.4) can be
rewritten as
𝜕
∇ × e (r, t) = −𝜇 h (r, t) − mi (r, t) , (1.11a)
𝜕t
𝜕
∇ × h (r, t) = 𝜎e (r, t) + 𝜀 e (r, t) + ji (r, t) , (1.11b)
𝜕t
𝜌 (r, t) + 𝜌ei (r, t)
∇ ⋅ e (r, t) = e , (1.11c)
𝜀
𝜌 (r, t)
∇ ⋅ h (r, t) = mi . (1.11d)
𝜇
If the medium is inhomogeneous, 𝜇, 𝜀, or 𝜎 are quantities that depend on the
vector position r. If the medium is anisotropic (but still linear and nondispersive)
the constitutive relations can be written as
d (r, t) = 𝜺 ⋅ e (r, t) ,
b (r, t) = 𝝁 ⋅ h (r, t) , (1.12)
j (r, t) = 𝝈 ⋅ e (r, t) ,
where 𝜺, 𝝁, and 𝝈 are called the permittivity tensor, the permeability tensor, and
the conductivity tensor, respectively (they are space-dependent quantities for
inhomogeneous media).
For linear, inhomogeneous, anisotropic, stationary, and temporally dispersive
materials, the constitutive relation between d and e is expressed by a superposition
integral as
t ( ) ( )
d (r, t) = 𝜺 r, t − t′ ⋅ e r, t′ dt′ . (1.13)
∫−∞
The constitutive relations for other field quantities have similar expressions.
Causality is implied by the upper limit t in the integrals (this means that the effect
cannot depend on future values of the cause). If the medium is nonstationary,
( ) ( )
𝜺 r, t, t′ has to be used instead of 𝜺 r, t − t′ . The important concept expressed
by (1.13) is that the behavior of d at the time t depends not only on the value of
e at the same time t but also on its values at all past times, thus giving rise to a
time-lag between cause and effect. The upper limit of the integral in (1.13) can be
( )
extended to +∞ by assuming that 𝜺 r, t, t′ = 0 whenever t′ > t, thus obtaining
a convolution integral. Hence, in the frequency domain the constitutive relation

(1.13) is expressed as
D (r, 𝜔) = 𝜺 (r, 𝜔) ⋅ E (r, 𝜔) , (1.14)
where, with a little abuse of notation, 𝜺 (r, 𝜔) indicates the Fourier transform of
the corresponding quantity in the time domain. The important point to note here
is that, in the frequency domain, temporal dispersion is associated with complex
values of the constitutive parameters; causality establishes a relationship between
their real and imaginary parts (known as the Kramers–Kronig relation) [12] for
which neither part can be constant with frequency.
Finally, if the medium is also spatially dispersive (and nonstationary), the con-
stitutive relation takes the form
[ t ]
( ) ( )
d (r, t) = 𝜺 r, r′ , t, t′ ⋅ e r, r′ , t′ dt dV ′ , (1.15)
∫V ∫−∞
where V indicates the whole three-dimensional space; as before, similar expres-
sions hold for the constitutive relations of other field quantities as well. The inte-
gral over the volume V in (1.15) expresses the physical phenomenon for which
the effect at the point r depends on the value of the cause in all the neighbor-
ing points r′ . An important point is that if the medium is spatially dispersive but
homogeneous, the constitutive relations involve a convolution integral in the space
domain. Therefore the constitutive relations in a linear, homogeneous, and sta-
tionary medium for the Fourier transforms of the fields with respect to both time
and space can be written as
̃ (k, 𝜔) = 𝜺̃ (k, 𝜔) ⋅ Ẽ (k, 𝜔) .
D (1.16)
Very often, in the frequency domain, the contributions in Maxwell’s
equations (1.5) from the conductivity current and the electric displacement
are combined in a unique term by introducing an equivalent complex permittiv-
ity. For simplicity, we consider isotropic materials for which complex permittivity
is a scalar quantity defined as
𝜀c = 𝜀 − j𝜎∕𝜔 . (1.17)
Thus we can rewrite (1.5) in a dual form as
∇ × E (r, 𝜔) = −j𝜔𝜇 (r, 𝜔) H (r, 𝜔) − Mi (r, 𝜔) ,
(1.18)
∇ × H (r, 𝜔) = j𝜔𝜀c (r, 𝜔) E (r, 𝜔) + Ji (r, 𝜔) .
Alternatively to the constitutive parameters 𝜀c and 𝜇, the medium can also be
described by the (possibly complex) medium wavenumber
√
k = 𝜔 𝜇𝜀c (1.19)
(where the principal branch of the square root is chosen so that the imaginary part
of k is nonpositive) and the (possibly complex) intrinsic impedance
√ √
√
𝜇 𝜇 j𝜔𝜇
𝜂= = 𝜎 = 𝜎 + j𝜔𝜀 (1.20)
𝜀c 𝜀−j
𝜔
(where the principal branch of the square root is chosen so that the real part of 𝜂
is nonnegative) [16]. In particular, the free-space wavenumber and the free-space
impedance are
√ 𝜔
k 0 = 𝜔 𝜇 0 𝜀0 = (1.21)
c0
and
√
𝜇0
𝜂0 = ≃ 377 Ω , (1.22)
𝜀0
respectively. Accordingly, the free-space wavelength is defined as
2𝜋
𝜆0 = . (1.23)
k0
Finally, it is important to note that for the study of electromagnetism in mat-
ter, the EM field can be represented by four vectors other than e, h, d, and b
(provided that the new vectors are a linear mapping of these vectors). In partic-
ular, the common alternative is to use vectors e, b, p, and m (not to be confused
with the magnetic current density), where the new vectors p and m are called
polarization and magnetization vectors, respectively, and Maxwell’s equations are
consequently written as
𝜕
∇ × e (r, t) = − b (r, t) ,
[ 𝜕t ]
b (r, t) 𝜕 [ ]
∇× − m (r, t) = j (r, t) + 𝜀0 e (r, t) + p (r, t) ,
𝜇0 𝜕t (1.24)
[ ]
∇ ⋅ 𝜀0 e (r, t) + p (r, t) = 𝜌e (r, t) ,
∇ ⋅ b (r, t) = 0 .
From (1.1) and (1.24), it follows that
p (r, t) = d (r, t) − 𝜀0 e (r, t) ,
b (r, t) (1.25)
m (r, t) = − h (r, t) ,
𝜇0
or, in the frequency domain,
P (r, 𝜔) = D (r, 𝜔) − 𝜀0 E (r, 𝜔) ,
B (r, 𝜔) (1.26)
M (r, 𝜔) = − H (r, 𝜔) .
𝜇0
1.5 Discontinuities and Singularities 11
Next we introduce the equivalent polarization current density jP = 𝜕p∕ 𝜕t, the
equivalent magnetization current density jM = ∇ × m, and the equivalent polar-
ization charge density 𝜌P = −∇ ⋅ p so that the Maxwell equations take the form
𝜕
∇ × e (r, t) = − b (r, t) ,
𝜕t
b (r, t) 𝜕e (r, t)
∇× = j (r, t) + jP (r, t) + jM (r, t) + 𝜀0 ,
𝜇0 𝜕t (1.27)
𝜀0 ∇ ⋅ e (r, t) = 𝜌e (r, t) + 𝜌P (r, t) ,
∇ ⋅ b (r, t) = 0 .
formally equivalent to Maxwell’s equations in vacuum.
1.5 Discontinuities and Singularities

As mentioned in Section 1.4, in the absence of discontinuities, Maxwell’s equations
in differential form are valid everywhere in space; nevertheless, for modeling pur-
poses, discontinuities of material parameters or singular sources are often consid-
ered. In such cases other field relationships must be postulated (alternatively, they
can be derived from Maxwell’s equations in the integral form if such integral forms
are postulated to be valid also across the discontinuities).
Let us consider the presence of singular sources in the form of electric and mag-
netic surface densities: electric jS (A/m), 𝜌eS (C/m2 ) and magnetic mS (V/m), 𝜌mS
(Wb/m2 ), distributed over a surface S, which separates two regions (regions 1 and
2, respectively), or discontinuities in the material parameters across the surface
S; the EM field in each region is indicated by the subscript 1 or 2. Let un be the
unit vector normal to the surface S directed from region 2 to region 1. In such
conditions the following jump conditions hold:
( )
un × h1 − h2 = jS ,
( )
un × e1 − e2 = −mS ,
( ) (1.28)
un ⋅ d1 − d2 = 𝜌eS ,
( )
un ⋅ b1 − b2 = 𝜌mS ,
and
( ) 𝜕𝜌eS
un ⋅ j1 − j2 = −∇S ⋅ jS − ,
𝜕t (1.29)
( ) 𝜕𝜌mS
un ⋅ m1 − m2 = −∇S ⋅ mS − ,
𝜕t
where ∇S [⋅] = ∇ [⋅] − un 𝜕 [⋅] ∕ 𝜕n. It is clear that when jS and mS are zero, the tan-
gential components of both electric and magnetic fields are continuous across the
surface S. In particular, if discontinuities in the material parameters are present,
the electric surface current density jS may be different from zero at the boundary
of a perfect electric conductor (PEC, within which e2 = 0), and the magnetic sur-
face current density mS may be different from zero at the boundary of a perfect
magnetic conductor (PMC) (within which h2 = 0). Then the jump conditions at
the interface between the conventional medium and the PEC are written as
un × h = jS ,
un × e = 0 ,
un ⋅ d = 𝜌eS ,
un ⋅ b = 0 , (1.30)
𝜕𝜌eS
un ⋅ j = −∇S ⋅ jS − ,
𝜕t
un ⋅ m = 0 .
Likewise, at the interface between a conventional medium and a PMC, the
results are
un × h = 0 ,
un × e = −mS ,
un ⋅ d = 0 ,
un ⋅ b = 𝜌mS , (1.31)
un ⋅ j = 0 ,
𝜕𝜌mS
un ⋅ m = −∇S ⋅ mS − .
𝜕t
In these jump conditions the un unit vector points outside the conductors.
Finally, some other singular behaviors of fields and currents worthy of mention
occur in correspondence to the edge of a dielectric or conducting wedge and to the
tip of a dielectric or conducting cone. The solution of the EM problem in such cases
can be made unique by enforcing the physical constraint that the energy stored in
proximity of the edge or tip is finite. The order of singularity generally depends on
the boundary conditions that hold on the surface boundaries; further details can
be found in [15] and [17].
1.6 Initial Conditions, Boundary Conditions,

and Causality
As was noted earlier, Maxwell’s equations together with the constitutive relations
represent a set of partial differential equations. However, it is well known that
in order to obtain a solution for this set of equations, both initial and boundary
conditions must be specified. The initial conditions are represented by the
constraints that the EM field must satisfy at a given time, while boundary
conditions are, in general, constraints that the EM field must satisfy over certain
surfaces of the three-dimensional space, usually surfaces that separate regions
of space filled with different materials. In these cases the boundary conditions
coincide with the jump conditions illustrated in Section 1.5. Other important
examples of boundary conditions that can easily be formulated in the frequency
domain are the impedance boundary condition and radiation condition at infinity.
The impedance boundary condition (also known as the Leontovich condition)
relates the component Et of the electric field tangential to a surface S with the
magnetic field as
( )
Et = ZS un × H , (1.32)
where ZS (surface impedance) is a complex scalar quantity. The radiation con-
dition at infinity (also known as the Sommerfeld radiation condition in scalar
radiation problems or the Silver–Müller radiation condition in vector radiation
problems) postulates that in free space, in the absence of sources at infinity, there
results
[ ( )]
lim r E − 𝜂0 H × ur = 𝟎. (1.33)
r→+∞
As concerns transient fields, physical grounds require that all the fields satisfy
the law of causality. Two different causality conditions can be defined, i.e., a weak
and a strong causality condition. The weak causality condition states that all fields
have to be zero for t ≤ t0 if the sources are zero for t ≤ t0 . In other words, an out-
put does not exist until an input is applied. If such a weak causality condition is
assumed for electromagnetic fields, Maxwell’s equations imply a strong causality
( )
condition, i.e., that the fields are zero beyond a distance c t − t0 from a point
source that is zero for t ≤ t0 , where
1
c= √ (1.34)
𝜇𝜀
is the speed of light in a medium with constitutive parameters 𝜇 and 𝜀.
1.7 Poynting’s Theorem and Energy Considerations

