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Electron Scattering For Nuclear and Nucleon Structure John Dirk Walecka Full Chapter PDF
Electron Scattering For Nuclear and Nucleon Structure John Dirk Walecka Full Chapter PDF
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Electron Scattering for Nuclear and Nucleon Structure
The scattering of high-energy electrons from nuclear and nucleon targets provides a mi-
croscope for examining the structure of these tiny objects. The best evidence we have on
what nuclei and nucleons actually look like comes from electron scattering. This book
examines the motivation for electron scattering and develops the theoretical analysis of
the process. It discusses our current theoretical understanding of the underlying structure
of nuclei and nucleons at appropriate levels of resolution and sophsitication, and summa-
rizes present experimental electron scattering capabilities. Only a working knowledge of
quantum mechanics and special relativity is assumed, making this a suitable textbook for
graduate and advanced undergraduate courses. It will also provide a valuable summary
and reference for researchers already working in electron scattering and other areas of
nuclear and particle physics.
T h is title, fi rst p u b lish ed in 2 0 0 2 , h as b een reissu ed as an O p en A ccess
p u b licatio n o n C am b rid g e C o re.
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C AMB RI D G E MO N OG RAPH S ON
P ART I C L E PH YS I CS,
N U C L E AR P H YSI C S AND C OS M OLOGY
16
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ELECTRON SCATTERING FOR
NUCLEAR AND NUCLEON
STRUCTURE
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Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 8EA, United Kingdom
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www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781009290579
DOI: 10.1017/9781009290616
© John Dirk Walecka 2022
This work is in copyright. It is subject to statutory exceptions and to the provisions
of relevant licensing agreements; with the exception of the Creative Commons version the
link for which is provided below, no reproduction of any part of this work may take
place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
An online version of this work is published at doi.org/10.1017/9781009290616 under a
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distribution and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial purposes providing
appropriate credit to the original work is given. You may not distribute derivative works
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All versions of this work may contain content reproduced under license from third parties.
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When citing this work, please include a reference to the DOI 10.1017/9781009290616
First published 2002
Reissued as OA 2022
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-009-29057-9 Hardback
ISBN 978-1-009-29059-3 Paperback
Cambridge University Press & Assessment has no responsibility for the persistence
or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this
publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
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Contents
Preface ix
Part 1: Introduction 1
1 Motivation 3
2 Pictures of the nucleus 6
3 Some optics 9
4 Why electron scattering? 14
5 Target response surfaces 19
6 Why coincidence experiments? 23
7 Units and conventions 26
vii
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viii Contents
Appendixes 288
Appendix A: Long-wavelength reduction 288
Appendix B: Center of mass (C-M) motion 294
Appendix C: Weizsäcker–Williams approximation 300
Appendix D: Polarization and spin-1/2 fermions 304
Appendix E: Symmetry properties of matrix elements 308
Appendix F: Angular correlations 312
Appendix G: Relativistic quasielastic scattering 317
Appendix H: Pion electroproduction 322
Appendix I: Light-cone variables 331
References 337
Index 352
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Preface
ix
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x Preface
local, static and dynamic charge and current densities. The scattering
cross section is determined by the four-dimensional Fourier transform of
these quantities. For a given energy transfer to the target, one can vary
the three-momentum transfer by varying the momentum vector of the
final electron. One then maps out the Fourier transform of the spatial
densities, and by inversion of the Fourier transform, one determines the
spatial distribution of the densities themselves. The wavelength with which
the target is examined is inversely proportional to the three-momentum
transfer. In electromagnetic studies in nuclear physics one focuses on how
matter is put together from its constituents and on distance scales ∼ 10 fm
to ∼ 0.1 fm where 1fm = 10−13 cm. Particle physics concentrates on finer
and finer details of the substructure of matter with experiments at high
energy which in turn explore much shorter distances. To carry out such
studies, one needs electron accelerators of hundreds of MeV to many GeV.
A theoretical description of the nuclear and nucleon targets is required
to interpret the experiments. The appropriate description employed de-
pends on the distance scale at which one examines the target. Imagine
that one looks at the earth from space. The appropriate quantities used
to describe these observations, the appropriate degrees of freedom, are
macroscopic ones, the location and shape of continents, oceans, clouds,
etc. When one gets closer, finer details emerge, trees, houses, cars, people,
and these must be included in the description. At the microscopic level of
observations, it is the atomic and subatomic description which is relevant.
It is thus self-evident that
The appropriate set of degrees of freedom depends on the
distance scale at which we probe the system.
At the macroscopic level, one describes nuclei in terms of properties
such as size, shape, charge, and binding energy. Further refinement de-
scribes, for example, the spatial distribution of the charge. A finer and
more detailed description is obtained using nucleons, protons and neu-
trons, as the degrees of freedom. The traditional approach to nuclear
physics starts from structureless nucleons interacting through static two-
body potentials fitted to two-body scattering and bound-state data. These
two-body potentials are then inserted in the non-relativistic many-body
Schrödinger equation and that equation is solved in some approximation
— it can be solved exactly for few-body systems using modern computing
techniques. Electromagnetic and weak currents are then constructed from
the properties of free nucleons and used to probe the structure of the
nuclear system.
Although this traditional approach to nuclear physics has had a great
many successes, it is clearly inadequate for an understanding of the nu-
clear system on a more microscopic level. A more appropriate set of
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Preface xi
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xii Preface
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Preface xiii
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Part 1
Introduction
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1
Motivation
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4 Part 1 Introduction
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1 Motivation 5
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2
Pictures of the nucleus
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2 Pictures of the nucleus 7
More generally, one can view such field theories as effective field theories
for the underlying theory of QCD [Se86, Se97].
(III) Strongly-Coupled Colored Quarks and Gluons. Our deepest level of
understanding of nucleons, and the nucleus from which they are made, is
as a strongly-coupled system of quarks and gluons (Fig. 2.1). Their inter-
actions are described by a Yang–Mills theory [Ya54] based on an internal
color symmetry (QCD). This theory has two remarkable properties: it is
asymptotically free, which means that at very high momenta, or very short
distances, the renormalized coupling constant becomes small. This has
several consequences. For example, it implies that when in the appropriate
kinematic regime, one scatters from essentially free point-like objects. In
fact, it was the experimental observation of this phenomenon in deep
inelastic scattering (DIS) that drove theorists to hunt for asymptotically
free theories [Gr73a, Gr73b, Po73, Po74]. Furthermore, when the coupling
is small, one can do perturbation theory. The many high-energy successes
of perturbative QCD now provide convincing evidence that QCD is truly
the underlying theory of the strong interactions.
When one scatters a lepton from a nuclear system, the electroweak
interaction takes place through the exchange of one of the electroweak
bosons (γ, W ± , Z 0 ), as illustrated in Fig. 2.1. These bosons couple directly
to the quarks; the gluons are absolutely neutral to the electroweak interac-
tions. Thus every time one observes a gamma decay or beta decay of a
nucleus or nucleon, one is directly observing the quark structure of these
systems!
The second remarkable property of QCD is confinement, which means
that the underlying degrees of freedom, quarks and gluons, never appear as
asymptotic, free scattering states in the laboratory. You cannot hold a free
quark or gluon in your hand. Quarks and gluons, and their strong color
interactions, are confined to the interior of the hadrons. At low momenta,
or the large distances appropriate for nuclear physics, the renormalized
coupling grows large. QCD becomes a strong-coupling theory in this limit.
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8 Part 1 Introduction
There are convincing indications from lattice gauge theory (LGT), where
strong-coupling QCD is solved on a finite space-time lattice [Wi74], that
confinement is indeed a dynamical property of QCD arising from the
nonlinear gluon couplings dictated by local color gauge invariance in this
non-abelian Yang–Mills theory.