A fundamental consequence of Maxwell’s equations is Poynting’s theorem, which
provides a power balance for the electromagnetic field. In the time domain, given
a region V bounded by a surface S with unit normal vector un oriented towards

the exterior of V, its statement is
( ) ( )
u ⋅ 𝝅 dS + p d dV + p + pE dV = p + pmi dV , (1.35)
∮S n ∫V ∫V H ∫V i
where
𝝅 =e×h ,
p d =e⋅j ,
𝜕
pH = h ⋅ b,
𝜕t (1.36)
𝜕
pE = e ⋅ d,
𝜕t
pi = −e ⋅ ji ,
pmi = −h ⋅ jmi .
The right-hand side of (1.35) expresses the power furnished by the impressed
currents, i.e., by the sources of the electromagnetic field. The three addends at
left-hand side are the destinations of such power: the surface integral is the power
that leaves the volume V by crossing its boundary S; the volume integral with pd
represents the power transferred from the field to the charges in V (and eventu-
ally dissipated into heat via Joule effect inside, e.g., a metal); finally, the volume
integral with pH and pE represents the power exchanged with the electromagnetic
field inside V in the form of stored magnetic and electric energy.
A complex version of the Poynting theorem is also available, valid for
time-harmonic fields and sources, which can be expressed using the phasor
notation in the frequency domain2 .
2 It is understood that this is an idealization, since true monochromatic fields cannot exist.
However, the simplicity of the formalism and the fact that a monochromatic wave is an
elemental component of the complete frequency-domain spectrum of an arbitrary time-varying
field make the assumption of monochromatic fields an invaluable tool for the investigation of
the EM-field theory. Nevertheless, great care must be given to the use of such an assumption
because it can lead to nonphysical consequences: a classical example consists in determining the
energy stored in a lossless cavity. An infinite value is actually obtained, since the cavity stores
energy starting from a remote instant t = −∞. The problem can be overcome by considering
time-averaged quantities, but some other problems can arise when the filling material is
dispersive.
Given a region V bounded by a surface S, from the time-harmonic Maxwell

equations the following identity holds
( ) ( )
un ⋅ 𝚷 dS + Pd dV + PH + PE dV = Pi + Pmi dV , (1.37)
∮S ∫V ∫V ∫V
where
1
𝚷= E × H∗ ,
2
1
Pd = E ⋅ J∗ ,
2
1
PH = j𝜔B ⋅ H∗ ,
2 (1.38)
1
PE = − j𝜔E ⋅ D∗ ,
2
1
Pi = − E ⋅ J∗i ,
2
1
Pmi = − Jmi ⋅ H∗ .
2
The real part of each term in (1.37) is equal to the average value (over one period
T = 2𝜋∕𝜔 in time) of the corresponding term in the time-domain version (1.35).
Hence, the real part of the complex Poynting theorem expresses an average balance
of power for the given volume V.
In particular, for simple isotropic materials (with complex constitutive parame-
ters 𝜇 and 𝜀c ), the Poynting theorem can also be expressed in a local form as
[ ∗ ]
[ ] |E|2 |H|2 J ⋅ E Mi ⋅ H∗
∇ ⋅ Re [𝚷] − 𝜔 Im 𝜀c − 𝜔 Im [𝜇] = −Re i + ,
2 2 2 2
( ) [ ∗ ]
|H|2 [ ] |E|2 J ⋅ E M i ⋅ H∗
∇ ⋅ Im [𝚷] + 2𝜔 Re [𝜇] − Re 𝜀c = −Im i + .
4 4 2 2
(1.39)
In the first equation of (1.39) the terms involving the imaginary parts of 𝜇 and
𝜀c correspond to time-averaged power densities dissipated through a conduction
current or for different mechanisms (magnetic and dielectric hysteresis); moreover
for media that cannot transfer energy (mechanical or chemical) into the field (i.e.,
passive media) such imaginary parts must be nonpositive. In general, we will refer
to lossless isotropic media as those materials having the imaginary parts of 𝜇 and 𝜀c
identically zero. It can be shown that lossless anisotropic media are characterized
by complex tensor permeability and permittivity which are both Hermitian.
For non-dispersive media the term into the brackets in the second equation of
(1.39) represents the difference between the time-averaged magnetic and electric
energy densities. The right-hand side is called reactive power density. As the second
equation of (1.39) shows, such reactive power density (divided by 2𝜔) represents
a sort of energy exchange between the external and the internal region.
1.8 Fundamental Theorems
1.8.1 Uniqueness Theorem

As in any other problem of mathematical physics, the uniqueness property is a
fundamental condition for a problem to be well-posed. First of all, a uniqueness
theorem establishes the mandatory information that one needs to obtain the solu-
tion of the problem. Second, it is of critical importance to know that the solu-
tion that one can obtain through different techniques is also unique. Third, the
uniqueness theorem is a fundamental tool for the development of other important
theorems, such as the equivalence theorem and the reciprocity theorem.
The uniqueness theorem can be formulated in the time domain as follows:
Given a stationary region Ω in space, filled with a linear, stationary, non-dispersive
medium, hosting prescribed impressed currents ji , jmi , there exists a unique EM
field e, h that satisfies both the Maxwell equations and the constitutive relations
in Ω for t ≥ t0 , provided that the tangential component of e over the boundary, or
the tangential component of h over the boundary, or the former over part of the
boundary and the latter over the remaining part of the boundary, are specified for
t ≥ t0 (boundary conditions), and the electromagnetic field is assigned everywhere
in Ω at t = t0 (initial conditions).
A time-harmonic version of the theorem is also available, in which the assump-
tions are essentially the same except that no initial conditions are given. In the
case of regions of infinite extent the uniqueness theorem still holds, provided that
the boundary conditions for the tangential components of the field are replaced
by the radiation condition at infinity. It is important to stress, however, that in
the time-harmonic case the proof of the theorem is strictly valid only for lossy
media (and, in turn, this restriction is a consequence of the ideal time-harmonic
assumption). However, the lossless case can be obtained in the limit of vanishing
losses [18].
1.8.2 Reciprocity Theorem

Another important theorem of electromagnetism is the reciprocity theorem,
which follows directly from Maxwell’s equations in the time-harmonic regime.
{ } { }
In fact, given a set of sources Ji1 , Mi1 that produce the fields E1 , H1 , D1 , B1
{ } { }
and a second set of sources Ji2 , Mi2 that produce the fields E2 , H2 , D2 , B2 ,
from (1.9) the following identity can be obtained
( ) ( )
∇ ⋅ E1 × H2 − E2 × H1 = j𝜔 H1 ⋅ B2 − H2 ⋅ B1 − E1 ⋅ D2 + E2 ⋅ D1
( )
+ H1 ⋅ Mi2 − H2 ⋅ Mi1 − E1 ⋅ Ji2 + E2 ⋅ Ji1 .
(1.40)
The media for which the first term in the right-hand side of (1.40) is zero are
called reciprocal. It can be shown that this is the case for isotropic media and also
for anisotropic media provided that both the tensor permittivity and permeability
are symmetric; examples of nonreciprocal media are lossless gyrotropic materials
(for which the tensor constitutive parameters are Hermitian but not symmetric).
Therefore, from (1.40), for reciprocal media there results
( ) ( )
∇ ⋅ E1 × H2 − E2 × H1 = H1 ⋅ Mi2 − H2 ⋅ Mi1 − E1 ⋅ Ji2 + E2 ⋅ Ji1 .
(1.41)
By integrating (1.41) over a finite volume V bounded by a closed surface S, we

obtain the Lorentz reciprocity theorem, that is,
( )
E1 × H2 − E2 × H1 ⋅ un dS
∮S
( )
= H1 ⋅ Mi2 − H2 ⋅ Mi1 − E1 ⋅ Ji2 + E2 ⋅ Ji1 dV . (1.42)
∫V
A system for which the integral at the left-hand side of (1.42) vanishes is said to
be reciprocal. It can be shown that this is the case if the region V is source free or
if an impedance boundary condition holds over the surface S. In such cases, from
(1.42), the reaction theorem can be obtained, which is expressed by
( ) ( )
H1 ⋅ Mi2 − E1 ⋅ Ji2 dV = H2 ⋅ Mi1 − E2 ⋅ Ji1 dV . (1.43)
∫V ∫V
These results can be extended to infinite regions if the impedance boundary con-
dition is replaced by the radiation condition at infinity.
The usefulness of the reciprocity theorem can be understood by considering the
( )
EM problem of an elemental electric dipole Ji1 = u1 𝛿 r − r1 placed in free space
( )
and a second elemental electric dipole Ji2 = u2 𝛿 r − r2 placed inside a metallic
enclosure having an aperture in one of its walls (u1 and u2 are the unit vectors
along two arbitrary directions). According to the discussion above, the system is
reciprocal and from (1.43) we obtain
( ) ( )
u2 ⋅ E1 r2 = u1 ⋅ E2 r1 . (1.44)
Equation (1.44) expresses the fact that the component along u2 of the electric
field radiated by the dipole (placed in free space) at the point r2 inside the cavity is
equal to the component along u1 of the electric field radiated by the dipole (placed
inside the enclosure) at the point r1 in free space.
The reciprocity theorem can also be used to show that the EM field produced by
an electric surface current density distributed over a PEC surface is identically zero
(and, dually, that produced by a magnetic surface current density distributed over
a PMC surface). Other applications of the reciprocity theorem regard the mode
excitation in waveguides and cavities and receiving and transmitting properties of
antennas [18].
It is worth noting that, while in time-harmonic reciprocity the interaction is
only spatial, in time-domain reciprocity the interaction is spatio-temporal. In
particular, two types of temporal interactions can be used, i.e., a convolution-type
and a correlation-type reciprocity. Historically, in [19] the first time-domain
reciprocity theorem (of correlation type) was derived for electromagnetic fields,
while in [20] a convolution-type reciprocity theorem was developed. These
theorems apply to homogeneous, isotropic and lossless [19] or lossy [20] media.
In [21] the convolution-type reciprocity theorem was extended to dispersive and
possibly nonhomogeneous or anisotropic media. In [22] both convolution-type
and correlation-type reciprocity theorems have been presented for homogeneous,
isotropic and lossless media. Next, time-domain reciprocity theorems of both types
have been developed for a large class of media by A. de Hoop [23, 24]. Applications
of time-domain reciprocity range from the study of coupling between antennas
to the study of both direct and inverse scattering problems, to integral-equation
formulations of electromagnetic problems, and to the development of numerical
methods [24–27].
1.8.3 Equivalence Principle

The equivalence principle is a consequence of Maxwell’s equations and the
uniqueness theorem. Basically, it allows the original EM problem to be replaced
with an equivalent problem whose solution coincides with that of the original
problem in a finite region of space. To be effective, the equivalent problem should
be easier to solve than the original one. The principle is usually formulated in the
time-harmonic regime, in different forms.
The first form of the equivalence principle (also known as the Love equivalence
principle) establishes that the EM field {E, H} outside a region V bounded by a
{ }
surface S enclosing the sources Ji , Mi is equal to that produced by the equivalent
{ }
sources JS , MS distributed over the surface S and given by
JS = un × HS ,
(1.45)
MS = −un × ES ,
{ }
where ES , HS is the EM field {E, H} in correspondence of the surface S and
un is the unit vector normal to S pointing outside the region V. It can be shown
that the field produced by the equivalent sources inside V is identically zero. The
equivalent sources are considered as known terms in the formulation of the prob-
lem. However, they depend on the field {E, H}, which is unknown. In practice,
there are many problems for which approximate expressions can be found for the
equivalent currents, and in any case they are extensively used to formulate exact
boundary integral equations for the considered problem.
A second form of the equivalence principle is known as the Schelkunoff equiv-
alence principle. It is based on the fact that, according to the Love equivalence
principle, the field produced by the equivalent sources inside V is identically zero.
It differs from the Love equivalence principle since the medium filling the region
V is replaced with a PEC (the boundary conditions on S are not changed). In this
way, the equivalent magnetic current MS is the only radiating source. Dually, the
region V could be replaced with a PMC; in this case, JS would be the only radiat-
ing source. However, it must be pointed out that the two situations considered by
Love and Schelkunoff are different: in the latter, the presence of a PEC (or PMC)
body must be explicitly taken into account.
1.8.4 Duality
Duality is a fundamental internal symmetry of Maxwell’s equations. With refer-
ence to a linear, time-invariant, isotropic, and local medium, it consists in the
invariance of Maxwell’s equations (1.18) upon the substitutions E → H, H → −E,
Ji → Mi , Mi → −Ji , 𝜀c → 𝜇, 𝜇 → 𝜀c .
Given a solution E, H of the Maxwell equations, this property allows for obtain-
ing another (dual) solution Ed , Hd given by
Ed = 𝜂H ,
1 (1.46)
Hd = − E
𝜂
produced by the dual sources
1
Jdi = Mi ,
𝜂 (1.47)
Mdi = −𝜂Ji .
If the original solution E, H is considered inside a spatial region V and satis-
fies certain boundary conditions on the boundary SV , then the dual solution Ed ,
Hd satisfies on SV different boundary conditions. For instance, assume that the
boundary conditions for E, H are those valid at the boundary of a PEC plane, i.e.,
E𝜏 = 𝟎 (where the subscript 𝜏 indicates the tangential component of the vector
field) and H𝜏 = JS × un . Then Ed and Hd satisfy the dual boundary conditions
H𝜏 = 𝟎, E𝜏 = −MS × un (which are those characterizing the boundary of a PMC

plane).
1.8.5 Symmetry
Let the plane z = 0 be a symmetry plane for the media configuration within
the region V under analysis. The electromagnetic field can then have two kinds
of symmetries, even and odd, respectively. With reference to the electric and
magnetic-induction fields {E, B}, an even field is characterized by the properties
Exeven (x, y, −z) = Exeven (x, y, z) ,
Eyeven (x, y, −z) = Eyeven (x, y, z) , (1.48)
Ezeven (x, y, −z) = −Ezeven (x, y, z) ,
Beven
x (x, y, −z) = −Beven
x (x, y, z) ,
Beven
y (x, y, −z) = −Beven
y (x, y, z) , (1.49)
Beven
z (x, y, −z) = Beven
z (x, y, z) ,
whereas an odd field is characterized by the properties
Exodd (x, y, −z) = −Exodd (x, y, z) ,
Eyodd (x, y, −z) = −Eyodd (x, y, z) , (1.50)
Ezodd (x, y, −z) = Ezodd (x, y, z) ,
x (x, y, −z) = Bx (x, y, z) ,

Bodd odd
y (x, y, −z) = By (x, y, z) ,

Bodd odd
(1.51)
Bodd
z (x, y, −z) = −Bodd
z (x, y, z) .
{ }
In short, for an even electromagnetic field Eeven , Beven , the electric-field
components parallel to the symmetry plane are even functions of the coordi-
nate orthogonal to the symmetry plane, whereas the electric-field component
orthogonal to the plane is an odd function of the same coordinate; the opposite is
{ }
true for the magnetic induction. For an odd electromagnetic field Eodd , Bodd ,
the properties of two fields are exchanged. Note that the different behavior of
the electric field and magnetic induction upon reflection originates from their
fundamentally different nature: the electric field is a true (or polar) vector,
whereas the magnetic induction is a pseudo- (or axial) vector, its true nature
being that of an antisymmetric, second-order tensor (see [28] for more details).
Similar definitions can be given for even and odd impressed currents, the behav-
ior of the electric current being analogous to that of the electric field and that of
the magnetic current to that of the magnetic induction. It is then readily seen,
by virtue of the uniqueness theorem, that even/odd currents generate even/odd
fields. Note that the most general electromagnetic field or impressed current in V
need not be even nor odd; however, they can always be represented as the sum of
even and odd fields/currents.
1.8.6 Image Principle

For an odd field, the tangential component of the electric field and the normal
component of the magnetic induction vanish on the symmetry plane, which then
behaves as a PEC plane. By filling one of the two half spaces z > 0 or z < 0 with a
PEC medium, the uniqueness theorem then guarantees that the field in the other
half space remains unchanged. This is the basis of the so-called image principle,
by which the field produced by an arbitrary system of impressed sources in a half
space bounded by an infinite PEC plane is the same field that would be produced
in free space by the same sources and by their odd-symmetric counterparts (their
images) placed in the complementary half space.
By duality, the field produced by an arbitrary system of impressed sources in a
half space bounded by an infinite PMC plane is the same field that would be pro-
duced in free space by the same sources and by their even-symmetric counterparts
(their images) placed in the complementary half space.
1.8.7 Babinet’s Principle

Let now Ei , Hi be the field produced in a uniform medium with parameters k and 𝜂
by given sources Ji , Mi , located in z < 0 (see Figure 1.1a). Let S be the plane z = 0,
where an infinitesimally thin metal screen is assumed to be located; PEC boundary
conditions hold on the metalized surface Sm , whereas the screen apertures consti-
tute the complementary surface Sa (see Figure 1.1b). The Babinet principle [18, 29]
relates the field Ee , He transmitted through such a metal screen to the field Em ,
Hm transmitted through the complementary dual screen, in which PMC bound-
ary conditions hold on Sa and apertures are in Sm , produced by the same sources
(see Figure 1.1c). In alternative versions, the principle relates the field Ee , He to
the field Ed , Hd transmitted through the complementary metal screen, in which
PEC boundary conditions hold on Sa and apertures are in Sm , produced by the dual
sources Jdi = (1∕𝜂)Mi , Mdi = −𝜂Jdi (see Figure 1.1d).
Let us write any of the field in Figures 1.1b–d as the sum of an incident field
(indicated with the superscript i) and a scattered field (indicated with the super-
script s). The scattered field in Figure 1.1b is due to the induced electric currents
on the PEC Sm , while in Figure 1.1c it is due to the induced magnetic currents on
the PMC Sa . The incident field in Figures 1.1b,c is Ei , Hi , while in Figure 1.1d it
is the dual field Edi = 𝜂Hi , Hdi = − (1∕𝜂) Ei . With reference to Figure 1.1b we can
Ei, Hi PEC Sm
z Sa Ee, He
Source Source
S
(a) (b)
Sm Sm
PMC Sa Em, Hm PEC Sa Ed, Hd
Source Dual
source
(c) (d)
Figure 1.1 Illustrating the Babinet principle: (a) definition of the incident field; (b) the
reference configuration: electromagnetic transmission through an aperture in an
infinitely extended, infinitesimally thin PEC screen; (c) scattering from the dual screen; (d)
scattering of the dual field from the complementary PEC screen.
write
Ee𝜏 = 𝟎 on Sm ,
(1.52)
He𝜏 = Hi𝜏 on Sa ,
(where the subscript 𝜏 indicates the tangential component of the field) since, by
symmetry, Hes𝜏 = 𝟎 on Sa . With reference to Figure 1.1c we can write
Em i
𝜏 = E𝜏 on Sm ,
(1.53)
Hm
𝜏 = 𝟎 on Sa ,
𝜏 = 𝟎 on Sm . By summing (1.52) and (1.53) we have

since, by symmetry, Ems
Ee𝜏 + Em i
𝜏 = E𝜏 on Sm ,
(1.54)
He𝜏 + Hm
𝜏 = Hi𝜏 on Sa .
By the uniqueness theorem, we then deduce that in z > 0 it results (Babinet’s

principle)
Ee + Em = Ei ,
(1.55)
He + Hm = Hi .
On the other hand, with reference to Figure 1.1d we can write, by duality
Ed = 𝜂Hm ,
1 (1.56)
Hd = − Em .
𝜂
1.9 Wave Equations, Helmholtz’s Equations, Potentials, and Green’s Functions 23
Hence in z > 0, by inserting (1.55) in (1.56), it results (Babinet’s principle, first

alternative version)
Ee − 𝜂Hd = Ei ,
1 (1.57)
He + Ed = Hi .
𝜂
Again with reference to Figure 1.1d, from (1.56) and (1.53) we have
Ed𝜏 = 𝜂Hm𝜏 = 𝟎 on Sa ,
1 1 (1.58)
Hd𝜏 = − Em = − Ei𝜏 on Sm ,
𝜂 𝜏 𝜂
that are equivalent to
Eds di
𝜏 = −𝜂E𝜏 = −𝜂H𝜏
i
on Sa ,
1 1 1 i (1.59)
𝜏 = −H𝜏 − E𝜏 = E𝜏 − E𝜏 = 𝟎
Hds on Sm .
di i i
𝜂 𝜂 𝜂
These can be written as
1
− Eds = Hi𝜏 on Sa ,
𝜂 𝜏 (1.60)
𝜂Hds
𝜏 = 𝟎 on Sm .
By comparison with (1.52) we deduce, by the uniqueness theorem, that in z > 0

it results (Babinet’s principle, second alternative version)
Ee = 𝜂Hds ,
1 (1.61)
He = − Eds .
𝜂
1.9 Wave Equations, Helmholtz’s Equations,

Potentials, and Green’s Functions
In linear, homogeneous, and isotropic media, we can take the curl of Maxwell’s
equations in (1.18) and obtain the electric field and the magnetic field wave
equations as
∇ × ∇ × E (r) − k2 E (r) = −j𝜔𝜇Ji (r) − ∇ × Mi (r) ,