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3
Some optics
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10 Part 1 Introduction
Fig. 3.1. Optical pathlength with respect to central ray in Fraunhofer diffraction.
where k̂1 and k̂2 are unit vectors in the incident and outgoing directions
respectively. Here the momentum transfer κ is defined by (Fig. 3.2)
κ = k1 − k2 (3.5)
Since the lengths of the incoming and outgoing wave numbers are identical
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3 Some optics 11
Fig. 3.3. (a) Fraunhofer diffraction of light from a circular aperture; and (b)
Electron scattering through the Coulomb interaction from a spherical charge
distribution.
κ2 = 2k12 (1 − cos θ)
θ
= 4k12 sin2 (3.6)
2
Here θ is the angle between the incident and outgoing wave number
vectors (Fig. 3.2). Huygens Principle says that each point on a wavefront
serves as a new source of outgoing waves. The outgoing waves interfere.
To determine the net outgoing wave from a circular aperture one must
add the contributions from each little element of the disc weighted by
exp{iΔopt } as illustrated in Fig. 3.3 (a). The resulting amplitude of the light
wave far from the scatterer is thus given by
Aγ = d2 x eiκ·x (3.7)
Aperture
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12 Part 1 Introduction
amplitude of the electron wave far from the target is thus given in direct
analogy with the above by (see Fig. 3.3 b)
Ael = d3 x ρch (x) eiκ·x (3.9)
Nucleus
1
Recall h̄c = 197.3 MeV fm. Here c is the speed of light.
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3 Some optics 13
Here Jn (α) and jn (α) are cylindrical and spherical Bessel functions re-
spectively. The quantities in square brackets in the above expressions are
known as form factors. It is instructive to make some log plots of the
square of these quantities on your PC. The first zero of J1 (α) occurs at
α1,1 = 1.22 π; this is the origin of Eq. (3.3).
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4
Why electron scattering?
1
We quantize with periodic boundary conditions in a big box of volume Ω and in the
end let Ω → ∞.
14
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4 Why electron scattering? 15
Fig. 4.1. Kinematics for electron scattering (e, e ) with one photon exchange.
101 40Ca
100
10–1
10–2
10–3
10–4
Ma 10–5
Sr
10–6
10–7
10–8
10–9
10–10
10–11
0 1 2 3 4
q (fm–1)
40
Fig. 4.2. Cross section for elastic electron scattering Ca(e, e) vs. momentum
transfer (here q ≡ κ) [Fr79].
2
The situation is actually somewhat more complicated than this. As Z gets large, the
distortion of the incident and outgoing electron wave functions by the Coulomb field of
the nucleus must be taken into account, and one must perform a partial wave analysis
of Coulomb scattering from the nuclear charge distribution.
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16 Part 1 Introduction
Fig. 4.3. Charge distribution of 40 Ca obtained from Fig. 4.2 with estimate
of measurement error. Units are 1 fm = 10−13 cm. Heavy dashed curve shows
calculation in relativistic mean field theory (RMFT) in QHD (other curves show
similar results in traditional approach) [Ho81, Se86].
3
Neutrino scattering for example, which has similar virtues for the weak interaction, lacks
these properties.
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4 Why electron scattering? 17
both by the convection current of the moving protons and also by the
curl of the intrinsic magnetization, arising from the fact that nucleons are
themselves little magnets; electron scattering measures the full transition
matrix element of the target current
Jλ (x) = [Jc (x) + ∇ × μ(x), iρ(x)] (4.4)
In addition, with electron scattering one has the possibility of bringing
out high multipoles of the current at large values of κR.