(1.62)
∇ × ∇ × H (r) − k2 H (r) = −j𝜔𝜀c Mi (r) + ∇ × Ji (r) ,
where the dependence on frequency of the fields is assumed and suppressed. From
the vector identity ∇ × ∇ × [⋅] = ∇∇ [⋅] − ∇2 [⋅] applied to (1.62), the Maxwell
divergence equations, and the equation of continuity, the vector Helmholtz

equations for the electric and magnetic fields can be derived as
∇∇ ⋅ Ji (r)
∇2 E (r) + k2 E (r) = j𝜔𝜇Ji (r) − + ∇ × Mi (r) ,
j𝜔𝜀c
(1.63)
∇∇ ⋅ Mi (r)
∇2 H (r) + k2 H (r) = j𝜔𝜀c Mi (r) − − ∇ × Ji (r) .
j𝜔𝜇
Both the vector wave equations and the vector Helmholtz equations are inho-
mogeneous differential equations whose forcing terms can be quite complicated
functions. Therefore auxiliary quantities (known as potentials) are usually intro-
duced to simplify the analysis. Different choices are possible, although the most
common are the magnetic and electric (vector and scalar) potentials {A, F, V, W}
in the Lorenz gauge, which are defined as solutions of the following equations:
∇2 A (r) + k2 A (r) = −𝜇Ji (r) ,
∇2 F (r) + k2 F (r) = −𝜀c Mi (r) ,
𝜌 (r) (1.64)
∇2 V (r) + k2 V (r) = − e ,
𝜀c
𝜌 (r)
∇2 W (r) + k2 W (r) = − m .
𝜇
The Lorenz gauge implies that ∇ ⋅ A = −j𝜔𝜇𝜀c V and ∇ ⋅ F = −j𝜔𝜇𝜀c W. The
electric and magnetic fields are expressed in terms of the potentials as
1
E (r) = −j𝜔A (r) − ∇V (r) − ∇ × F (r) ,
𝜀c
(1.65)
1
H (r) = −j𝜔F (r) − ∇W (r) + ∇ × A (r) .
𝜇
All the equations in (1.64) are again inhomogeneous (vector or scalar)
Helmholtz’s equations, but now with a simple forcing term. They can be solved
by means of the Green function method. Basically the scalar Helmholtz equation
can be written as an operator equation of the kind
[ ]
L f (r) = f0 (r) , (1.66)
where L [⋅] = ∇2 [⋅] + k2 [⋅], f is the unknown function, and f0 is the forcing term
(furthermore appropriate boundary conditions must be specified, which define the
( )
domain of the operator L). The scalar Green function G r, r′ is thus defined as
the solution of the equation
[ ( )] ( )
L G r, r′ = −𝛿 r − r′ , (1.67)
subjected to the same boundary conditions. This way it can be shown that the
function f (r) can be expressed through a superposition integral in terms of the
Green function and the forcing term as

( ) ( )
f (r) = G r, r′ f0 r′ dV ′ . (1.68)
∫V
In particular, for a scalar Helmholtz equation in free space (subjected to the radi-
ation condition at infinity) it results
( ) e−jk0 | r−r |
′
G r, r′ = . (1.69)
4𝜋 | r − r′ |
Alternatively, the Hertzian electric and magnetic potentials, 𝚷e and 𝚷h , can be
introduced. When Mi = 𝟎, the electric Hertzian potential 𝚷e is defined as
A (r)
𝚷e (r) = (1.70)
j𝜔𝜇𝜀c
and obeys the Helmholtz equation
Ji (r)
∇2 𝚷e (r) + k2 𝚷e (r) = − . (1.71)
j𝜔𝜀c
In (1.71), Ji can represent either an impressed electric current source or an
impressed polarization current source Ji = j𝜔P. For Ji = 𝟎, the magnetic Hertzian
potential 𝚷h is defined as
F (r)
𝚷h (r) = , (1.72)
j𝜔𝜇𝜀c
which obeys the Helmholtz equation
Mi (r)
∇2 𝚷h (r) + k2 𝚷h (r) = − , (1.73)
j𝜔𝜇
where Mi can represent either an impressed magnetic current source or an
impressed magnetization current source Mi = j𝜔Mm .
In free space the vector Helmholtz equations in (1.64) can easily be separated in
three scalar Helmholtz’s equations, each characterized by the same scalar Green
function (1.69). The electric and magnetic fields can be expressed by using the
scalar Green function for the potentials in terms of electric and magnetic sources:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
E (r) = j𝜔𝜇 Ge r, r′ ⋅ Ji r′ dV ′ + Gm r, r′ ⋅ Mi r′ dV ′ ,
∫V ∫V
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
H (r) = Gm r, r′ ⋅ Ji r′ dV ′ − j𝜔𝜀c Ge r, r′ ⋅ Mi r′ dV ′ .
∫V ∫V
(1.74)
The free-space electric dyadic Green function Ge is
( )
( ′) ∇∇ ( )
Ge r, r = I + 2 G r, r′ (1.75)
k0
and the free-space magnetic dyadic Green function Gm is

( ) ( )
Gm r, r′ = ∇G r, r′ × I , (1.76)
where I is the identity 3 × 3 tensor.

A similar approach can be adopted in the time domain, assuming, for simplicity,
a homogeneous, isotropic, and nondispersive medium, with a real wavenumber
k = 𝜔∕c.
Taking the curl of both sides of (1.11a) and (1.11b), we have
𝜕
∇ × ∇ × e (r, t) = −𝜇 ∇ × h (r, t) − ∇ × mi (r, t) , (1.77a)
𝜕t
𝜕
∇ × ∇ × h (r, t) = 𝜎∇ × e (r, t) + 𝜀 ∇ × e (r, t) + ∇ × ji (r, t) . (1.77b)
𝜕t
Substituting (1.11b) in (1.77a) and using the vector identity ∇ × ∇ × [⋅] =

∇ (∇ ⋅ [⋅]) − ∇2 [⋅], (1.77a) can be rewritten as
𝜕
∇ [∇ ⋅ e (r, t)] − ∇2 e (r, t) = −𝜇 ∇ × h (r, t) − ∇ × mi (r, t) . (1.78)
𝜕t
By using (1.11c) and rearranging the terms, we thus obtain
1 𝜕2 e 𝜕e 𝜕ji ∇qe
∇2 e (r, t) − − 𝜇𝜎 = ∇ × mi (r, t) + 𝜇 + . (1.79)
c2 𝜕t 2 𝜕t 𝜕t 𝜀
Equation (1.79) is the vector wave equation for e.

Similarly, an uncoupled second-order partial differential equation for h is
obtained as
1 𝜕2 h 𝜕h 𝜕mi ∇qm
∇2 h (r, t) − − 𝜇𝜎 = −∇ × ji (r, t) + 𝜎 + , (1.80)
c2 𝜕t2 𝜕t 𝜕t 𝜇
which is the vector wave equation for h.

For lossless media (𝜎 = 0) the wave equations (1.79) and (1.80) become
1 𝜕2 e 𝜕ji ∇qe
∇2 e (r, t) − = ∇ × mi (r, t) + 𝜇 + , (1.81a)
c2 𝜕t2 𝜕t 𝜀
1 𝜕2 h ∇qm
∇2 h (r, t) − = −∇ × ji (r, t) + . (1.81b)
c2 𝜕t2 𝜇
{ }
Time-dependent Lorenz potentials {a, f, 𝑣, 𝑤} and Hertzian potentials 𝝅 e , 𝝅 h
can also be introduced and they are shown to obey the time-domain wave
equations:
1 𝜕2
∇2 a (r, t) − a (r, t) = −𝜇ji (r, t) ,
c2 𝜕t2
1 𝜕2
∇2 f (r) − f (r, t) = −𝜀mi (r, t) ,
c2𝜕t2
(1.82)
1 𝜕2 𝜌 (r, t)
∇2 𝑣 (r, t) − 2 𝑣 (r, t) = − e ,
c 𝜕t 2 𝜀
1 𝜕2 𝜌 (r, t)
∇2 𝑤 (r, t) − 2 𝑤 (r, t) = − m
c 𝜕t 2 𝜇
and
1 𝜕2 1
∇2 𝝅 e (r, t) − 𝝅 (r, t) = − pi (r, t) ,
c2 𝜕t2 e 𝜀 (1.83)
1 𝜕2
∇2 𝝅 h (r) − 𝝅 (r, t) = −m (r, t) ,
c2 𝜕t2 h mi
where the impressed polarization pi and magnetization mmi currents are such that
𝜕
ji (r, t) = p (r, t) ,
𝜕t i (1.84)
𝜕
mi (r, t) = m (r, t) .
𝜕t mi
The Lorenz gauge now implies that ∇ ⋅ a = −𝜇𝜀 𝜕𝑣𝜕t
and ∇ ⋅ f = −𝜇𝜀 𝜕𝑤𝜕t
. The
time-domain electric and magnetic fields are expressed in terms of the Lorenz
potentials as
𝜕a 1
e (r, t) = − − ∇𝑣 (r, t) − ∇ × f (r, t) , (1.85a)
𝜕t 𝜀
1 𝜕f
h (r, t) = ∇ × a (r, t) − − ∇𝑤 (r, t) . (1.85b)
𝜇 𝜕t
On the other hand the expressions of the time-domain electric and magnetic
fields in terms of the Hertzian potentials are
𝜕𝝅 h pi (r, t)
e (r, t) = ∇ × ∇ × 𝝅 e (r, t) − 𝜇∇ × − , (1.86a)
𝜕t 𝜀
𝜕𝝅 e
h (r, t) = 𝜀∇ × + ∇ × ∇ × 𝝅 h (r, t) − mmi (r, t) . (1.86b)
𝜕t
The Green function method can be used also in the time domain to solve the
inhomogeneous equations (1.82)–(1.83). In free space, the relevant Green function
can be found by inverse-Fourier transforming the time-harmonic Green function
(1.69), thus obtaining:
( )
| r − r′ |
𝛿 t − t′ − | c |
( ) 0
 r, t, r′ , t′ = . (1.87)
4𝜋 | r − r′ |
Note that now the Green function has a distributional character, containing the
Dirac delta.
The potentials can then be obtained through superposition integrals. For
instance, for the time-domain magnetic potential a in free space we have
+∞ ( ) ( )
a (r, t) = 𝜇0  r, t, r′ , t′ ji r′ , t′ dV ′ dt′
∫V ∫−∞
(1.88)
1 ( )
= 𝜇0 j r′ , tret dV ′ ,
∫V 4𝜋 | r − r′ | i
where tret = t − | r − r′ | ∕c0 is the retarded time. Similar expressions hold for all
the time-domain potentials, which are thus known as retarded potentials. The
electric and magnetic fields can finally be calculated using (1.85) or (1.86) with
𝜀 = 𝜀0 and 𝜇 = 𝜇0 . The involved calculations are algebraically cumbersome and
the resulting expressions, which can be cast in various alternative forms, are quite
elaborate and thus not reported here; for details, see, e.g., [28]. The expressions for
impulsive sources will be reported later in Chapter 6.
1.10 Basic Shielding Mechanisms
EM shielding may be pursued by any of the following main strategies, or by a com-