The interference between γ and Z 0 exchange (Fig. 4.4), where Z 0 is the
heavy boson mediating the weak neutral current interaction, gives rise to
parity violation. One measure of parity violation is the asymmetry arising
from the difference in cross section of right- and left-handed electrons in
inclusive electron scattering (e, e )
dσ↑ − dσ↓
A ≡ (4.5)
dσ↑ + dσ↓
The S-matrix for the amplitude in Fig. 4.4 takes the form4
2
h̄ G
Sfi = Sfi(γ) − √ ūγμ (a + bγ5 )u eik·x f|Ĵ(0) 4
μ (x)|i d x
c 2Ω
(4.6)
where
(0)
f|Ĵ(0)
μ (x)|i = f|Ĵμ(0) (x) + Ĵμ5 (x)|i (4.7)
Here Ĵ(0)
μ (x) is the weak neutral current operator for the target and
G = 1.027 × 10−5 /m2p is Fermi’s weak coupling constant. Parity violation
arises from the interference of the first term in Eq. (4.6) with the two
contributions linear in the axial vector current in the second. If the first
term has been measured and is assumed known, then the parity-violation
asymmetry measures the second. Hence parity violation in (e, e ) doubles
the information content in electron scattering as it provides a means of
4
In the standard model of the electroweak interactions a = −(1 − 4 sin2 θW ) and b = −1
[Wa95].
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18 Part 1 Introduction
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5
Target response surfaces
19
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20 Part 1 Introduction
Fig. 5.1. Qualitative sketch of response surfaces W1,2 (ν, k 2 ) for nuclei and nucle-
ons. One axis is the square of the four-momentum transfer k 2 (denoted in this
figure by κ2 ), the other is 2Mν/k 2 = 1/x.
1
Electrons are light and radiate as they scatter; these radiative corrections must always
be unfolded from the data before one gets at the underlying nuclear physics. We go into
this in some detail in the section on QED.
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5 Target response surfaces 21
ν ≡ −k · p/M → ∞
k2 → ∞
x ≡ k 2 /2Mν ; fixed in DIS (5.5)
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22 Part 1 Introduction
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6
Why coincidence experiments?
There are many reasons why the ability to perform coincident electron
scattering measurements, provided by a “continuous wave” (c.w.) acceler-
ator greatly increases the power of electron scattering. Let us first review
some of the essentials.
The kinematics for the coincident electron scattering process (e, e X)
are defined in Fig. 6.1. Here the incident and scattered electron determine
a scattering plane and an orthonormal system of unit vectors ei with
e3 along κ ≡ k1 − k2 and e2 in-plane. Note that this frame is invariant
under a Lorentz transformation along κ to the C-M system of the target
and virtual photon. We use q to denote the momentum of the produced
particle X. The reaction plane is then defined by the two vectors (κ, q).
The orientation of q and the reaction plane are specified by polar and
azimuthal angles (θq , φq ) in the orthonormal system (Fig. 6.1). The angles
φq = π/2, 3π/2 produce an in-plane configuration.
The S-matrix for the process (e, e X) is given by
eep 1
Sfi = − ūγμ u 2 eik·x Ψp ; q (−) |Ĵμ (x)|Ψp d4 x (6.1)
h̄c Ω k
Fig. 6.1. Kinematics for basic coincident electron scattering process (e, e X).
23
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24 Part 1 Introduction
What one measures is again the Fourier transform of the transition matrix
element of the electromagnetic current density between exact Heisenberg
states of the target. The final state now consists asymptotically of a
target state |Ψp and an emitted particle X with four-momentum q; it is
constructed with incoming wave boundary conditions.
What can one learn about the structure of nuclei and nucleons from
such experiments? First, if the reaction (e, e X) proceeds through an
intermediate state of the target with given J π (Fig. 6.2), then that J π
characterizes the angular distribution of X. The virtual photon orients
the target along κ. Angular correlation measurements of the emitted
particle with respect to the virtual photon determine the contributing
multipolarities. Furthermore, all values of J π at any ω can again be
accessed by increasing (κR).
Moreover, in contrast to inclusive scattering (e, e ) where the cross
section is given by the sums of squares of the transition multipoles (see
part 2), (e, e X) involves interference between amplitudes. One then has the
ability to determine small, but important, amplitudes through interference
effects.
Consider the basic nuclear coincidence process (e, e N) where N is a
single nucleon, as illustrated in Fig. 6.3. This process creates a hole in the
final nucleus [Ja66, Ja73]. Let the initial nucleon binding energy be εb
and wave function be φb (x). Consider for illustration only the Coulomb
interaction and assume the final nucleon can be described by a plane
wave: exp {iq · x}. A measurement of all energies in (e, e N) determines
the binding energy of the final hole state εb . A measurement of all momenta
measures the Fourier transform of the hole-state wave function φ̃b (κ − q);
by basic quantum mechanics, this is the amplitude of the momentum
distribution in the state φb .
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6 Why coincidence experiments? 25
1
The reaction notation A(b, c d . . . )E used in this book is a very convenient one. The first
and last symbols denote the initial and final target states and the symbols in parenthesis
indicate the incident and final detected particles; in the generic case, the last and first
symbols may be suppressed. We denote elastic electron scattering by (e, e), inelastic
scattering by (e, e ), and coincidence reactions by (e, e X).
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7
Units and conventions
To define the units and conventions used in this book, and to set the
stage for the subsequent analysis, we conclude this introduction by writ-
ing Maxwell’s equations for the electromagnetic field in vacuum with
sources. With the use of Heaviside–Lorentz (rationalized c.g.s.) units these
equations are1
∇·E = ρ
∇·H = 0
1 ∂E
∇×H− = j
c ∂t
1 ∂H
∇×E+ = 0 (7.1)
c ∂t
Here ρ and j are the local charge and current density; the former is
measured in e.s.u. and the latter in e.m.u. where 1 e.m.u = 1 e.s.u./c. The
Lorentz force equation and fine structure constant are given respectively
by
v
×HF = e E+
c
e2 1
= α = (7.2)
4πh̄c 137.04
Introduce the antisymmetric electromagnetic field tensor
⎛ ⎞
0 H3 −H2 −iE1
⎜ −H3 0 H1 −iE2 ⎟
Fμν = ⎜
⎝ H2 −H1
⎟ (7.3)
0 −iE3 ⎠
iE1 iE2 iE3 0
1
In this case the magnetic field is H ≡ B.
26
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7 Units and conventions 27
xμ = (x, ict)
jμ = (j, iρ) (7.5)
H = ∇×A
1∂
E = −∇Φ − A (7.7)
c ∂t
While k and q are used interchangeably in the following for the four-
momentum transfer in inclusive electron scattering (e, e ), with a direction
defined in context,2 when the coincidence process (e, e X) is discussed, k
is reserved for the four-momentum transfer of the electron to the target
and q for the four-momentum of the produced particle X.
2
Unfortunately, this is common usage. The four-momentum transfer will be denoted
(κ, iω/c), with a direction again defined in context.
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Part 2
General analysis
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hogy leányát szereti Mátyás s nőül akarja venni, mindenbe
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le van győzve s a dráma véget ér.
A költő nem cselekvényre törekszik, csak helyzeteket keres, hogy
személyei kifejezzék érzelmeit s elszónokolják eszméit. A
cselekvény ez erőtlensége s a lyrai és szónoki elem e túltengése
később is, sokáig jellemvonása volt a magyar történelmi drámának s
még maig sem szabadult meg egészen tőle. De Szentjóbi némi
drámai érzékkel önti jelenetekbe nem elég drámai cselekvényét s
általában bizonyos mozgalmasságot és takarékosságot tanusit, a mi
Dugonicsnak épen nem sajátja. A jellemrajzba is fölülmulja őt. Sehol
sem találkozunk drámájában Dugonics lélektani ellenmodásaival,
erőltetett szenvedélyeivel s kirivó anachronismusaival. Azonban
Szentjóbi alakjai sem elevenek s korrajza sem jellemzetes. Mátyás
és a többi személyek is inkább csak abstractiók, bizonyos eszmék
jelképei. Mátyásban nincs semmi fiatalság, oly okos, erényes,
minővé még érett korában sem válik az ember. A többi magyar úr oly
hazafias, jó akaratú vagy könnyen megterő és kibékülő, a
milyeneknek óhajtotta Szentjóbi az 1792-ik országgyűlés alsó és
felső tábláját. Podiebráddal nem tud mit csinálni a szerző s utoljára
is inkább csak arra használja, hogy elérzékenyülve bámulja a
magyarok nagylelkűségét. Leánya már határozottabb alak, de igen is
érzik rajta Kotzebue naturalismusa. A cseh királykisasszony az
ártatlanság és természet gyermeke, a ki egész ártatlanul be-
besuhan Mátyás börtönébe s igen természetesnek találja a
szerelmet. Abban az időben bámulta e világ Kotzebue Gurliját, a ki
minden, neki megtetszett idegen férfi nyakába borul, megcsókolja, s
kinyilatkoztatja, hogy örömest hozzá megy nőül. Az akkori
színművek hemzsegtek az egész, fél és negyedrész Gurliktól.