bination of them:
● Interposition of a “barrier” between the source and the area (volume) where the
EM field has to be reduced.
● Introduction of a mean capable of diverging the EM field from the area of
interest.
● Introduction of an additional source whose effect is the reduction of the EM field
levels in the prescribed area with respect to a situation involving the original
source or source system.
The choice of the strategy is made according to the characteristics of the source
(electromagnetic or physical) and to the characteristics of the area to be protected.
Of course, several other factors such as costs or insensitivity to source variations
must be accounted for as well.
The interposition of a barrier is particularly effective in reducing the EM field
levels when the shield material is highly conducting or when it is characterized by
constitutive parameters such that the level of attenuation of the field propagating
through the shield is high. A simple situation, which will be studied in detail in
Chapter 4, may help to clarify this point. A uniform plane wave propagating in a
medium with permeability 𝜇, √permittivity 𝜀, and conductivity 𝜎, has a propagation
( )
constant expressed by 𝛾 = j𝜔𝜇 𝜎 + j𝜔𝜀 = 𝛼 + j𝛽, where 𝛼 is the attenuation
1.11 Source Inside or Outside the Shielding Structure and Reciprocity 29
constant and 𝛽 the phase constant. Any combination of the values 𝜇, 𝜀, and 𝜎
giving rise to a high value of the attenuation constant 𝛼 is suitable for shielding
purposes.
An EM field can be diverted by means of an alternative path, not necessar-
ily enclosing the area to be shielded. Such a path may offer better propagation
characteristics to the electric field (by means of highly conducting materials), the
electric induction (by means of high-permittivity materials), the magnetic induc-
tion (high-permeability materials).
Generally speaking, at relatively low frequencies, e.g., below tens of MHz the
dominant coupling mechanism is related to pass-through cables and connectors.
Above such an approximate threshold the propagation of EM waves through aper-
tures and shield discontinuities becomes more and more important.
Discontinuities treatment is a major issue in shielding theory and practice.
Chapters 10 and 11 provide a sound approach and practical solutions, respectively,
to this very special key point around which the whole shielding problem revolves.
1.11 Source Inside or Outside the Shielding Structure

and Reciprocity
In general the techniques for introducing a shield that excludes EM interference
from a certain region are identical to those used for confining an EM field in the
neighborhood of the source. This is an immediate consequence of the reciprocity
theorem as formulated in (1.43) or (1.44). The simplest shield consists in an infinite
planar screen that divides two regions of space, region 1 and region 2. When a
source is placed in r1 (in region 1), it produces a certain field at r2 (in region 2). If
the assumptions of the reciprocity theorem are fulfilled, it is easy to see that such
a field is the same as that produced at r1 by the same source placed at r2 . There
is no difficulty in generalizing these considerations to the more involved case of a
source in the presence of an enclosure. In this case region 1 is the interior of the
enclosure while region 2 is the external region: thus the field radiated at r2 by a
source placed in r1 is the same as that radiated at r1 by the same source placed
at r2 . This also means, for example, that the shielding performance of a shielding
structure can be calculated (or measured) by placing either the source outside the
structure and determining the field inside it or the source inside the structure and
determining the field outside it.
Although the previous considerations are quite simple, the basic assumptions
must be clear. First of all, the reciprocity theorem (or some of its modifications that
account also for nonreciprocal media [17]) must hold: this implies, for example,
that the above described conclusions for linear media are not valid in the presence
of nonlinear media. The two considered situations (with source inside and outside
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
— Oui, mais maintenant vous savez. Il faut agir… Et agir le plus
tôt possible. Est-il besoin que je vous indique un bon chirurgien ?
Toute ma chair a bondi dans une révolte aveugle.
Autour de moi, un cercle de douleur se serrait. Me livrer à une
opération ! Perdre les dernières semaines où il va être là !… Pendant
ces semaines, n’être plus qu’une misérable malade !… Cela m’est
apparu monstrueusement impossible…
Ah ! si notre rêve ne doit demeurer qu’un rêve, au moins
qu’aucune laide image ne vienne le troubler !
Et tout haut, j’ai articulé, presque agressive, je le sentais :
— Je ne puis m’occuper de ma santé avant un mois d’ici.
Les sourcils se sont un peu contractés, et j’ai vu flamber un éclair
dans le regard d’acier. Cette homme ne doit pas être habitué à
entendre discuter ses jugements. Presque rude, il a riposté :
— Alors, pourquoi êtes-vous venue me consulter aujourd’hui ?
— Parce que… je le confie à votre discrétion professionnelle…
de votre arrêt dépend pour moi une grave question d’avenir, une très
grave. Selon que vous m’assurerez, ou non, la guérison, j’agirai
dans un sens ou dans un autre. Et c’est pourquoi je vous demande
de me dire, en toute conscience, la vérité qu’il faut que je connaisse.
Je crois que je suis prête à l’accepter…
Je m’arrête une seconde… Puis je continue :
— D’abord, je désire savoir ceci : ce que j’ai, est-ce sûrement et
simplement un « bobo », comme vous dites… Ou bien, suis-je
atteinte d’une façon sérieuse ?
Encore un silence que je perçois par tout mon être. Je sens à
n’en pouvoir douter que cet homme hésite sur ce qu’il va me dire.
Mes yeux doivent l’interroger avec une autorité impérieuse.
— Puisque vous voulez la vérité…
Comment m’étais-je imaginé, bien convaincue, que j’étais prête à
tout entendre ? Lorsque la voix froide a prononcé « puisque vous
voulez la vérité », en mon moi le plus secret, un instinct a crié :
— Non ! ne me dites rien qui me désespère. Trompez-moi
plutôt… par pitié !
Mais il n’a pas entendu cette supplication de ma pauvre petite
bête humaine et il a continué, me donnant une sensation de scalpel
qui entrerait dans la chair :
— Je ne vous cache pas que toute affection de cette nature
pouvant avoir des conséquences regrettables, mon simple devoir me
commande de vous adresser, sans retard, à un chirurgien.
— Qui me guérira ?…
— Qui, sûrement fera tout ce qu’il faudra pour cela…
— Et votre conviction est qu’il peut réussir ? Dites… Il faut que je
sache… Il faut…
Sévère et brusque, il a répliqué :
— Je ne suis pas chirurgien… Un professionnel jugera mieux que
moi s’il peut vous délivrer radicalement… ou rendre seulement le
mal inoffensif.
— En somme, quel est ce mal ?
Encore un imperceptible silence.
— Une sorte de petite tumeur dont, vous le comprenez bien, il
faut vous débarrasser au plus vite pour en éviter le développement,
qui amènerait des désordres dans l’organisme.
J’ai incliné la tête sans répondre. Il me semblait qu’un poids
terrible s’abattait sur moi, m’écrasant. En cette seconde, dans mon
souvenir, j’ai vu se dresser le brun visage qui m’est devenu si cher…
A cette heure, si mon ami pensait à moi, il me voyait absorbée par
des courses, arpentant les galeries poudreuses de quelque
magasin…
S’il avait su !… Mais il ne saura pas. Personne ne saura que moi ;
du moins, tant qu’il sera en France… Après… Oh ! après, qu’est-ce
que cela me fait ce qui m’arrivera !…
Je ne sais quel visage j’avais, à réfléchir ainsi… Brusquement,
j’ai été arrachée à moi-même par la voix brève du docteur :
— A quoi songez-vous ? madame. J’espère que vous prenez la
sage résolution d’écouter mon avis et de vous en aller, bien vite,
vous faire soigner, comme il convient.
J’ai secoué la tête :
— Docteur, seule, la certitude de la guérison obtenue en me
faisant traiter tout de suite pourrait me décider au sacrifice des
quelques semaines… — peut-être les dernières ! — de vie heureuse
qui me seront accordées. Cette certitude, pouvez-vous me la
donner ?
Il n’a pas répondu aussitôt. L’ombre d’une hésitation voilait ses
yeux. Sa main, d’un geste impatient, tourmentait une revue ouverte
sur son bureau.
— Vous me demandez l’impossible, madame, le secret de la
nature, le secret de Dieu ! Je ne puis, moi, vous apporter qu’une
espérance réalisable, si vous agissez comme la plus élémentaire
raison l’exige.
La raison ! Un geste d’indifférence m’a échappé. Dans ses yeux
alors, j’ai vu luire, de nouveau, l’éclair impatient :
— Il n’y a donc personne près de vous qui ait qualité pour vous
obliger à vous soigner… ainsi qu’il est nécessaire ? Vous êtes
mariée, n’est-ce pas ? Je vous demande pardon de cette question.
Mais vous le savez, les médecins sont des confesseurs.
— Oui, je suis mariée. Vous auriez voulu parler à mon mari ?
— Je l’aurais prié d’user de son influence, ou de son autorité,
pour vous déterminer à vous soigner tout de suite.
« L’autorité, l’influence » de mon mari !
Je ne sais ce qu’a pu trahir ma physionomie. Le docteur n’a pas
insisté et m’a seulement demandé :
— Avez-vous des enfants ?
— Non, je suis libre de toute attache… qui compte. Ma vie
n’appartient qu’à moi. Je peux en disposer comme il me convient.
Presque sévèrement, il m’a interrompue :
— Mais vous ne tenez pas, j’imagine, à l’abréger ?
Était-ce donc si grave ce que j’avais ?… J’ai regardé le docteur
avec des yeux qui devaient être, en cette minute, aussi pénétrants
que les siens.
— Comprenez-moi, docteur. Je ne suis pas une enfant, ni une
femme déraisonnable, comme vous semblez le croire. Je ferai tout
ce qu’il faut, si je suis certaine que… que mes jours ne sont pas
comptés, par suite de ce mal imprévu… Sinon, ainsi que je vous l’ai
dit, je ne sacrifierai pas les dernières semaines qui me soient
laissées pour vivre à ma guise… Cette certitude, docteur, je vous le
répète, pouvez-vous me la donner ?
Mes yeux ne quittaient pas les siens. Vraiment, de toute ma
volonté, j’exigeais une réponse.
Il a dû le sentir. Après une seconde de silence, avec une autorité
lente, il a prononcé :
— En conscience, madame…
Encore un imperceptible arrêt. Puis, il répète :
— En conscience, je ne puis vous donner la certitude que vous
souhaitez… puisque je ne suis pas absolument compétent. Je
rappelle votre attention sur ce point, afin de ne vous tromper ni dans
un sens, ni dans un autre.
Il ajoutait cela… par compassion. Une terrible intuition me
l’affirmait, à mesure qu’il parlait. J’étais certaine qu’il savait et ne
voulait pas me dire… Je n’ai pas bougé. Toute ma sensibilité
semblait morte. Et j’ai seulement articulé une dernière question :
— Soit, docteur, il vous est impossible de me répondre nettement
comme je l’aurais désiré. Mais dites-moi ceci, et avec la même
conscience : estimez-vous que je compromets l’avenir en attendant
un mois pour me soumettre à l’opération que vous jugez
indispensable ?
Il a passé la main sur son front ; puis cette main s’est abattue sur
le bras de son fauteuil. Il réfléchissait :
— Ce retard que vous réclamez si… impérieusement, a-t-il pour
vous une importance… capitale ?
— Oui !… Oh oui !…
Je me suis arrêtée court, sentant que mon cœur avait crié ce
« oui ». Et une flamme a couru sur ma pâleur. Le regard aigu du
docteur m’enveloppait. Aussi clairement que s’il avait parlé, j’ai
deviné qu’il pensait : « Cette petite femme, qui tient son mari pour un
étranger, doit avoir un amant ; et elle veut profiter avec lui d’un mois
de liberté… »
Mais que me faisait son jugement ?
J’attendais l’arrêt qui se précisait derrière ce front impénétrable :
— Eh bien ? docteur…
— Eh bien, madame, si vous le souhaitez… par-dessus tout !…
attendez… Mais souvenez-vous que c’est à vos risques et périls, et
contre mon avis radical.
Mes épaules ont eu un geste d’insouciance.
— Je le sais… Vous m’avez bien avertie ! Donc si j’attends, il n’en
sera sans doute rien de plus pour l’avenir ?
Avec une espèce de gravité, il a prononcé :
— Je ne le pense pas…
— C’est bien. Je vous remercie, docteur.
Je me suis levée. Je n’avais plus rien à demander. Plus rien ! A
quoi bon ? Il ne m’aurait pas éclairée davantage. Au plus profond de
moi-même, une évidence s’imposait : cet homme, qui ne voulait pas
me tromper, ne m’avait apporté aucune affirmation réconfortante
pour l’avenir.
Mes yeux ont erré sur la pièce austère où j’avais l’impression que
je venais de subir une condamnation. J’ai interrogé :
— Dois-je revenir ? docteur.
— Ce serait inutile, quant à présent. Demain, dans huit jours, je
vous dirais ce que je vous ai dit aujourd’hui : si vous n’avez pas, je
vous le répète encore une dernière fois, en insistant, si vous n’avez
pas, pour attendre, une de ces raisons qui priment les exigences de
la raison, voyez tout de suite le chirurgien qui vous soignera comme
vous devez l’être…
J’ai incliné lentement la tête. Nos yeux se croisaient,
interrogateurs et attentifs.
— Merci encore, docteur. Je vais réfléchir… Et je ferai ce qui me
paraîtra le meilleur.
Il a entr’ouvert la bouche, comme pour ajouter quelque chose.
Mais il s’est tu, et m’accompagnant au seuil de son cabinet, il a
soulevé la portière. Alors — d’un accent singulier, où dominait une
sorte de bonté autoritaire, il m’a dit :
— Adieu, madame. Soyez sage… autant que vous êtes vaillante.
Je suis sortie ; comme sort une dame en visite. Sur le seuil, nos
yeux se sont encore rencontrés. Qu’y avait-il, au fond des miens ?…
Un désespoir glacé, sans pleurs ni cris. Dans les siens, — était-ce
une aberration de mon esprit surmené ? — il m’a semblé trouver une
espèce de sympathie compatissante. Peut-être, après tout, si
habitué fût-il à voir souffrir, il avait pitié de la pauvre chose, fragile et
menacée, que je sais être maintenant.
Mais ni l’un ni l’autre, nous n’avons rien dit de plus. Ce que nos
bouches n’articulaient pas, nos pensées, silencieusement, se
l’avouaient en cette dernière minute. Ah ! il y a des intuitions qui ne
trompent pas !
J’ai descendu l’escalier lentement. Oh ! oui, lentement… Mes
pieds, d’ordinaire si légers, semblaient devenus lourds infiniment ;
c’est qu’ils soutenaient une créature écrasée. Tout bas, je
murmurais : « Mon amour, mon pauvre amour, vous m’êtes cher plus
que ma vie… »
Et mon cœur était broyé par une douleur que jamais encore je
n’avais connue.
Sous la grand’porte, je me suis arrêtée, éblouie. Une nappe de
soleil ruisselait sur la chaussée poudreuse. Au-dessus de ma tête, le
ciel était de ce bleu ardoisé des jours d’orage. Des voitures, des
passants, circulaient. Devant moi, coulait le torrent de la vie… Et je
le regardais, me demandant combien de temps encore il allait
m’emporter !
La question est montée à mon cerveau du plus profond de mon
être… Et je ne sais quelle horrible conviction m’a étreinte que, pour
moi, la vie était close. Pas une fois, le docteur ne m’avait dit :
« Soyez sans inquiétude, vous n’avez rien à craindre. » Au contraire,
il avait apporté une insistance obstinée, lourde de sous-entendus, à
me recommander un traitement immédiat…
Et tandis que je songeais ainsi, ouvrant d’un geste machinal mon
ombrelle, pour m’aventurer dans la rue sans ombre, un souvenir,
tout à coup, a surgi des brumes de ma mémoire. L’anecdote
racontée chez Marinette, par le docteur Valprince. La fraîche jeune
femme venue pour le consulter, nullement inquiète et que, tout de
suite, il avait reconnue atteinte d’un mal qu’on ne guérit pas.
Un frisson m’a secouée. Oh ! Dieu, pourquoi est-ce que je me
rappelais cela ? Avais-je là cette réponse inutilement demandée au
docteur Vigan ?… Une épouvante me saisissait. Dans cette rue
ensoleillée, je me sentais aussi perdue qu’au milieu des ténèbres.
Alors, vite, je suis partie pour regagner ma maison. Ainsi une bête
blessée va se cacher dans son trou. J’ai traversé mon appartement
désert, où les volets étaient clos, les meubles et les tentures
disparus sous les voiles d’été, où mon pas heurtait les parquets sans
tapis. J’ai gagné ma chambre, moins inhospitalière, là, il y avait des
fleurs, des livres, mes bibelots familiers. J’ai écarté les persiennes ; il
me semblait que j’étouffais. Le soleil avait disparu ; et les nuées
d’orage plombaient le ciel obscurci. J’ai rejeté mon chapeau, mes
gants, et je me suis abattue dans une bergère, les mains serrées,
broyée par l’angoisse. Et déjà pourtant, essayant d’instinct, tant il y a
de ressort dans mon être, de remonter la pente de l’abîme, vers
lequel je me voyais précipitée…
Mais en même temps ; je sentais que je ne pouvais pas lutter…
que je voulais l’impossible. Mon esprit se débattait dans le vide avec
sa coutumière force de résistance… A quoi se fût-il rattaché ? Mon
impression était plus forte que tout raisonnement. Et puis, c’était
horrible, ce dégoût de mon propre corps, qui m’envahissait, à l’idée
du mal vivant en moi comme un animal méchant, agrippé sur une
proie.
Un coup à ma porte m’a arrachée au cauchemar.
La voix de Céline a annoncé :
— M. de Meillane.
— C’est bien. J’y vais.
J’avais dit : « J’y vais. » Et je ne bougeais pas, cependant,
effrayée de le voir, lui, mon bien-aimé, à qui je ne veux dire rien.
Mon orgueil et mon amour se refusent à lui avouer ma
déchéance. En ce moment, je ne supporterais pas de l’en voir
instruit. Mes dernières semaines de bonheur avec lui, je les veux !
Après, quand il sera parti, je subirai toutes les horreurs que l’on
m’imposera… Mais il ne faut pas qu’il sache !
Je me suis levée, toute ma volonté tendue pour me dominer. J’ai
lissé mes cheveux, mis un peu de poudre sur ma figure
décomposée.
Et je suis entrée dans le petit salon où nous avons passé des
heures si douces…
— Viva chérie, je vous dérange, j’arrive trop tôt ! Mais je me suis
trouvé libre de meilleure heure que je ne pensais ; et j’avais
tellement besoin de vous voir que…
Il s’est interrompu. Tous mes efforts étaient vains pour lui cacher
l’altération de mon visage, pour sourire, pour lui apporter un regard
où il trouverait seulement mon amour…
Il a jeté une sourde exclamation et m’a attirée, mes deux mains
enveloppées dans les siennes :
— Viva, qu’y a-t-il ?… Que vous est-il arrivé ?
Oh ! la tendresse de cette voix inquiète après l’agonie de la
solitude !
Toute mon énergie s’est soudain brisée. Et, sans réfléchir, d’un
élan de petite fille, je me suis jetée sur sa poitrine et prise à
sangloter avec tout le désespoir qui, depuis une heure, s’amassait
en moi.
Lui, presque impératif d’abord, répétait :
— Viva, mon amour, qu’avez-vous ?… dites-moi !… je vous en
supplie…
Puis, sans doute, il a senti que ce qu’il me fallait dans cette
tempête de douleur, ce n’était pas des questions, mais de la
tendresse… Sans un mot, il m’a emmenée vers le canapé, me
gardant contre lui, la tête sur son épaule. Et dans la détente de mes
nerfs, je suis restée ainsi, secouée de sanglots, contre le cœur qui
m’aimait, souffrait de ma souffrance, plus encore que moi-même ;
serrée contre lui, comme si ses bras eussent été le seul refuge que
je pouvais rencontrer ! Sur mes cheveux, je sentais le frôlement de
sa main apaisante, et sur mon visage la caresse très douce de son
regard, de ses lèvres. J’entendais sa voix me murmurer les mots
que personne ne m’a dits depuis des années…
J’étais si épuisée qu’une seconde, la tentation m’a effleurée de
lui livrer mon secret. C’est qu’il m’apparaissait si lourd à porter, ce
secret d’inquiétude ! Mais alors, c’en était fait de la joie de nos
derniers jours ! Et je me suis tue, puisque son amour ne peut rien…
rien, pour moi…
J’ai murmuré seulement, les paupières closes, pour être sûre
qu’il n’y lirait pas :
— Jacques, j’ai reçu tantôt une très pénible révélation que je dois
être seule à connaître… en ce moment…
— Au sujet de votre mari ?
Les mots sûrement lui avaient échappé, avant que sa volonté les
eût arrêtés.
— Non, pas au sujet de mon mari. Plus tard, vous saurez, mon
ami, mon ami unique… Aujourd’hui, laissez-moi pleurer un instant…
Ensuite, vous m’aiderez à oublier jusqu’au jour où je pourrai vous
dire ce qui m’a… bouleversée. Vous ne m’en voulez pas, n’est-ce
pas, de mon silence ?… Oh ! Jacques, ne soyez pas fâché contre
moi !
— Être fâché contre vous ! mon pauvre amour. Quelle folle idée !
ma précieuse petite chérie… Vous parlerez quand vous voudrez,
quand vous jugerez devoir le faire… Calmez-vous, mon aimée…
Oui, je me calmais. Le sceau s’appuyait sur ma bouche. Je me
suis redressée. J’ai glissé les doigts dans mes cheveux tout froissés,
et tamponné mon mouchoir sur mes yeux brûlants. J’ai dit, avec une
ombre de sourire :
— Jacques, ne me regardez pas, je dois être affreuse !…
A tout prix, maintenant, je veux qu’il ne me voie plus que jolie,
afin de lui laisser un bon souvenir…
Il a un peu souri, lui aussi, mais sans gaîté ; et je devinais la
question anxieuse qui palpitait en lui, à laquelle je m’interdisais de
répondre.
— Allons, cela va mieux, puisque la coquetterie reparaît !
Devant la glace, je promenais la houpette de ma boîte de poudre
sur mes joues meurtries par les larmes.
— Viva chérie, voulez-vous que j’envoie un télégramme pour me
décommander au dîner qui me privait d’être avec vous ce soir. Et je
vous emmènerai… comme hier. Tant pis pour les affaires ! Qu’est-ce
auprès de vous ? petite aimée.
Mais je n’ai pas consenti, autant pour lui que pour moi qui étais à
bout de force. Seulement, j’ai accepté qu’il reste jusqu’à la dernière
minute. Il a dû arriver tellement en retard que j’ai été saisie de
confusion quand j’ai vu l’heure, lui parti enfin ! — parce que, dans un
éclair de sagesse, je l’avais renvoyé…
Mais comme nous avions doucement causé ! Il faisait des projets
d’avenir que j’écoutais, bercée par ces promesses de bonheur
auxquelles je ne croyais plus. Et pourtant, sa chaude confiance
engourdissait un peu ma détresse. Par instant, je me rappelais,
comme un cauchemar dont j’étais réveillée, ma visite chez le
docteur… Je me disais que je m’étais affolée à tort ; que, plus calme,
j’allais le comprendre…
Nous avons combiné — comme deux amants… que nous ne
sommes pas… que nous ne serons pas ! — des moyens pour nous
voir, pendant ces quelques semaines que j’ai gardées « au péril de
ma santé », dirait le docteur, pour les lui donner.
Car demain, je pars à l’Hersandrie, chez père, où il sera
sûrement invité pour la chasse, mais ne pourra me faire que des
visites bien trop officielles, à notre gré. Alors, je reviendrai à Paris,
puisque heureusement Le Perray n’en est pas loin… Et aussi, nous
aurons la forêt pour nous retrouver, bien seuls, quand il n’ira pas
jusqu’à l’Hersandrie, afin d’éviter les commentaires…
Mon aimé, comment, sans vous, vais-je supporter l’existence,
avec la pensée qui me dévore, de l’avenir menaçant… Oh ! que j’ai
peur de la nuit qui vient ! A combien de choses cruelles je vais
songer !
5 septembre.
Père m’attendait à la descente du train. Quand j’ai sauté du

wagon, les deux mains dans les siennes qu’il me tendait, il s’est
exclamé :
— Viva, ma chérie, c’est de Suisse que tu rapportes cette pauvre
mine ?…
J’ai vite prétexté, comme s’il pouvait deviner la vérité :
— C’est que j’ai mal dormi cette nuit… Aussi, je ne suis pas
remise de mon autre nuit, en chemin de fer, pour revenir de
Suisse… Et puis, hier, à Paris, ma journée a été très occupée.
Père n’insiste pas. Mais ses yeux vifs scrutent encore une fois
mon visage qui garde, malgré mes soins, l’empreinte de la rude
secousse d’hier. Et dans son regard, il y a la tendresse qu’à son
enfant seule, il donne ainsi.
— Bon, bon, madame. Tout cela est très juste. Mais maintenant,
il faut vous reposer à l’Hersandrie chez votre vieux papa qui est ravi
de vous retrouver, petite.
Et c’est vrai cela. Il a l’air si content que j’en éprouve une joie
douloureuse ; car l’idée brûle mon cerveau du coup qui, un jour ou
l’autre, le frappera, quand il apprendra…
Pas encore maintenant ! Lui aussi aura son dernier mois de
sécurité. Et dans un élan, je glisse mon bras sous le sien ; tandis
que, dans la gare du Perray, nous attendons que mes bagages
soient installés dans l’auto. Brusquement, il demande, et sa main
tape, de petits coups caressants, ma main restée sur son bras :
— As-tu des nouvelles de ton mari ? Quand revient-il ?
Mon mari !… C’est vrai, j’ai un mari…
— J’ai trouvé une lettre de lui, à Paris, en arrivant. Son bras est à
peu près remis… Il va de succès en succès… et paraît avoir
l’intention de rentrer en France vers le 15 septembre.
— Tu seras encore ici… Et j’imagine qu’il n’y viendra pas.
Que de sous-entendus dans la voix de père ; et que de
résolutions dans mon cerveau, qui s’affirment, inflexibles…
— Non, sans doute, il ne viendra pas. Moins nous sommes
ensemble, plus cela est agréable.
Simple remarque indifférente. Maintenant, une autre Viva existe
que celle qui a si follement gaspillé, jadis, les richesses de son jeune
amour…
Père ne répond pas. Nous montons dans l’auto qui s’ébranle et
nous emporte d’une allure folle.
En éclair, nous traversons la plaine du Perray. Et puis, c’est la
forêt, la forêt de mon enfance, ma forêt, que l’automne poudre d’or
roux. C’est une senteur de verdure, humide un peu. C’est le parfum
sauvage des pins dont la lueur du couchant rougit les fûts violets.
Oh ! qu’il fait bon ! qu’il fait bon !… Que je voudrais que lui, mon ami,
fût là, près de moi !… Après-demain seulement, je le verrai.
Mon Dieu, est-ce que je ne puis plus me passer de lui ?… Et,
dans moins d’un mois, il sera parti ! Ah ! je perds toutes les minutes
où nous sommes séparés ! Le quitter dans quelques semaines ! Et
peut-être avec un adieu sans revoir… M’en aller dans le grand
inconnu seule comme j’ai vécu… Oh ! Jacques, Jacques, mon bien-
aimé, défends-moi, ne me laisse pas partir !…
J’ai sans doute, trahi par un mouvement cette révolte éperdue
qui, soudain, a bondi en moi ; car père qui devait m’observer, surpris
de mon silence, m’enveloppe d’un coup d’œil attentif.
— Tu as froid ?
— Oh ! non, père. Je trouve délicieuse cette course à travers la
forêt.
La brise qui fouette mes joues a dû y ramener une onde rose car
un sourire éclaire les yeux de père… Et nous nous reprenons à
causer. Il m’indique les hôtes conviés pour l’ouverture de la chasse,
dimanche. Marinette, son mari et les poussins ; plusieurs ménages
qu’il a choisis parmi ceux qu’il me sait agréable de rencontrer ; puis
le clan des chasseurs, au nombre desquels Voulemont, Rouvray et
Meillane (!). Pour mon ami, il éprouve une évidente sympathie.
Quelques mots rapides, dont je connais la valeur chez lui, m’en
instruisent ; et j’en éprouve une ardente douceur. Ah ! en lui, je
trouverai un allié, s’il le faut… S’il m’est permis de goûter au fruit
merveilleux du bonheur qui m’est tout à coup apparu…
6 septembre.
La maison de mon enfance ! Avec quelle ivresse poignante je l’ai

retrouvée !… Aujourd’hui, j’y suis seule. Père est allé à Paris. Il
devait rentrer à la fin de l’après-midi. Mais une dépêche est arrivée,
m’annonçant qu’il était retenu et ne reviendrait que demain, dans la
matinée. Le soir, apparaîtront pour dîner tous les invités.
Faut-il que l’épreuve de mercredi m’ait bouleversée ! J’en suis,
en ce moment, à désirer la venue de ces visiteurs qui m’aideront à
fuir la hantise de l’avenir dont je n’arrive pas à me délivrer.
Aujourd’hui, pourtant, je ne suis pas trop mal parvenue à ne pas
penser, grâce à de prosaïques occupations de maîtresse de maison.
Car dès que je suis à l’Hersandrie, père se décharge sur moi de tous
les soins d’organisation. Je me suis donc appliquée à être la parfaite
ménagère qui prépare l’installation de ses hôtes. Ah ! il y a une
chambre surtout que j’ai soignée ! où demain, moi-même, je porterai
les fleurs…
Ce matin, pour m’aider à être vaillante, est venue la chère lettre
quotidienne. J’ai eu l’enfantillage de la glisser dans mon corsage
même, pour qu’elle frôle l’endroit maudit, dans ma poitrine. Et je l’ai
lue et relue pendant la course que j’ai voulu faire à travers les belles
allées de la forêt où l’herbe pousse drue entre les bruyères
pourprées. Là, j’ai retrouvé des lambeaux de ma vie, accrochés aux
fougères roussies par l’été, errant dans la senteur des sapins, de la
mousse fraîche, dans les lointains pâles sur lesquels, tant de fois,
mes yeux se sont posés.
Même jour, 10 heures du soir.
Quand j’ai eu bien trotté tout l’après-midi, d’un bout à l’autre de

notre vaste demeure, je me suis aperçue que j’étais très lasse.
Alors, je me suis laissée tomber sur une chaise basse, devant ma
fenêtre grande ouverte, aspirant, avide, l’odeur de la forêt que le
vent m’apportait.
C’est ainsi que m’a découverte, en venant chercher un ordre,
notre vieille Françoise, la fidèle femme de chambre de père, qui m’a
vue toute petite, me traite comme si j’étais son nourrisson, me
morigène et m’adore à sa manière, un peu bougonne.
Elle m’a trouvée oisive, les yeux agrandis par un cerne, et s’est
exclamée :
— Madame Viva, vous vous êtes trop fatiguée ! Monsieur ne
serait pas content…
— Je me repose maintenant, Françoise.
— Il est bien temps, ma chère fille. Vous avez une figure
pâlotte… Ah ! comme vous ressemblez à votre maman, ainsi… Vous
ne vous la rappelez pas, la pauvre madame.
— Oh ! si, Françoise, très bien.
Ma voix est lente. Mes yeux errent sur l’horizon velouté de la
forêt que dore le couchant. Oh ! oui, j’ai toujours, vivant en mon
souvenir, le mince visage couleur d’ivoire, les grands yeux
mélancoliques… Et je demande, obéissant à un obscur instinct :
— Françoise, quelle était donc la maladie qui a emporté maman ?
J’étais très jeune alors… On ne me l’a pas dit…
C’est vrai pourtant, jamais je n’ai su… Jamais je n’avais pensé à
m’informer.
— Sa maladie ? Ma chère fille, je ne pourrais pas vous en dire le
nom. Elle avait toujours été délicate depuis votre naissance. Les
médecins racontaient qu’elle avait un mal intérieur. Ils ont voulu lui
faire une opération et elle y est restée, la pauvre madame !
Françoise s’arrête un peu. Tout en parlant, elle range le plateau
du thé, pour l’emporter.
— C’est vrai qu’aussi, le mal était peut-être dans la famille… On
disait, comme ça, que sa sœur plus jeune avait eu la même
maladie… Mais je ne sais pas… Je n’étais pas encore au service de
Madame dans ce temps-là.
Et Françoise s’interrompt parce qu’elle entend le valet de
chambre qui a besoin de ses ordres.
Je la laisse sortir et je demeure immobile devant la fenêtre
ouverte ; mes yeux qui ne voient pas errent sur le lointain bleu de la
forêt dont la ligne ondule à l’horizon. Je cherche dans mes
souvenirs… Je fouille dans le passé avec un regard qui interroge un
abîme.
Ah ! cette phrase : « Le mal est dans la famille… sa plus jeune
sœur aussi a eu la même maladie… » Voici que, tout à coup, elle
ressuscite en ma mémoire un vieux, vieux souvenir, bien oublié… Je
suis une très petite fille à qui l’on ne prend pas garde ; j’ai l’air
absorbé par une poupée que je berce… et j’écoute ma jeune tante
dire à maman d’une voix basse qui sanglote :
— J’ai arraché la vérité au docteur, je suis perdue. L’opération me
prolongera mais ne me sauvera pas…
Mon Dieu, pourquoi est-ce que je me souviens de cela ?… Ah ! je
ne veux plus penser, ni chercher, ni craindre… Je veux seulement
sentir que je suis encore vivante… Que mon visage, mes yeux, mes
lèvres peuvent encore appeler l’amour… Que mon corps est encore
désirable, en dépit de la morsure du mal… Que mon cœur si
longtemps glacé a retrouvé la flamme et veut aimer jusqu’à s’y
consumer…
Ah ! demain, quand lui sera ici, j’arriverai bien à oublier.
7 septembre.
Marinette est arrivée ce matin, avec les petits et Agnès,

devançant son mari qui ne viendra que ce soir, avec le gros des
invités.
Plus que jamais, elle avait un éclat de rayon de soleil. Elle était si
rieuse, si fraîche, si incroyablement jeune, qu’elle semblait la sœur
aînée de ses poussins.
Après le déjeuner, tandis que père s’affairait avec ses gardes-
chasses elle est apparue sous les arbres, où ma lassitude se
reposait, les deux petits trottant à sa suite, toute mince en robe et
souliers blancs, portant avec soin deux cages, une minuscule et une
très grande, qu’elle a posées sur la table près de moi, reculant mes
livres d’un geste preste.
J’ai demandé, intriguée :
— Qu’est-ce que tu vas faire avec ces cages. Il me semble que
ce matin, déjà, en descendant de voiture, tu avais cette petite cage
en main, toi, la chic Marinette !
Elle a eu son rire de fillette.
— Cette maison abrite un ménage de Capucins que j’ai acheté
hier, en traversant Paris. Ils m’ont tentée au passage ! Seulement
ces amours étaient si à l’étroit dans leur cage que, ce matin, à Saint-
Léger, je leur ai acheté une plus vaste demeure. Maintenant, il faut
que je les y installe. Guy, donne-moi le grain.
Il lui tend le sac, très intéressé. Hélène, aussi, regarde sage dans
la crainte d’être renvoyée à Agnès, ses menottes dans les poches
de son tablier, sa petite bouche ouverte par l’attention.
Et Marinette s’agite avec des exclamations diverses, plaisir,
agacement, inquiétude, devant le vol effaré des oiseaux que sa main
affole.
Enfin l’installation est accomplie. Les enfants ont été renvoyés
près d’Agnès.
Pour la première fois, depuis l’arrivée de Marinette, nous
sommes seules… Et, tout à coup, je me souviens de ses retours
d’autrefois, au temps où elle était, pour moi, une enfant caressante,
dont la chaude tendresse me donnait l’illusion d’être une mère…
Aujourd’hui, elle ne devine certes rien de ma soif stupide de recevoir
d’elle l’affection qui bercerait ma détresse qu’elle ne pressent guère.
Ce matin, avec son baiser d’arrivée, elle s’est exclamée :
— Comment vas-tu, chérie, un peu fatiguée ? Tu n’as pas si
bonne mine qu’à Saint-Moritz !
Mais elle n’a d’ailleurs pas attendu ma réponse quelconque, car
elle surveillait la descente de sa caisse à chapeaux. Maintenant, très
attentive, elle contemple ses oiseaux et leur prodigue des
appellations câlines. Ils l’absorbent bien plus que sa grande sœur !…
Je demande :
— Et ton amie ?… Que devient-elle ?… As-tu été contente de
votre séjour à Lugano ?
— Oh ! oui… oh ! oui… Du moins, en général !
Instantanément, Marinette se détourne de ses oiseaux et vient se
camper sur un pliant bas, près de moi. Elle appuie ses mains
croisées sur mes genoux ; et, fidèle à sa douce confiance, entame
les récits que j’écoute avec une complaisance de mère, amusée et
indulgente. A travers le même prisme, elle contemple l’idole qui
apporte, à se laisser adorer, une grâce condescendante un brin,
provoquant chez sa bénévole petite admiratrice des alternatives
d’allégresse ou de déception ; selon que, très absorbée par sa vie
mondaine, elle répond plus ou moins, au culte qui lui est voué, qui la
charme mais ne doit point entraver sa liberté d’action. Tout de
même, elle sera déçue le jour où Marinette blasée cessera de
voleter autour d’elle.
Je persiste à croire que, pour le bien de Paul, il est à souhaiter
que notre oiselet continue à chanter pour Mme Valprince… Ce qui ne
nuit en rien à son plaisir d’opérer des ravages dans le monde
masculin. Tout est dans l’ordre…
7 septembre, 1 heure du matin.
Je le savais bien !… Sa présence a accompli le miracle. J’ai pu

être gaie ! Même, je l’ai été sincèrement ! Il y a eu des instants,
assez nombreux, où j’oubliais… Tous autour de moi, étaient de si
joyeuse humeur, dans l’atmosphère accueillante du vaste hall
somptueusement éclairé et fleuri, que leur entrain soulevait mon
fardeau. Une griserie bienfaisante m’envahissait, en retrouvant les
vives conversations coutumières ; les paradoxes de Voulemont ; les
emballements de Rouvray ; l’humour à froid de Francis Alcott et
l’humour à chaud, très à chaud, de sa femme ; l’ironie spirituelle et
sceptique, vite mordante, de père qui, dans son personnage d’hôte,
avait tout à fait une allure de fermier général du temps jadis.
En mon cœur, c’était un délice de voir, à toute minute, le cher
visage dont les yeux ne me quittaient guère !
Avec quel soin, pour lui, je m’étais appliquée à ressusciter la Viva
des meilleurs jours, — visage et toilette… — Et vraiment, j’avais dû
réussir, si j’en crois le coup d’œil de père, sévère connaisseur,
certaine exclamation de Marinette, jolie à souhait, les sourires de
mes amies, les regards des hommes…
Lui m’a murmuré, dans une brève seconde d’aparté, avec un
sourire qui m’a jeté au cœur une bouffée de joie :
— Mon amour, c’est exquis… et terrible… de vous voir si jolie…
Et d’être contraint de demeurer un monsieur correct !
Taquine, comme aux jours joyeux, j’ai riposté :
— Heureusement !…
Et puis, Voulemont se rapprochant, nous avons parlé de Saint-
Moritz.
Au commencement, cela me semblait presque comique de
l’entendre m’appeler solennellement « madame ». Mais, peu à peu,
je sentais un énervement monter en moi, de jouir si peu et si mal de
sa présence, lui, à un bout du hall, mot occupée de tous les hôtes de
père.
Ce que nous étions corrects ! J’en suis encore dans l’admiration !
Toujours l’influence du miracle, j’ai chanté comme tous me le
demandaient. Mais j’ai chanté pour lui seul. J’ai pu le lui dire quand il
s’est rapproché, sous prétexte de m’aider à chercher une partition.
Alors il a pris sa place favorite, debout près du piano, appuyé au
mur, devant moi… Et j’ai chanté tout ce qu’il préfère. Ma voix, par
bonheur, est faite d’un métal si solide que même les émotions de
ces derniers jours ne l’ont pas sensiblement altérée. Et puis, c’était
surtout avec mon âme que je chantais, avec tout ce qu’elle enferme
à cette heure, de passion, d’inquiétude, de douleur, de regrets fous.
Il le sentait bien, ses yeux rivés sur moi, aussi pâle que je devais
l’être moi-même.
Quand je me suis tue, épuisée, Marinette s’est jetée à mon cou :
— Viva, que tu as donc bien chanté ! Tu ne te doutes pas à quel
point tu viens d’être « Nuit d’amour » !
Ah ! si, je m’en doute…
Jacques avait entendu. Il s’est penché un peu et m’a murmuré :
— Merci, Mienne adorée.
Cette chasse est odieuse, qui, demain, va l’emmener toute la
journée. Et impossible de s’y dérober !
8 septembre.
Tandis que les chasseurs arpentaient la forêt depuis l’aube, les

voitures ont transporté le clan féminin — qui en était désireux… — à
Saint-Léger, le village le plus voisin de l’Hersandrie, pour la messe
dominicale.
Soumise au devoir d’exemple dont j’ai souci, à l’égard des
enfants et des simples, — j’appelle ainsi le petit peuple qui vit autour
de moi, en ce pays, — je suis du nombre des fidèles. Et vrai ! j’y ai
un brin de mérite, car ce m’est un supplice d’entendre l’office clamé
par les braves chantres du cru. Plus facilement encore, je supportais
les sermons ou lectures du vieux curé. Il est mort au printemps et je
ne connais pas son successeur. Pour la première fois, je l’aperçois.
Un homme d’une quarantaine d’années ; une figure d’ascète, des
yeux limpides dans un maigre visage de paysan, dont les lignes
sévères se sont adoucies quand il a commencé à parler, l’obligation
du prône lui faisant quitter l’autel pour la chaire.
Je suppose que, depuis quelques dimanches, il paraphrase le
Pater, car, aujourd’hui, il en prend pour texte une parole qui semble
amenée par de précédentes instructions : Que votre volonté soit
faite.
Et, appuyé sur ce texte, il prétend nous amener à reconnaître
qu’à tous, des sacrifices étant demandés, un jour ou l’autre, seul, un
généreux fiat peut nous en adoucir l’amertume ou la souffrance…
Ah ! que ces choses semblent adressées à la désespérée que je
suis ! Aussi, j’écoute sans que mon esprit ait tentation d’aller
vagabonder au loin. Ce prêtre de campagne n’est pas un orateur, la
voix est sourde, l’expression un peu gauche. Mais quelle sincérité,
quelle conviction, quelle sérénité compatissante dans l’accent !

Electromagnetic Shielding Salvatore Celozzi Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electromagnetic Shielding Salvatore Celozzi Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electromagnetic Shielding Salvatore

Neuroradiology Imaging Case Review Salvatore V Labruzzo

Electromagnetic radiation Richard Freeman

Integral Equations for Real-Life Multiscale

Towards a Unified Italy 1st ed. Edition Salvatore

The Many and the One: A Philosophical Study of Plural

Multifrequency Electromagnetic Data Interpretation for

Electromagnetic Technologies in Food Science Vicente M.

Electromagnetic Metasurfaces: Theory and Applications

Theory and Applications

About the Authors ix

1 Electromagnetics Behind Shielding 1

2.5.1 Structural Materials 45

3 Figures of Merit for Shielding Conﬁgurations 61

4 Shielding Effectiveness: Plane Waves 73

5 Shielding Effectiveness: Near-Field Sources 109

5.3 LF Magnetic Shielding of Metal Plates: Perpendicular Loop 130

6 Transient Shielding 141

7 Numerical Methods for Shielding Analyses 169

8 Apertures in Planar Metal Screens 257

10 Cable Shielding 339

11 Components and Installation Guidelines 351

12 Frequency Selective Surfaces 363

13 Shielding Design Guidelines 409

14 Uncommon Ways of Shielding 417

Appendix A Electrostatic Shielding 439

Appendix B Magnetic Shielding 459

Appendix C Statistical Electromagnetics for Shielding Enclosures 483

Appendix D Standards and Measurement Methods for Shielding

About the Authors

Shielding (Wiley, 2008). He serves as a reviewer for several international journals.

reviewer for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION. He is currently

Rome Salvatore Celozzi

Electromagnetics Behind Shielding

Shielding an electromagnetic field is a complex and sometimes formidable task.

To establish a common ground, we will begin with some useful definitions. An

[A] housing, screen, or other object, usually conducting, that substantially

This definition is restrictive because it implicitly assumes the presence of a

includes the word “substantially” whose meaning is obscure and introduces an

[A] means of preventing two circuits from electromagnetic coupling by

The most appropriate definition entails a broad view of the phenomenon:

[A]ny means used for the reduction of the electromagnetic field in a

1.2 Notation, Symbology, and Acronyms

1.3 Macroscopic Electromagnetism and Maxwell’s

∇ ⋅ d (r, t) = 𝜌e (r, t) + 𝜌ei (r, t) , (1.4c)

∇ ⋅ b (r, t) = 𝜌mi (r, t) . (1.4d)

The impressed-source concept is well known in circuit theory. For example,

1.4 Constitutive Relations

By direct inspection of Maxwell’s curl equations in (1.1), it is immediately clear

only on e. These dependences are expressed as constitutive relations, with the e

free-space quantities through the dimensionless relative permeability 𝜇r and

a convolution integral. Hence, in the frequency domain the constitutive relation

1.5 Discontinuities and Singularities

1.6 Initial Conditions, Boundary Conditions,

1.7 Poynting’s Theorem and Energy Considerations

a region V bounded by a surface S with unit normal vector un oriented towards

Given a region V bounded by a surface S, from the time-harmonic Maxwell

1.8 Fundamental Theorems

1.8.1 Uniqueness Theorem

1.8.2 Reciprocity Theorem

By integrating (1.41) over a finite volume V bounded by a closed surface S, we

1.8.3 Equivalence Principle

H𝜏 = 𝟎, E𝜏 = −MS × un (which are those characterizing the boundary of a PMC