Csoda-e, ha Szentjóbi sem kerülhette ki a ragályt?
Bár Mátyás király I. Ferencz koronázási ünnepélyére íratott, mely
1792 jun. 6-án volt végbemenendő, mindamellett azon évben nem
adatott elő. Endrődy Magyar játékszinében40) pontosan előszámlálja
az e hónapban előadott színműveket, de Mátyás király sehol sem
fordul elő, sőt e napon nem is volt olőadás, s a színház ablakai
bérbe adattak a koronázási menetet néző közönségnek. Csak 1793
jul. 3-án került először szinre,41) s azután többször, századunkban is
egész a negyvenes évekig tetszéssel adatott, különösen országos
és megyei ünnepélyek alkalmával s 1834-ben dalművé alakították át,
melynek zenéjét Heinisch József és Arnold György írták.42)
Szentjóbi nem soká élvezhette drámája sikerét; 1794-ben ugyan
biharmegyei aljegyző s gr. Teleki Sámuel titkára lett, de ugyanazon
év deczember közepén elfogatott és Budára hozatott, mint a
Martinovics féle titkos társaság tagja. Tulajdonkép nem volt
valóságos tagja a társaságnak, azonban Hajnóczy vallomásából
kiderült,43) hogy tudott létezéséről, ismerte kátéját, s bár utóbb
értésére adta Hajnóczynak, hogy nem akar benne részt venni, de
minthogy nem tett jelentést a hatóságnak, 1795 május 8-án a királyi
tábla mint felségsértőt halálra ítélte, mit másnap a hétszemélyes
tábla is helyben hagyott. Azonban a király ez itéletet fogságra
változtatta bizonytalan időig, «míg az őszinte búbánat és teljes
javulás jeleit adván, a körülmények tekintetbevételével más
intézkedés fog tétetni.»
Íme a dynastikus érzelmű drámairó, a ki I. Ferenczben egy ujabb
Mátyást remélt s tanácsosaiban az igazság és eszély
megtestesülését óhajtotta, börtönbe vettetett, mert egy demokratiai
elveket terjesztő kátét ismert s elmulasztotta azt följelenteni.
Kufsteinba vitetve, nem sokáig raboskodott, mert 1715 okt. 10-én
meghalt, élete huszonnyolczadik évében. Emlékét nem jelöli sirkő,
arczképe sem maradt, csak egy árnyképét őrizte meg Bacsányi,
melyet fekete papirból, úgy látszik maga vágott s költeményei közé
rejtett, s melyet ezelőtt tiz évvel a Vasárnapi Ujság44) közölt is.
Bacsányi Szentjóbi barátja és fogolytársa volt, ki Gyötrödés czimű
költeményében szívszaggatón énekli, hogy a szomszéd börtönből
áthallik haldokló barátja nyögése s nem mehet hozzá, hogy enyhítse
kínjait, halálát is megéneki Egy szerencsétlen ifjú sirjánál45) czimű
költeményében: