Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

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Measurement
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/measurement

Performance assessment of time-domain damage indicators based on

output-only measurement and Poincaré map: A comparative review on
nonlinear structures
Sayandip Ganguly, Koushik Roy ∗
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, IIT Patna, 801106, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In view of the growing trends to explore the nonlinear dynamic behavior of a damaged structure, time-domain
Time-domain exhibits numerical superiority over frequency domain. Hence, a qualitative comparison on the performance of
Poincaré map time-domain damage indicators is presented to explore their applicability in the identification of damage. The
Nonlinear dynamics
entire work is established in three steps. At first, structural members with different dynamic properties are
Damage indicators
numerically analyzed. An investigation on the benchmark structure and experimental set-up of a spring–mass
system is then evaluated to summarize the performance. In addition, effect of environmental variation on the
performance of evolving damage indicators is reviewed and investigated with real-time data of the Z24 bridge.
In this way, the present study intends to facilitate researchers in uncovering the potential of time-domain. Some
future scopes of improvement are also suggested based on the results obtained from the analysis.

1. Introduction civil engineering curbed the attention toward time-domain-based indi-

The widespread application of structural health monitoring (SHM)
has attracted major attention towards the development of the simplest,
economical, and precise solution for the monitoring and diagnosis of
structure. Over the decades, numerous techniques have been proposed
and validated [1–4] with specific member properties or under ideal-
ized operating conditions for monitoring of a structure. However, in
practical scenarios those methods may lack in generality of applica-
tion with different degrees of complexity or become computationally
and economically difficult to adopt. Among all existing methods of
damage identification, modal or frequency parameter-based techniques
have gained more popularity [5–7], whereas a limited number of
techniques have been developed in the time domain [8–12]. The time-
domain-based analysis has one major advantage of using direct output
responses to analyze the state of the system. Besides, the phase as-
sociated with the time-domain responses poses a challenge to the
development of direct response-based indicators. This problem of time
or phase-dependent fluctuation in the indicator value is addressed in
some newly developed techniques considering either more sensitive
higher-order space derivatives of signal [13–15] or compact map-based
methods [16–18]. The aggressive growth of modal or frequency-based
damage detection techniques [19–21] in the field of mechanical and
cators which resulted in the sporadic existence of comparative reviews
on time-domain-based indicators. This influenced the authors to take
this as a scope of work in order to attract the attention of researchers in
this domain by exploring the performances of some potential indicators
based on direct time–history responses. In relation to this, the evolution
of time-domain in SHM for different purposes is briefly discussed to
recognize the significance of this domain.
Time-domain as the solution towards nonlinearity and damage
identification: The conventional vibration based SHM methods [22]
have been developed from the assumptions of linear, time-independent
structures [23]. The premise of these assumptions is mostly evolved
with modal based parameters of the system. It includes eigenfrequency,
eigen vectors, mode shape etc. with a hypothesis that presence of
damage will change such modal parameters of the system. Therefore,
changes of these modal parameters between healthy and damaged state
of the system are considered in the formulation of damage indicators [6,
24–27]. However, theoretical background of this linear concept carries
some drawbacks in the field of application. It has been reported in
many previous studies that modal parameters are weakly sensitive to
small damage [28,29]. It is also evident in the work of Tsyfansky and

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: koushik@iitp.ac.in (K. Roy).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2023.112847
Received 9 December 2022; Received in revised form 21 March 2023; Accepted 2 April 2023
Available online 17 April 2023
0263-2241/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

Nomenclature 𝛾 Weightage factor of selective index of

acceleration curvature
List of Abbreviations 𝛬 Function of time and forcing frequency
𝜔 Natural frequency of structure
𝑆𝐼𝑋̈ Selective index of acceleration curvature
𝜙𝑖𝑤 𝑤th mode shape of 𝑖th degrees of freedom
𝑆𝐼𝑋̇ Selective index of velocity curvature
𝜙′′
𝑖𝑤 𝑤th mode shape curvature of 𝑖th degrees of
𝑆𝐼𝑋 Selective index of displacement curvature
freedom
CDI Cross-correlation damage indicator
𝜉 Damping ratio
FRF Frequency response function
𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 DIND index modified with TEO
SHM Structural health monitoring
𝐻𝑑 Thickness of damaged element
SI Selective Index
𝐻ℎ Thickness of undamaged element
TEO Teager energy operator
𝐼 Set of points on Poincaré map
List of Symbols 𝑖 Degrees of freedom
𝑗 Target measurement points for
(′′ ) Space derivative
cross-correlation
(̇) Time derivative
𝑚 Number of measurement points on Poincaré
𝛼 Weightage factor of selective index of
map
displacement curvature
𝑁 Total number of sample
𝑢̄̇ 𝑑𝑖,𝑠 Normalized dimensionless velocity of 𝑠th
𝑛 Number of iteration
point on Poincaré map of 𝑖th node of
𝑃𝑛 (𝑠) Projection of point }𝑠′ on Poincaré section
damaged member
𝑞(𝑡) Time dependent displacement function
𝑢̄̇ ℎ𝑖,𝑠 Normalized dimensionless velocity of 𝑠th
point on Poincaré map of 𝑖th node of 𝑟𝑖𝑗 Maximum normalized cross-correlation be-
undamaged member tween the response signal of 𝑖th and 𝑗th
degrees of freedom
𝐶̄ Constant to calculate 𝐷𝐼2 and 𝐷𝐼3 index
𝑠 Intersection point on Poincaré map
𝑅̄ 𝑖𝑗 (𝛥) Normalized cross-correlation between the
response signal of 𝑖th and 𝑗th degrees of 𝑆𝑖𝑑 Combined velocity and displacement index
freedom of damaged member
𝑡̄ Total time lag 𝑆𝑖ℎ Combined velocity and displacement index
of undamaged member
𝑢̄ 𝑑𝑖,𝑠 Normalized dimensionless displacement of
𝑠th point on Poincaré map of 𝑖th node of 𝑇 Total time
damaged member 𝑡 Time instant
𝑢̄ ℎ𝑖,𝑠 Normalized dimensionless displacement of 𝑡1 Iteration interval of time
𝑠th point on Poincaré map of 𝑖th node of 𝑇 𝐸𝑂(𝜁) Teager energy operator of variable 𝜁
undamaged member 𝑢𝑖 Displacement of 𝑖th node
𝛽 Weightage factor of selective index of 𝑢𝑑𝑖,𝑠 Displacement of 𝑠th point on Poincaré map
velocity curvature of 𝑖th node of damaged member
𝛥 Time lag factor 𝑢ℎ𝑖,𝑠 Displacement of 𝑠th point on Poincaré map
𝑢̇ 𝑑𝑖,𝑠 Velocity of 𝑠th point on Poincaré map of 𝑖th of 𝑖th node of undamaged member
node of damaged member 𝑢𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠 Maximum displacement of 𝑠th point on
𝑢̇ ℎ𝑖,𝑠 Velocity of 𝑠th point on Poincaré map of 𝑖th Poincaré map of damaged member
node of undamaged member 𝑢ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠 Maximum displacement of 𝑠th point on
𝑢̇ 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠 Maximum velocity of 𝑠th point on Poincaré Poincaré map of undamaged member
map of damaged member 𝑢𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠 Minimum displacement of 𝑠th point on
𝑢̇ ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠 Maximum velocity of 𝑠th point on Poincaré Poincaré map of damaged member
map of undamaged member 𝑢ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠 Minimum displacement of 𝑠th point on
𝑢̇ 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠 Minimum velocity of 𝑠th point on Poincaré Poincaré map of undamaged member
map of damaged member 𝑣ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠 Minimum velocity of 𝑠th point on Poincaré
𝑑2 𝜅 map of undamaged member
𝑑𝑥2
Difference between displacement curvature
of damaged and undamaged member x Space interval

Beresnevich [30] where changing the cross-sectional area by 15% to
20% resulted in the reduction of natural frequency by only 1% to 5%.
This small variation in natural frequency may easily be superseded
by environmental variations or other sources of noise. According to
Cariminati and Recci [23], another constraint of most linear based
analyses is requirement of accurate response data of the undamaged
member. The reason behind this is consideration of undamaged con-
dition as the reference state to detect damage by comparing it with
existing damaged response. Nonlinear phenomenon of the structure
under damaged condition is hence emerging to surpass the limitations
of the linear methods. The dependency of modal methods greatly on the
linear behavior of structure is also one of the reasons to shift the focus
of the researchers towards time-domain-based analysis. This constraint
also facilitated the exploration of nonlinear dynamics with unique time-
domain features in the application field of structural health monitoring.
Later, it evolved as one of the promising techniques for damage identi-
fication in many researches [31,32] advancing from linear assumption
of modal methods. The main advantage of considering nonlinearity is
its unique characteristics which enable detection of damage even at
low severity. The nonlinearity in a system may originate from different

2
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
sources, such as presence of damage, geometric nonlinearity and mate-
rial nonlinearity. Material nonlinearity is an inherent property whereas
damage induced nonlinearity is the outcome of changing stiffness with
opening–closing mechanism of crack at damaged cross-section. The
nonlinearity may also arise due to loosening of bolts [33], crushing of
concrete [34] etc. Geometric nonlinearity on the other hand may indi-
cate excessive loading condition or deformation of member [35]. The
benefits of nonlinear vibration based methods are their ability to assess
very small amount of damage at early stage and robustness of nonlinear
phenomena to environmental changes. The nonlinear characteristics
of crack led to the formulation of different damage indicators for the
identification of small breathing crack in mechanical as well as civil
structures [36–38]. Dependence of present state variable to immediate
past and non-applicability of superposition method poses the main
difficulty in dealing with any nonlinear system. As a consequence,
several researches are now concentrated on improving analytical or
numerical solution procedures of nonlinear systems [39,40]. Volterra
series is evolved as one of the most effective closed-form nonlinear
solution techniques as described by Cheng et al. [41]. Many other
time domain methods are also developed later related to Volterra
series [42,43]. Despite successful application of this series in deriving
solution of nonlinear systems, it is limited in practical application due
to the requirement of enormous computational effort. Various other
time-series analyses are also developed in recent years for predicting
response of nonlinear systems. However, most of these techniques lack
in simplicity. In reality, adoption of any methods depends on the eas-
iness of the application. From this aspect, critical solution techniques
of some nonlinear systems were addressed by simple graphical phase-
space approach in the work of Nie et al. [44] and Peng et al. [45].
The phase-space curve represents the state of the dynamic system by
the set of state variables solved from the corresponding equations of
motion of the system. This idea was further introduced in the field
of SHM to develop damage indicators for nonlinear as well as linear
systems. The appearance of beating phenomena in the difference of
time-series response of intact and damaged structures is introduced
as damage indicator. Cattarius et al. [12] proposed the presence of
beating phenomena between the differences in the time-series response
of intact and damaged structures as a damage indicator. Choi et al. [46]
estimated strain energy of a specified time interval from the time-
domain responses and used it as a potential damage index to indicate
changes in pre and post-structural stiffness of the structure. Riberio
et al. [47] suggested a solution technique to compensate the difficulty
of solving a nonlinear equation of motion. In this study, both free
and forced vibration analysis with geometric nonlinearity were studied
on an isotropic homogeneous undamped model applying hierarchical
finite element and continuation method. Von Karman nonlinear strain
displacement relation was applied to incorporate the behavior of geo-
metrical nonlinearity in the equation of motion. The growing interest in
the nonlinear dynamic behavior of a damaged structure was also taking
shape at this time. This leads to the development of other time-domain-
based methods. Most of the damage identification techniques developed
in this domain are statistical [48,49], predictive [50,51], or optimiza-
tion and sensitivity analysis based methods [52–55]. Very few damage
indicators have been formulated in the past by directly employing
measured time-domain response data. Some of the indicators developed
in the past proved their potential in this field with limited experiments.
However, the application of those is not sufficiently explored to open
up a new direction of research. The present study aims to extract the
performance of time-domain damage indicators performing extensive
analysis on small-to-large scale numerical and experimental models
along with real structural data.
Development of damage indicators with response time–history:
The mathematical formulation of different SHM techniques was ex-
tended from mode shape-based method to output signal analysis in
the time-domain with the advancement of high-speed data collection
3
Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
and processing technology. The application of time-series analysis us-
ing measured response data was applied to real-time online health
monitoring of structure in the work of Trendafilova [56,57]. Merrimi
et al. [58] experimented with a clamped–clamped beam subjected to a
concentrated force at the middle of the beam. The effect of excitation
frequency and applied force on the nonlinear vibration response of
cracked beam is analyzed to formulate the damage detection criteria
quantitatively and qualitatively. Following the development of various
solution techniques to deal with the nonlinear equation, nonlinear
dynamic analysis was undertaken for damage detection in the work
of Qiu et al. [16], Todd et al. [17], and Nichols et al. [59] for better
simulation of the real structure behavior. At this time, state–space
modeling was introduced as one of the simple solution techniques for
nonlinear damage detection in some of the researches [60,61]. The
nonlinear performances of damaged structure under forced vibration
were graphically evaluated by phase-space plot which preserves various
information about the state of any dynamic system. The state of a
system can be accurately defined in the phase-space by the necessary
number of state variables of the system. It requires more than one state
variable to be measured simultaneously to preserve the information of
the system. However, in general, a limited number of measurements
are obtained practically. The reconstruction of attractor in the state–
space from a single measurement data is proven to eliminate the
necessity of multi-state variable measurements. Thus reconstruction of
phase-space actually defines a high-dimensional dynamic system into
lower dimensional space without losing important information about
the vibration characteristics [62]. In the work of Moniz et al. [63]
dynamical attractor is reconstructed incorporating multivariate data
for structural damage detection. The distortion of attractor response
in the damaged state of the structure was put forward as a damage
indicator. In this way, as the research were stemming its branches in
this field, a new approach using cross-correlation function explored by
Farrar et al. [64], was applied in the work of Zhu et al. [21] and Feng
et al. [65] for damage detection in beams and underground tunnel
structure. The change in cross-correlation function between response
signals of respective degrees of freedom (DoFs) is considered in this
study as a damage signature. Castro et al. [66] noticed a better per-
formance of cross-correlation function under noisy environment than
correlation-based damage index in the localization and measurement
of severity of the damage. An experimental work is conducted on a
carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic plate with two piezoelectric transducers.
The sensitivity comparison of two damage indices obtained from the
results shows 34% higher sensitivity of cross-correlation-based damage
index at the corresponding frequency band. Though all damage indi-
cators’ performance was demonstrated with different case studies, the
performance of a well-established damage indicator may also degrade
significantly due to the presence of environmental or other noises in
the measurement. To explain this, an investigation was conducted by
Manoach et al. [18] to understand the effect of temperature vari-
ation on damage index. The research aimed to formulate a unique
method based on time-series response and Poincaré map to accurately
detect damage even after incorporating environmental noise in the
form of temperature variation. Mendelsohn and Pecorari [67] was
devoted to the investigation of the behavior of nonlinear dynamic
systems. In this, a multi-axial equation of motion was developed for
a rotor blade, idealizing it as a cantilever beam with non-uniform
geometric distribution using Hamilton’s principle. Cubic nonlinearity
and the warping phenomenon were also taken into account for the
formulation of the nonlinear theory. Manoach et al. [68] presented
critical reviews on few modal parameter-based damage detection tech-
niques, deducing corresponding theoretical bases of those methods,
and also compared these modal parameter-based methods with the
indices developed by Poincaré mapping. Another improved solution
was proposed in Manoach et al. [69] over earlier presented Poincaré-
based method and popular modal parameter-based method. In that
study, a scaling technique of the indicator is introduced to elevate the
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

difference in intact and damaged beam response at the damaged part. indicator in quick detection as well as in the presence of transient
The earlier reviews or researches taken up under transverse loading fluctuations. At the end of the study, the overall performance of the
condition of a structure was further carried forward to axial loading indices is qualitatively summarized in a table. The aim of this detailed
response by Fritzkowski et al. [70] axially exciting a beam and sym- study is to analyze the comparative performance of damage indices
metrical triangular frame structure. Stoykov and Manoach [71], applied that directly operates on time–history data without any transforma-
curvature index derived from higher-order time derivatives of displace- tion of responses to other domains as well as to provide a complete
ment state vector to formulate a new damage index. The inclusion of performance analysis on the best methods evolved from the study.
curvature of higher-order time-derivatives facilitates in suppressing the After the performance analysis of damage indicators with numerical
possibility of false damage detection by the index derived solely based simulations and experimental data, the effect of noises and variation
on the curvature of a single state variable. This theory was established of environmental parameters are finally studied with various small-to-
with a case study on nonlinear damped clamped–clamped beam and large scale experimental models including real-time monitoring results
clamped–free beam to examine the efficiency of this method. of the Z24 bridge. Effect of environmental factors on the structural
A detailed explanation on performance of all damage index methods response and indicators is reviewed briefly to underline its significance
reviewed in this literature is established with numerical or experi- for future researches.
mental validation. However, the common problem of any developed
method lies on the fact that each method is tested for some selective 2. Mathematical background
cases and thus may be found less reliable for the practical applications.
To subjugate the problem of versatility at first, time-domain damage
Results obtained from different formulations are demonstrated in
indicators [18,68,71–73] are selected and performed on various struc-
this article with respective graphical figures. The phenomenon and
tural members. The analysis is also performed with multiple damage
outcomes of every figure are founded on the intrinsic dynamic char-
cases inflicting damages at more than one position along the length of
acteristics of the members. Also, all indicators under this review are
the member. It has been found that structure with linear and nonlinear
devised considering the parametric damage features of the dynamic
behavior performed quite similarly for all types of selected time-domain
system. Hence a general overview on the mathematical background of
damage indicators. Hence, for brevity of article only nonlinear cases are
the selected time-domain-based indicators used in the present work is
presented here.
discussed in brief for a clear insight into the methodology.
The present study also investigates the potential effect of noise and
environmental changes on the selected time-domain indicators. Any
change in environmental conditions like temperature, humidity etc. 2.1. Damage index based on curvature of state variables
may lead to variations in vibration responses [74]. It thus affects the
accuracy in damage identification. Most of the derivations of dam- The dynamic state of any system is reflected through its state
age indicators are established based on the assumptions of constant variables. Stoykov et al. [71] used the projection of state variables
environmental conditions. Verification of the effect of changing en- in phase-space as damage indicating features and localized damage
vironmental conditions has also recently gained momentum with a through Eq. (1) developed from the curvature of state variables. After
focus mainly on modal parameter changes such as natural frequency, extracting the damage indicative features from the changes in the
mode shape, etc. Very few studies are made on the change in direct response history of motion, phase space plot, or curvature of state
response history. The reason behind this is the dependency of time- variables of the damaged and healthy member, 𝑛 number of time-
domain response history on the ambient loading conditions along with steps are evaluated for the estimation of the index depending on the
permanent loads. Variation of loading at two states (damaged and required degree of accuracy and the problem encountered. After that,
healthy) of the system makes it difficult to understand the changes in a selection criterion as per Eq. (2) is implied on the difference between
response only due to damage or other environmental factors. Among the curvature of state vectors for the damaged and intact beam to
other environmental factors temperature and humidity variation is formulate the damage index based on the curvature method.
identified as the most influential parameter by Kullaa et al. [75] to
( )2 ( )2 ( )2
1 ∑ 1 ∑ 1∑
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
affect dynamic properties of wooden structures. In another research, 𝑑 2 𝜅(𝑥, 𝑡𝑚 ) 𝑑 2 𝜅(𝑥,
̇ 𝑡𝑚 ) 𝑑 2 𝜅(𝑥,
̈ 𝑡𝑚 )
𝑆𝐼 = + +
Xia et al. [76] showed temperature variation to have more dominant 𝛼 𝑚=1 𝑑𝑥2 𝛽 𝑚=1 𝑑𝑥2 𝛾 𝑚=1 𝑑𝑥2
effect on dynamic properties than humidity effect. The difficulty of
practical applications of different damage indicators is also highlighted (1)
here briefly. The whole review thus aimed at discovering all-round per- where,
formance of different indicators and practical problems associated with
the efficient application in the field of structural health monitoring. It ⎧ 𝑑 2 𝑢ℎ 𝑑 2 𝑢𝑑 | 𝑑 2 𝑢ℎ | | 𝑑 2 𝑢𝑑 |
𝑑 2 𝜅 ⎪ 𝑑𝑥2 − 𝑑𝑥2 ; if || 𝑑𝑥2 || ≤ || 𝑑𝑥2 ||
will facilitate researchers in formulating more robust damage indicators =⎨ | | | | ; (2a)
𝑑𝑥2 ⎪0 , elsewhere
keeping in mind different difficulties or constraints highlighted in this ⎩
review. This way, the evolved damage indicators will be developed to
⎧ 𝑑 2 𝑢̇ ℎ 𝑑 2 𝑢̇ 𝑑 | 𝑑 2 𝑢̇ ℎ | | 𝑑 2 𝑢̇ 𝑑 |
fit with different practical problems. In most of the practical appli- 𝑑 2 𝜅̇ ⎪ 2 − 𝑑𝑥2 ; if || 𝑑𝑥2 || ≤ || 𝑑𝑥2 ||
cations of SHM, acceleration data is collected which consists of both = ⎨ 𝑑𝑥 | | | | ; (2b)
𝑑𝑥2 ⎪0 , elsewhere
steady-state and transient state of motion under ambient vibration. ⎩
It is difficult to filter out only well defined steady-state part from ⎧ 𝑑 2 𝑢̈ ℎ 𝑑 2 𝑢̈ 𝑑 | 𝑑 2 𝑢̈ ℎ | | 𝑑 2 𝑢̈ 𝑑 |
total response and may require long time data. For a damped system, 𝑑 2 𝜅̈ ⎪ 𝑑𝑥2 − 𝑑𝑥2 ; if || 𝑑𝑥2 || ≤ || 𝑑𝑥2 ||
at an initial stage, the behavior of the dynamic system may not be
=⎨ | | | | (2c)
𝑑𝑥2 ⎪0 , elsewhere
well defined due to the presence of transient part in the motion. This ⎩
problem was recognized in many researches [77] resulting adoption and
of only steady-state of motion, when structural vibration is tuned only ( )2 ( )2
1 ∑ 1 ∑
𝑁 𝑁
by the frequency of external vibration, for vibration based damage de- 𝑑 2 𝜅(𝑥, 𝑡𝑚 ) 𝑑 2 𝜅(𝑥,
̇ 𝑡𝑚 )
𝑆𝐼𝑋 = ; 𝑆𝐼𝑋̇ = ;
tection techniques. Hence, the detection and localization performances 𝛼 𝑚=1 𝑑𝑥2 𝛽 𝑚=1 𝑑𝑥2
of indices at early stages are also verified by evaluating the method ( )2
1∑
𝑁
𝑑 2 𝜅(𝑥,
̈ 𝑡𝑚 )
at the time just after the initiation of motion. The early evaluation 𝑆𝐼𝑋̈ = (3)
of damage indicator performances showcase the efficiency of damage
𝛾 𝑚=1 𝑑𝑥2

4
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

Here 𝑢ℎ and 𝑢𝑑 are the displacement of healthy and damaged beams 2.3. Development of Poincaré map
respectively and 𝜅 is used to express selection criteria of the selective
index. 𝑆𝐼𝑋 , 𝑆𝐼𝑋̇ , 𝑆𝐼𝑋̈ are selective indices derived from displacement, The time-dependent part of any response variable is the main source
velocity and acceleration curvature respectively. The combined form of of disturbance in the detection and localization of damage with confi-
selective index (SI) is then formulated by adding all three indices with dence. To avoid this, some indicators have been developed based on
respective weightage factors (Eq. (4)). the mapping or projection of phase plots where a set of points are
𝑁 ( 2 )2 𝑁 ( 2 )2 mapped onto itself. It is mathematically expressed as 𝑓 ∶ 𝐼 → 𝐼. 𝑓 is the
∑ 𝑑 𝜅(𝑥, 𝑡𝑚 ) ∑ 𝑑 𝜅(𝑥,
̇ 𝑡𝑚 )
𝛼 = 3 max ; 𝛽 = 3 max ; mapping from a set of 𝐼 to 𝐼 itself. If a point from the set of 𝐼 returns
𝑚=1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑚=1 𝑑𝑥2 to the same point after a time 𝑡 such that 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑡1 ; where 𝑛 denotes
∑𝑁 ( 2 )2 the number of iteration and 𝑡1 is the iteration interval, then 𝑃𝑛 (𝑠) = 𝑠;
̈ 𝑡𝑚 )
𝑑 𝜅(𝑥,
𝛾 = 3 max (4) where 𝑃𝑛 (𝑠) is the mapping of 𝑠th point on Poincaré section. When a
𝑚=1 𝑑𝑥2
defined cross-section or Poincaré section is taken transverse to the flow,
The present damage indicator selective index [71] invokes the concept the projection of every return point on this cross-section develops the
of the high sensitivity of curvature. This change in curvature between Poincaré map. If the first point on the Poincaré map coincides with the
the damaged state and undamaged state is analogous to the change in returned point at each sampling period the distribution of points on the
modal curvature multiplied by the time-dependent function of the state Poincaré cross-section indicates a periodic behavior of the flow. This is
variable. To mathematically express the concept behind the damage illustrated in Fig. 1.
index formulation, a linear system is considered first. The solution of In Fig. 1, 𝛤 is the cross-section constructed in the space transverse
equation of motion for a discrete linear system can be expressed as to the motion of the point initiated at 𝑠1 and returns to 𝑠2 and 𝑠3
Eq. (5). after a certain time. The projection of these points when sampled
periodically creates a populated dot on the cross-section. This technique
∑
𝑁
𝑑 2 𝑢𝑖 ∑
𝑁
of phase projection on a fixed cross-section is called Poincaré mapping.
𝑢𝑖 = 𝜙𝑖𝑤 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) and = 𝜙′′
𝑖𝑤 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) (5)
𝑤=1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑤=1 In the dynamic analysis of a system, the Poincaré map is constructed
by sampling the state variables (generally velocity and displacement)
Here 𝜙𝑖𝑤 is the 𝑤th mode shape of 𝑖th DoFs and 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) is the time-
to define the state of the system. The distribution of the points on
dependent displacement function of 𝑖th DoFs. Differentiating the first
this map preserves information about the periodicity of the motion.
term of Eq. (5) twice with respect to 𝑥 (space interval) the expres-
This informative characteristic of the Poincaré map is adopted by the
sion becomes equation of curvature. The 𝑞(𝑡) term in the Eq. (5) is
researchers to construct a damage index from time–history response
responsible for the phase shift of the damaged and undamaged vibra-
data. As the data are sampled and projected at specific intervals of
tion response, unlike modal methods. Hence it may incur some time-
time, this mapping technique facilitates in diminishing the effect of
dependent randomness in the index formula. Two additional curvatures
time-variable on indicator performances.
of state variables i.e. velocity curvature and acceleration curvature
(Eq. (3)) are also considered in this formulation. These two curvatures
2.3.1. Damage indices based on Poincaré map
are introduced to increase the accuracy of damage identification by
The relation between different types of variables in a state–space
suppressing the false peaks at the location of undamaged elements
facilitates in characterizing the status of the system. The damage iden-
which may occur in the individual curvature index.
tification technique based on the comparison of the state–space repre-
sentation through Poincaré map was introduced to detect delamination
2.2. Damage index based on cross-correlation function of state variable of the plate by Trendafilova et al. [57] and Manoach et al. [72]. It
was further applied to detect changes in the thickness of a damaged
In the research by Farrar et al. [78], cross-correlation function was structural member in Manoach et al. [69]. The expression of the index
introduced with a standard curve-fitting method as a system identifi- used in this work is given in Eq. (9).
cation technique under ambient vibration. The analysis was made in
𝑆𝑖ℎ − 𝑆𝑖𝑑
the frequency domain which was further extended in the time-domain 𝐷𝐼 = (9)
by Feng et al. [65] to develop a cross-correlation damage indicator 𝑆𝑖ℎ
(CDI). Before the application of this function in the field of SHM,
where,
the cross-correlation function was proposed to measure the similarity
between two signals. The same approach is utilized in Feng et al. [65] ∑√
𝑁−1
𝑆𝑖ℎ = [(𝑢ℎ𝑖,𝑠+1 − 𝑢ℎ𝑖,𝑠 )2 + (𝑢̇ ℎ𝑖,𝑠+1 − 𝑢̇ ℎ𝑖,𝑠 )2 ] (10a)
to devise the indicator by the changes in cross-correlation function
𝑠=1
between damaged and intact member responses. In continuous form
∑√
𝑁−1
this function between 𝑖th and 𝑗th DoFs is expressed as Eq. (6). 𝑆𝑖𝑑 = [(𝑢𝑑𝑖,𝑠+1 − 𝑢𝑑𝑖,𝑠 )2 + (𝑢̇ 𝑑𝑖,𝑠+1 − 𝑢̇ 𝑑𝑖,𝑠 )2 ] (10b)
𝑇 𝑠=1
1
𝑅𝑖𝑗 (𝑡̄) = lim 𝑢̈ 𝑖 (𝑡 + 𝑡̄)𝑢̈ 𝑗 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (6) 𝐷𝐼 is the damage index calculated from the coordinates of all points
𝑇 →∞ 𝑇 ∫0
in the Poincaré map where 𝑁 is the total number of points considered
Where 𝑢̈ 𝑖 (𝑡) indicates acceleration response of 𝑖th DoFs at time 𝑡. In a
in the Poincaré map. 𝑢𝑖,𝑠 and 𝑢̇ 𝑖,𝑠 are the displacement and velocity co-
time-discrete form it is defined by the following Eq. (7).
{ ordinate of 𝑠th point in the Poincaré map of 𝑖th DoFs. The expressions
1 ∑𝑁−𝛥−1 of 𝑆𝑖 in Eq. (10a) and Eq. (10b) for healthy and damaged member are
𝑁−𝛥 𝑚=0 𝑢̈ 𝑖 (𝑚 + 𝛥)𝑢̈ 𝑗 (𝑚); 𝛥 ≥ 0
𝑅𝑖𝑗 (𝛥) = (7) analogous to the equation of distance between two points. Thus, the
𝑅𝑗𝑖 (−𝛥); 𝛥<0
index value actually estimates the fractional change in the length of
𝛥 is defined as the time lag factor in 𝑡̄ = 𝛥𝑡1 , where 𝑡1 is the sampling the curve which joins all points in the Poincaré map of the intact and
period and 𝑁 is the total length of the sample. The cross-correlation damaged structure. At the damaged region the pattern of the index
function is normalized first to formulate the cross-correlation damage curve changes with a peak value to denote the damaged element. The
indicator. The normalized cross-correlation function between two states efficiency of the DI method is further improved by incorporating a
of member is used to generate the index value as per Eq. (8). curvature-based approach in Manoach et al. [69].
[ ]
𝑅𝑖𝑗 (𝛥) |𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐦 |𝑅̄ 𝑑𝑖𝑗 (𝛥)| − 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐦 |𝑅̄ ℎ𝑖𝑗 (𝛥) ∥ 𝑑 2 (𝑆𝑖ℎ − 𝑆𝑖𝑑 )
𝑅̄ 𝑖𝑗 (𝛥) = √ √ ; 𝐶𝐷𝐼 = (8) 𝐷𝐼2 = 𝐶̄ ∣ ∣ (11a)
𝑅𝑖𝑖 (0) 𝑅𝑗𝑗 (0) |𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐦 𝑅̄ ℎ𝑖𝑗 (𝛥)| 𝑑𝑥2

5
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

Fig. 1. Intersection of periodical orbit with Poincaré section and mapping on Poincaré map.

( )2 ( )2
⎡ 𝑑 2 𝑆𝑖ℎ 𝑑 2 𝑆𝑖𝑑 ⎤ Table 1
𝐷𝐼3 = 𝐶̄ 2 ⎢∣ − ∣⎥ (11b) Validation of natural frequency (rad/s) of 3D FEM nonlinear undamped beam model.
⎢ 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ Sl No. Results of Stoykov et al. [71] Result of present study Error (%)

Here 𝐶̄ is a constant that depends on the number of points on the 1 30.3795 30.3847 0.017
2 190.3701 190.4143 0.023
Poincaré section or 𝑆𝑖ℎ depending on the problem. Like other methods
3 533.0532 533.2375 0.035
based on modal curvature, the indices of Eqs. (11a) and (11b) also
utilize the sensitivity of curvature for the localization of damage in the
time-domain. All these methods demonstrate their efficiency in identi-
fying damage elements for the test cases presented in the literature of
Manoach et al. [69]. However, the indices based on the combination
of velocity and displacement contradict the dimensional convention as
highlighted by Lu et al. [79]. It is further modified by transforming
actual responses into dimensionless parameters. The new index 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖
Lu et al. [73] is thus formulated with dimensionless parameters as
follows.
𝑢𝑑𝑖,𝑠 − 𝑢𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠
𝑢̄ 𝑑𝑖,𝑠 = (12a)
𝑢𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠 − 𝑢𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠
𝑢̇ 𝑑𝑖,𝑠 − 𝑢̇ 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠
𝑢̄̇ 𝑑𝑖,𝑠 = (12b)
𝑢̇ 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠 − 𝑢̇ 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠
𝑢ℎ𝑖,𝑠 − 𝑢ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠
𝑢̄ ℎ𝑖,𝑠 = (12c)
𝑢ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠 − 𝑢ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠
𝑢̇ ℎ𝑖,𝑠 − 𝑢̇ ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠
𝑢̄̇ ℎ𝑖,𝑠 = (12d)
𝑢̇ ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠 − 𝑢̇ ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑠
In the above Eqs. (12a)–(12d) 𝑢̄ 𝑖,𝑠 and 𝑢̄̇ 𝑖,𝑠 are the displacement and Fig. 2. Initial 1 s time–history comparison of different model.
velocity coordinate of 𝑠th point in Poincaré map of 𝑖th node. Superscript
𝑑 and ℎ represent damaged and healthy state of the structure. The
filter the actual position of damage by smoothing the fluctuations. It
damage index is then defined as Eq. (13).
generates results with a higher degree of accuracy and hence unveils
𝑁 √
∑ the opportunity to work with this operator for other indices to discard
𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷 = (𝑢̄ 𝑑𝑖,𝑠 − 𝑢̄ ℎ𝑖,𝑠 )2 + (𝑢̄̇ 𝑑𝑖,𝑠 − 𝑢̄̇ ℎ𝑖,𝑠 )2 (13)
the disadvantage of time-domain fluctuations.
𝑠=1

This method was found vulnerable to external noises present in the
form of noisy input from shaker vibration, boundary conditions, etc.
To minimize the fluctuations Teager energy operator (TEO) was used
to modify the DIND with an improved index 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 in Eq. (14).
𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 = 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷(𝑖)2 − [𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷(𝑖 + 1)𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷(𝑖 − 1)]
The general form of Teager energy operator is expressed as 𝑇 𝐸𝑂(𝜁) =
[𝑓 (𝜁)2 − 𝑓 (𝜁 + 1)𝑓 (𝜁 − 1)]; where the operator is denoted by 𝑇 𝐸𝑂(𝜁) is a
function of variable 𝜁. The advantages of the Teager energy operator in
minimizing the fluctuations that occur from different sources of noise
are applied to other indices to understand the compatibility of this
operator with other indices. In this present study, one such example
is shown, where the Teager energy operator is used with the 𝐷𝐼2 to
3. Validation and performance analysis
This section explains all observations obtained from the perfor-
mances of damage indices for their qualitative comparison. At first,
the behavior of different indicators is studied for both damped and
(14)
undamped members with geometrically linear and nonlinear systems.
Modeling of beam and bar for FEM analysis is worked out in FreeCAD
software which is then analyzed using ELMER 3D FEM packages [80].
For the validation of the model, an undamaged undamped beam with
one end clamped and another end free is analyzed to compare the first
three natural frequencies and 1 s time–history response with the results
of the article [71]. The comparison of natural frequency is presented in
Table 1 and the time–history response is shown in Fig. 2. Performance

6
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 3. Physical modeling of axial bar with single damage.
of damage indicators is then reviewed for axial and transverse vibration
of the member with single and multi-damage scenario. In order to
simulate real scenario 5% additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) is
added to the response of each FE simulation. A comparison is then
established between the performance without noise and with noise
conditions. For both axial bar and beam results of noise are shown
for either damped or undamped condition respectively. To summarize
the whole analysis briefly as well as precisely, the effect of properties
that have been found not significantly affect the performance of an
indicator is later ignored after a detailed discussion on the axial mem-
ber. The axial member is primarily focused in this study as in most
of the cases the dynamic motion of a building is idealized as a shear
building which for theoretical idealization can also be represented by a
spring–mass–damper system with equivalent stiffness. An experimental
dataset of an 8 DoFs mass–spring system is utilized here to conclude
all indicators’ performance qualitatively and presented in the table in a
comprehensive form. Finally, the effect of noise on the efficiency of the
indicator which yielded the most accurate result among others as per
the performative review is evaluated through an IASC-ASCE benchmark
problem. The description of the modeling information and external
excitation details are provided with relevant results in the following
sections for an easy comparison of the performance of all indicators.
3.1. Performance analysis of axially vibrating bar with single damage
3.1.1. Geometrical description and material properties
The comparative analysis of damage indices on the axial member
is performed with the following dimensions of members; 𝑙 = 0.32 m,
𝑏 = 0.01 m, and 𝐻 ℎ = 0.01 m considering the homogeneous and
isotropic material property of mass density = 2778 kg/m3 and Young’s
modulus = 70 GPa. The member is excited by 7500 kN/m2 magnitudes
of axial pressure over the cross-section at the free end with a circular
excitation frequency of 41.88 rad/s. For the analysis of the damped
system, the damping property assigned to the member is assumed as
stiffness proportional damping with a damping ratio of 0.12%. The
DoFs of one end of the member are restrained with a clamp and on
the other side, no restraint is assigned to any DoFs. The member is
discretized with 32 elements in such a way that either the initial or
end node of the damaged part merges with the end or initial node of
the neighbor element respectively. Damage is assumed to stretch by
6.25% of length at mid-span of the member with the degradation of
modulus of elasticity by 27% of 16th and 17th elements. The model of
the damaged axial member is shown in Fig. 3.
3.1.2. Performance of damage indices on damped and undamped nonlinear
members
The present section scrutinizes the efficiency of all indicators on ge-
ometrically nonlinear axial members subjected to an external harmonic
7
Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
excitation in the axial direction of the member. The characteristics of
any damped system under vibration depend greatly on the damping
property of the structure and natural frequency of the member. These
two parameters determine the rate of diminishing amplitude of motion
and rate of attainment of steady-state. In case of model-based analysis,
the frequency of forced vibration analysis is selected based on the
natural frequency of the member assuming it vibrates within a closer
range to ambient vibration. The response analysis in the resonating
zone improves the sensitivity of any damage detection method. But
for axial member natural frequency being much higher a frequency
within the normal range of ambient excitation is taken for the study.
In Fig. 4(a) axial displacement of damaged and undamaged axial bar is
compared to show trivial differences in response, which disqualifies it
as possible damage sensitive feature. It is also noticed that the motion
of the axial member attains the steady-state at a faster rate just after the
initiation of motion and thus circumvents the irregularity of transient
motion in the total response at the very beginning of the motion. The
steady-state of the motion is also evident in Fig. 4(b), phase plot of the
system. The reason behind this is the low exponential value of the term
(−(𝜉𝜔𝑡) ) associated with the transient part of the solution of equation
of motion. The high frequency of axial vibration initially regulates
the amplitude and frequency of vibrational response. Hence for axial
vibration, though analysis is performed at very early stages, the total
response presents the domination of steady-state of the system. As the
axial member with even low damping property immediately settles to
steady-state motion with frequency similar to forcing frequency, the
analysis on damped and undamped members exhibits quite similar
response.
3.1.2.1. Estimation of selective index and CDI:. Linear variation of axial
displacement along the length of member denotes uniform distribution
of stress along the length of the member. Whenever damage is induced,
the local stiffness value of the affected elements will degrade and
simultaneously alter the response magnitude of the signal. This in turn
results in the deviation of the response derived parameters from the
undamaged state thus indicates the presence of damage. After detecting
the presence of damage in the member, a comparative analysis of
selective indices is further presented to determine the accuracy in
indicating damage location with relative severity in Figs. 5(a)–5(d).
In the above figures, a sudden peak and throw graph appear in all
selective indices. The stiffness of the damaged part is being less than
the stiffness of the undamaged part results in the shift of axial strain
from the constant line and deviation from the zero line of curvature
respectively. At the initial node of the damaged element, the change in
stiffness will result in the formation of peak. The immediate next nodal
point of the damaged part being a regular point in the damaged region,
the node is associated with two similar stiffness values. At this node, the
change of curvature heads down. Again, at the end node of the second
damaged element, the curvature value increases to peak as a result
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

Fig. 4. At 𝑡 = 4.5 s, (a) axial displacement, and (b) phase plot of nonlinear damped and undamped axial member.

Fig. 5. Plot of (a) 𝑆𝐼𝑋 , (b) 𝑆𝐼𝑋̇ , (c) 𝑆𝐼𝑋̈ , and (d) SI for undamped axial member without noise and damped axial member without and with 5% noise.

of different stiffness values on both sides of the corresponding node. It can also be seen that all selective indices based on curvature of
Thus, the damaged part of the axial bar will form a saw-tooth shape to state variables appear with approximately equal magnitude at damage
indicate damage if it consists of more than one element in the damaged location for both damped and undamped systems. The effect of noise on
region. The distance between two peaks indicates the spread of damage. the combined indicator’s efficiency is found to have negligible impact.

8
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 6. Plot of CDI for nonlinear axial member, (a) damped without noise and with 5% noise, and (b) undamped.
The cross-correlation indicator on the other hand is operated on
the same model for consecutive pairs of DoFs. The first element is
ignored to avoid the disturbances due to constraints imposed at the
corresponding DoFs. The damaged element in this case is identified by
the peak value of the function between two pairs of nodes. To explore
the utility of cross-correlation function as damage indicator, at first the
differences in cross-correlation response of damaged and undamaged
node pairs are investigated. It compares the similarity of response
signal between an undamaged node pair at healthy and damaged
state of member and stipulates the same for node pairs at damaged
location. The difference of cross-correlation co-efficient between the
displacement response of damaged pair 17–18 and undamaged pair 13–
14 in both the states define the potential of this function as one of the
damage identification parameters in the time-domain. After identifying
the presence of damage, the location is further ensured by the indicator
value plotted along the length of the member. In case of damped
member, the peak value of the damage indicator in Fig. 6(a) between
pairs 16–17 and 17–18 (Fig. 3) successfully indicates that two elements
between nodes 16–17 and 17–18 are damaged elements in the member.
The small differences between two-peak values for the same amount of
damage may raise some concern about its performance to identify the
severity of closely spaced damages. In undamped system, the damage
indicator derived from cross-correlation analysis identifies the presence
of damage and also localizes one damage element between the pair
16–17 (Fig. 6(b)). However, it fails to identify another consecutive
damaged element. For a damped system the motion is more defined
in nature at steady-state than an undamped system. This leads to
the differences in the damage prediction accuracy for both system at
same time-frame. The differences in the indicator value for damped
and undamped systems and occurrences of spurious peaks even within
the same member at undamaged locations indicate the effect of time-
dependent fluctuations. In case of noisy response (Fig. 6(a)), though
the peak at damaged element did not appear with same value, the
position of damage can be ascertained with considerable accuracy. The
selection of optimum time data for every indicator in time-domain
specific problems should also be established with more specific studies
in the future.
3.1.2.2. Estimation of Poincaré map-based indices:. In Manoach et al.
[18], Poincaré map-based method was introduced focusing on the
irregularities in damage indicators previously established based on the
9
Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
direct time–history response. This method was applied on a composite
beam to verify the ability to capture the deviation of state from a
healthy state of the member under temperature variation. The pattern
of dots on the Poincaré map though did not indicate any significant
changes between healthy and damaged beams but influenced the radius
of the circle formed by the projection of phase space as shown in
Fig. 7(a). This change was further evaluated quantitatively by damage
indicator to locate the damaged elements. Fig. 7(a) was plotted for
the mid node of a beam. It can be seen that the Poincaré section on
the phase portrait creates closely populated dots indicating periodic
behavior of motion. A similar result is also obtained in the present
analysis of axial member as shown in Fig. 7, where the Poincaré
section of the mid node of the undamaged axial bar is plotted on the
phase space diagram and it returns to the neighborhood of the first
point shown by red dots. The indices developed on the basis of this
representation are depicted in Fig. 8. In the case of an axial member,
the vibration achieves steady-state immediately after the initiation of
excitation and vibrates at forcing frequency. Thus, when the state
variables of a nodal response is sampled periodically and projected on
the phase space plot it appears with closely spaced configurations for
both damaged and undamaged state of the system. It can be observed
in Fig. 8 that all indices successfully locate damage whereas, the DI
index in Fig. 8(a) only detects the initiation of damage at node-15
and fails to recognize faulty elements from the undamaged part of
the member. 𝐷𝐼2 , 𝐷𝐼3 , and 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 on the other hand in Fig. 8(b)–
8(d) are successfully indicating damage location. The ordinate value in
𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 index curve at damaged region being a normalized one, can
also be used to quantify the severity more comprehensively. 𝐷𝐼2 and
𝐷𝐼3 on the other hand exhibits different magnitude of the index for two
consecutive damage element which may lead to false information about
the severity of damage at different positions. The extent of damage in
the member is identified from the distance between two peak values
of 𝐷𝐼2 , 𝐷𝐼3 , and 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 . Inclusion of noise in the response exhibits
many spurious peaks along the length of member as shown in Fig. 8.
However, except DI other three indicators are less affected by noisy
response. The sensitivity of indicators to damaged element is the reason
behind this observation. In the absence of noise, DI is found to have
gradual decay of magnitude towards the boundary instead of falling
down to small values immediately after end of damaged elements. Thus
when noise is induced, though it achieves the peak value at one of
the damaged element positions, the other peaks with significant value
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 7. (a) Projection of Poincaré map on phase diagram of damaged and undamaged member in [18], and (b) Poincaré map of middle node response of axial member at faulty
and healthy state on phase space plot obtained from present study.
indicate false positive damage. The advantage of this method in time-
domain is realized by similar results in both damped and undamped
conditions.
For the damped and undamped nonlinear system, if a quality-
based comparison is made, all indices except the DI method qualify
in precisely indicating the presence of damage along with the location
of elements. But to address the severity of damage though not relevant
to the subject of the present study, the quantification of damage by
the index value is also important in the context of monitoring of
a structure. In the selective index diagram Fig. 5, two consecutive
damaged elements with the same amount of damage are identified with
an almost equal magnitude of index value which is not the case for 𝐷𝐼2
or 𝐷𝐼3 in Figs. 8(b) and 8(c). Among the Poincaré map-based methods
only 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 appears with an equal magnitude of damage in the faulty
region of the damaged axial bar compared to other indices in Fig. 8(d).
3.2. Performance analysis of axially vibrating bar with multi-damage case
3.2.1. Geometrical description and material properties
Initiation of damage may not be confined to any single location.
Damage may occur at different regions of a structural member, which
necessitates the performance analysis of damage indices to capture the
multi-fault signature. In this section, a thorough review is conducted
on axial members with two damages at different locations to evaluate
the accuracy of time-domain indicators. The observations from the
previous analysis on axial members indicate that the efficiency of any
of the selected indicators is independent of the damping property of
the material. Hence, to present the observations in a compact form
multi-damage analysis is discussed here with nonlinear undamped
members.
For multi-damage analysis, the FEM model of the intact and dam-
aged structure is discretized into 32 number of elements, and damage
is induced symmetrically in the 8th & 9th elements for damage near
the clamped end (location 1) and 24th & 25th elements near the free
end (location 2) stretched by total 6.25% length of the member. The
thickness of the member at the damaged part is reduced in such a
way so that the final thickness becomes 𝐻 𝑑 = 0.85𝐻 ℎ ; whereas the
10
Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
other dimensions are maintained the same in the undamaged part as
l = 0.32 m, b = 0.01 m, and 𝐻 ℎ = 0.01 m. A harmonic axial force
of 750 N is applied at the end of the cross-section with frequency
𝜔 = 41.88 rad/s. All analyses are performed at t = 4.5 s with 16 number
of equal time steps. The dimensional property of intact and damaged
axial members is illustrated graphically in Fig. 9.
3.2.1.1. Performance of damage indices on undamped nonlinear member.
Estimation of selective index and CDI: To demonstrate the performance
of indices at first the response of damaged and healthy members are
plotted together in Fig. 10(a) as axial displacement time–history and
phase plot in Fig. 10(b) to indicate the presence of damage.
It is observed in Figs. 10(b) and 10(d) that the differences in phase
plots of damaged and undamaged members are more easily distin-
guishable in multi-damaged state than single damage cases plotted in
Fig. 4(b). This is obvious as the change in local stiffness at multiple
regions affects the global stiffness matrix and thus the magnitude of
state vectors. Also, the shift in the trajectory of the response curve
from the response of undamaged members occurs as the damage results
in the reduction of stiffness. If the area of cross-section is reduced
at any section of the member due to damage, elemental stress at the
damaged region will change from elements of the same location in
undamaged member at similar time instance. This local variation of
stress will simultaneously increase the strain and in turn the output
response of damaged elements. Hence a shift in response from the
alignment of the healthy state response curve appears and indicates
the existence of damage in the member. The magnitude of this shift
depends on the severity of the damage. For very low severity it may
not be differentiable from the response of the undamaged state of
the member. In Figs. 10(a) and 10(c) the response history of axial
displacement does not show any remarkable changes for healthy and
damaged states of the member. However, phase plot in Figs. 10(b)
and 10(d) of the 17th node associated with damaged element encircled
the phase plot of the same point in undamaged bar. The difference
of two states of the member is more visible in phase space diagram
than time–history which can be taken as the damage signature to
indicate presence of damage in the member. Localization of damage is
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

Fig. 8. Plot of (a) DI, (b) 𝐷𝐼2 , (c) 𝐷𝐼3 , and (d) 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 for damped and undamped axial member without noise and damped member with 5% noise.

Fig. 9. Model of damaged axial member with multiple damages.

examined in Fig. 11(a)–11(d) for selective index derived from second-
order spatial derivatives of displacement, velocity, and acceleration
response of all nodes in the member. The results of all indices derived
from curvature of state variables defines the accuracy of the selective
index in detecting the damage as well as the spread of damage at both
of the damage locations. The small difference in the magnitude of two
peaks for the same amount of damage in the element may mislead
about the severity of the damage. This may not be an issue if only
detection and localization of damage are considered, which is the focus
of the present study instead of quantification of severity. The cross-
correlation damage indicator on the other hand locates damage only
near the free end of the member. Elements at damage location 1 are not
recognizable from the diagram of the cross-correlation-based indicator
both without noise and with noise condition. The performance of this
damage indicator depends on the relative excitation amplitude between
node pairs. In practice, every pair of possible damage node pairs are
locally excited and compared with the healthy state of the system. It
increases the sensitivity of the indicator than comparing node pairs

11
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 10. At 𝑡 = 4.5 s, (a) comparative response of mid-point of damaged part near fixed end, (b) phase plot comparison of damage element (8th) at location 1, (c) comparative
response of mid-point of damaged part near free end, and (d) phase plot comparison of damage element (24th) at location 2 for nonlinear undamped multi-damaged axial member.
with equally distributed loading along the member. The plot of CDI
index in Fig. 11(f) reflects this insensitivity in the identification of
damage elements. The artificially induced noisy response based result
also indicates that SI indicator shows satisfactory noise resilience than
CDI indicator in this multi-location damage case.
3.2.1.2. Estimation of Poincaré map-based indices:. Damage indices
formed by the Poincaré mapping are shown in Fig. 12. In the case of
multi-damage analysis, efficiency of a method depends on detection of
the presence of damage and accurate localization of all affected regions
indicating the spread of damage. Some indices derived from Poincaré
map though attain their peak value at the damaged nodes, but the
extent of the curve at the base could not accurately specify all damaged
elements. In the Fig. 12(a)–12(d) all indices detect the presence of
damage by sharply attaining peak values at the initial node of the
damaged element and trend back to a lower value at the undamaged
node. Thus along with localization of damage, the index diagram can
also preserve the information about the number of elements or range of
damage in the member. However, the peak value at both the damage
locations with similar amount of damage is attained with different
magnitude for all the damage indices except in case of 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 . In the
formulation of 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 differences between healthy and damaged state
12
Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
variables of a node are directly combined for each return point on the
Poincaré map. It thus locally maps the differences of state for each
point on the Poincaré map and reduces accumulation of errors in the
combined index value unlike DI method. It also reflects in the analysis
of noise induced response. The peak magnitude of noise undulation is
comparatively low in 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 than other damage indicators. A similar
index value at two different locations with same amount of damage also
indicates the robustness of this formulation. The peak value of damage
indicator 𝐷𝐼2 near damage element close to free end may mislead the
actual position of damage. The result of other indices in this context
raises a concern for the qualitative or quantitative judgment about
severity of damage at different locations.
3.3. Cantilever beam with single damage
3.3.1. Geometrical description and material properties
A clamped–free flexural member of 0.58 m length, 0.02 m width,
and 0.002 m thickness with a similar material property as the axial
bar, is modeled for the analysis of intact beam. Damage in the beam
is introduced either by reducing the thickness or by reducing the
modulus of elasticity of the material at the damaged part. A model
with reduced thickness at fault region is adopted for the validation
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 11. Plot of (a) 𝑆𝐼𝑋 , (b) 𝑆𝐼𝑋̇ , (c) 𝑆𝐼𝑋̈ , (d) SI without noise and with 5% noise for damped axial member, (e) CDI of undamped axial member, and (f) CDI of damped
multi-damaged axial member without noise and with 5% noise.
of natural frequency with reference article [71]. For further analysis,
a damaged beam with the reduced modulus of elasticity of damaged
elements is undertaken to keep a uniformity of nodal coordinates at
both the damaged and healthy states of the beam. In both cases, the
middle 3% length of the member is assumed as damaged. The structural
member is discretized into 32 elements and 16th, 17th number element
is attributed as damaged element. The severity of damage is defined by
a 10% reduction in thickness or equivalent degradation of modulus of
elasticity. The clamped boundary condition at one end is maintained
by restraining the DoFs at the end of the beam. A uniformly distributed
load of 1.5 N/m with 41.88 rad/s harmonic frequency is applied over
the length of the beam. The model of the damaged beam is shown in
Fig. 13.
3.3.2. Performance of damage indices on undamped nonlinear beam
The dynamic behavior of a flexural member is way too complex
than an axial member both in behavioral aspect and mathematical
computation as it considers translational as well as rotational DoFs of
the member. Hence along with the observations for an axial member
or members subjected to pure axial vibration, it is also necessary to
perform the damage index analysis for a beam with transverse loading
condition. Though, in all previous analysis results it has been observed
that for a steady-state system the performance of the indices is barely
dependent on the property of damping. So, in the subsequent section,
only nonlinear undamped beams are considered for the identification
of different damage levels. The inclusion of geometric nonlinearity
is considered here even after observing a weak nonlinearity effect
in the analysis of axial member as the stiffness matrix of a flexural
system includes both bending stiffness and axial stiffness unlike an axial
member. The presence of this intricacy in the transverse motion of
members is the main reason to undertake a nonlinear dynamic analysis
of a flexural system separately.
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Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
3.3.2.1. Estimation of selective index and CDI:. In this section, the re-
sponse analysis is conducted on an undamped beam considering axial
stiffness effect of the member due to geometrical nonlinearity. The
amplitude of motion depends on the external excitation as the absence
of damping does not affect the trend of motion at the initial stage of
forced vibration. In previous research [71], the difference in the steady-
state time–history response and phase plot of damaged and undamaged
members was taken as an indication of damage unlike the analysis of
an undamped member. Hence confers rationale to the present work
of verifying the versatility of this method. The undamped motion of
the beam is first presented with the initial 1 s time–history in Fig. 14.
Time duration of 0.5 s starting at 9.5 s is used for the analysis of
the undamped system to investigate efficiency in the localization of
damage even at the later stage of vibration. Phase plot in Fig. 14(a) and
time–history in Fig. 14(b) of damaged and intact beam exhibit visible
differences indicating different states of the member. This differences
do not follow any trend to separately identify the damaged and healthy
state of the member unlike steady-state motion of axial member where
the maximum amplitude at damaged location is always higher than
undamaged state of the system. This is due to the inclusion of rotational
DoF along with transitional DoF in the response signal. At the initiation
of motion, system vibrates with a mixed frequency between driven and
natural frequency. Thus, it resembles a chaotic behavior if the effect of
damping continues for a long time. The Fig. 14 shows that the phase
space plot is leading towards a stable limit cycle with different paths
for the damaged and undamaged state of the system. As the behavior is
unpredictable due to dynamic instability till it reaches the limit cycle
at steady-state, a well-established relation is also difficult to define
between the two states at this stage.
The localization of damage element in beam is analyzed separately
for all the indicators. It has been observed in Fig. 15(a)–15(d) that
all the indices estimated from curvature of displacement or its higher
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

Fig. 12. (a) DI, (b) 𝐷𝐼2 , (c) 𝐷𝐼3 , and (d) 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 for undamped multi-damaged axial member and damped member without noise and with 5% noise.

Fig. 13. Model of damaged beam with reduced thickness.

order time derivatives localize damaged region with a greater degree
of accuracy even in the presence of 5% synthetic Gaussian noise. The
precision of localization depends on the formation of peaks only at
region where damage elements are present. In case of beam, SI index
approximately localize the affected elements but the stretch of curve
does not precisely designates the length of damage. The CDI index
from the cross-correlation function is computed using second node
from the clamped end as a reference node and the cross-correlation is
established for other nodes with respect to this second node (Fig. 13)
of the beam. As among other state vectors displacement is obtained
here directly from the solution of the equation of motion, to avoid
numerical error cross-correlation function is established with respect to
position vectors of the member. In Fig. 15(e) the indicator value attains
the highest coordinate at the location of the damaged element. At the
same time, it is also noticed that the index cannot specify the stretch
of the damaged zone along the beam as it continuously rises till the
ordinate with the highest value is reached at the damage location and
then falls down. The reason behind this is the coupled behavior of a
flexural member. It thus propagates the effect of reduction in stiffness
of damaged element to other elements of beam which influences this

14
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

Fig. 14. At 𝑡 = 9.5 s, plot of (a) transverse displacement, and (b) phase plot of nonlinear undamped beam.

Fig. 15. Plot of (a) 𝑆𝐼𝑋 , (b) 𝑆𝐼𝑋̇ , (c) 𝑆𝐼𝑋̈ , (d) SI without noise and with 5% noise, and (e) CDI without noise and with 5% noise of undamped beam.

rise in CDI diagram. Thus, it can only predict initiation of damage with
a peak value at one of the damaged element positions as shown in Fig.
15. When CDI is analyzed with noise, the trend of gradual rise of index
value towards damaged element position breaks with random up and
down pattern of the bar diagram. However, the highest value attains at
one of the damaged element positions #17. A modified cross-correlation
coefficient or time-lag factor may reduce these noise.
3.3.2.2. Estimation of Poincaré map-based indices:. To investigate the
indices based on Poincaré mapping, the state variables of the system
velocity and displacement are first projected on the Poincaré map
to find the differences between the damaged and undamaged states
of the system. Though a limited number of points are taken on the
Poincaré section, their scattered configuration in a damaged state than
the healthy state can point to the presence of damage. All estimated
damage indices from the Poincaré map are presented in Fig. 16. It is
also worth mentioning here, the value of ‘C’ in Eqs. (11a) and (11b)
is taken equal to the inverse of the number of points projected on
Poincaré section i.e (1/𝑁𝑖 ); where 𝑁𝑖 is the number of points, instead
of taking 𝑆𝑖𝑢 value. In Manoach et al. [69], it is stated that the selection
of this constant depends on the type of problem. Though the selection
of 𝑆𝑖𝑢 is preferred in most of the cases for the present study, it has been
found that the value of constant ‘C’ based on the number of points on
the Poincaré section is producing more reliable results for beam than
the value previously considered as 1∕𝑆𝑖𝑢 . As the analysis is performed

15
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 16. (a) DI, (b) 𝐷𝐼2 , (c) 𝐷𝐼3 , and (d) 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 of undamped beam without noise and with 5% noise.
including transient part of the motion the constant independent of time
worked out better for the computation of this damage index. In case of
axial member, the dominant steady-state even at early stage of analysis
minimized this effect on the constant value 1∕𝑆𝑖𝑢 . If only steady-
state motion of beam is considered the similar constant value may be
used without affecting the accuracy of the result. Fig. 16 narrates the
performances of all map-based damage indices based on the coordinates
of points considered in the Poincaré section. In Fig. 16(a) the peak value
of the initial left part of the curve indicates the damage position but
the lower magnitude of the index value at the damaged location may
limit the confidence about the reliability of its performance. 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖
index in Fig. 16(d) localizes damage by the higher change in slope
of the diagram at the damage location but appears with fluctuations
even after using the Teager energy operator. This is mainly due to
randomness present in the total response of the member. Performance
of 𝐷𝐼2 and 𝐷𝐼3 is depicted in Figs. 16(b) and 16(c). Both of the
indicator accurately identify damage position, though, in comparison
with 𝐷𝐼2 , 𝐷𝐼3 shows better performances with minimum fluctuations
at boundary or other undamaged element locations. The effect of noise
is also insignificant than other Poincaré based damage indicator.
3.4. Performance analysis of cantilever beam with multi-damage case
3.4.1. Geometrical description and material properties
In this example, index performance is analyzed on flexural members
with damages at more than one location along the length of the
member. A beam of dimension 𝑙 = 0.58 m, 𝑏 = 0.002 m, 𝐻 ℎ = 0.02 m is
modeled to excite with forced vibration of 1.5 N/m forcing amplitude
16
Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
and 41.88 rad/s frequency. The performances of damage indices for
a flexural member with multiple damages may be more critical than
a member with a single damage scenario. Hence for this analysis a
more refined mesh with 58 number of finite elements is applied to
construct the model and damages are imposed at two locations near
clamped support (location 1) and near the free end (location 2). At
damage location 1 near the fixed end, 17th and 18th elements are
modeled with reduced thickness such that the effective thickness of
these two elements is 𝐻 𝑑 = 0.9𝐻 ℎ (Fig. 17). Similarly, 41st and
42nd elements near the free end of the beam is modeled as damaged
region with similar physical dimension and properties as the elements
in damage location 1. A similar geometrical configuration is followed
throughout this section for multi-damage analysis of the beam. For the
CDI indicator formulation, same previous beam model with 32 elements
has been used (Fig. 13) as the method does not involve major numerical
approximations in the computation.
3.4.2. Performance of damage indices on nonlinear undamped beam
3.4.2.1. Estimation of selective index and CDI:. An undamped beam
with the ‘membrane effect’ [81] is considered in this section for the
performance analysis of the selective index and CDI. Unlike other
undamped cases, more rapid detection is investigated here for local-
ization of multiple damages at 2.5 s with selective index and similar
length of time-data is used for the cross-correlation-based indicator.
The presence of damage is reflected through the changes in response
state of the damaged and undamaged beam as in the previous cases.
The displacement of every node of finite elements along the length of
the beam is solved at each time step. The curvature of each node are
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

Fig. 17. Geometrical description of multi-damage beam.

Fig. 18. Plot of (a) 𝑆𝐼𝑋 , (b) 𝑆𝐼𝑋̇ , (c) 𝑆𝐼𝑋̈ , (d) SI without and with 5% noise, and (e) CDI without and with 5% noise of undamped multi-damaged beam.

then estimated from the measured displacement vector and its higher
derivatives. Selective index and CDI formulated considering selected
time segment of 2.5 s to 2.95 s is shown in Fig. 18. Selective index in
Fig. 18(d) indicates that only one damaged element is determined with
greater accuracy. The index derived from the first and second time-
derivatives of curvature also creates peak at one of the actual damage
locations. However, the peak generates at the damaged position along
with lots of undulations in the undamaged element positions. The
advantage of using three curvatures is evident here, where error at
one curvature index is suppressed by the other in the combined index
value. At the same time, the major drawback is that presence of noise
in any one index may get magnified. Thus, it results in the appearance
of spurious peaks indicating false positive damage in the combined
index diagram. As can be seen from Fig. 18(d) effect of noise on the
pattern of diagram is almost insignificant, use of a suitable filter and
appropriate weightage factor may reduce this noise. The performance
of displacement curvature in comparison with other curvature index
indicates greater sensitivity of numerical approximations on the index
result at transient dominant vibration. Damage location near the free
end is only found to appear with greater magnitude in the case of
displacement curvature-based selective index. The selective index value
thus estimated from all curvatures, emerged with moderate predictor
performance in this case of nonlinear undamped flexural member with
multiple damage scenarios. The cross-correlation damage indicator’s
performance is also found poor in the localization of damages in multi-
damaged beam both with and without noise condition. The change in
slope of CDI diagram in Fig. 18(e) at the 8th and 9th elements location
is much flatter than single damage case. The other damaged location

17
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 19. (a) DI, (b) 𝐷𝐼2 , (c) 𝐷𝐼2 − 𝑇 𝐸𝑂, (d) 𝐷𝐼3 , and (e) 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 of undamped multi-damaged beam without and with 5% noise.
near the free end does not show up with any peak. This may be due to
extreme location of damage node from the reference one.
3.4.2.2. Estimation of Poincaré map-based indices:. The behavior of in-
dices for multi-damage beam responses derived from the mapping of
phase-space plot on the Poincaré section is shown in Fig. 19. For a
comparative review, indices are shown under the same figure. The
change in the slope of the DI curve (Fig. 19(a)) is indicating the position
of both the damages but the exact damage elements along the length
of the member is unable to locate accurately. Also, it incorporates
lots of noise along the length of the beam which categorizes it as an
inferior damage indicator for multi-location damaged case of beam.
𝐷𝐼2 shows peak value at two damage locations in Fig. 19(b). However,
the small peak at damage location near free end is suppressed by
other peaks when noise is induced with response. The TEO applied
in the formulation of 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 to minimize the fluctuations or noise,
is introduced here on the 𝐷𝐼2 . The result marks an improvement in
the diagram Fig. 19(c) with a distinct peak value at both the damage
locations. It also results in diminishing undulations at neighbor element
positions in the absence of noise. The additional noise that occurs
due to encapsulation of synthetic Gaussian noise with response is
also minimized by the application of TEO. At the same time, it also
minimizes the peak value at damage location near free end. Thus,
affect the identification of both damage elements with equal confidence
level. 𝐷𝐼3 detects the damage near clamped end accurately but fails to
locate the second damage location near the free end of the member
as shown in Fig. 19(d). An increase in the external force magnitude
may result in the formation of the peak at 2nd damage position also. In
case of multiple damage cases, the 4th damage index 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 presented
through Fig. 19(e) shows an unreliable result to some degree in the
localization of damage. At position close to free end, the indicator
value designates the damage accurately with the change in slope as
18
Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
in the case of single damage. Some nearby local peaks though mislead
the result about another damage location. In multiple damage cases
without noise, the fluctuations appear in all damage indices developed
from Poincaré map except 𝐷𝐼. It indicates the effect of truncated error
in the computation of higher-order derivatives of state variables. The
stability of numerical integration than differentiation can be utilized
by directly incorporating acceleration response instead of lower-order
state response to minimize this variation. The selection of optimum
numbers of data in order to reveal all damage locations with supremacy
need to be studied in future for time-domain methods.
A qualitative comparison of all indices described here is summarized
in Table 2 based on the observations obtained from different examples
discussed in the previous sections. The description of notations used in
qualitative comparison is given in Table 3.
The Table 2 is produced considering the ability of different indi-
cators in determining the presence of damage and their locations at
single or multiple position along the length of the member. From the
observations of Table 2, it can be shown that for an axial member
or axial vibration-based damage identification all time-domain based
indices localize damage with significant accuracy except DI. It may not
locate the position of all damage elements, yet convenient to predict
the presence with approximate idea of damage locations for all types
of members. The use of direct response data without any higher-order
numerical approximations established this indicator as a less affected
indicator to undulations. The 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 indicator in most of the cases
(except flexural members) localizes all damages with almost similar
magnitude for elements with same severity of damage. Hence, among
all other Poincaré map-based methods it can be used as a possible
candidate for damage quantification in future. However, its perfor-
mance in case of beam requires significant attention before advancing
for the measurement of damage severity with 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 . On the other
hand, selective index and 𝐷𝐼2 are found to be relatively reliable as an
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

Table 2
Qualitative Comparison of Time-Domain based damage index.
Sl No. Case Selective index CDI DI 𝐷𝐼2 𝐷𝐼3 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖
1 Linear axial Damped bar with single damage 𝐴+ 𝐴+ 𝐵+ 𝐴+ 𝐴+ 𝐴+
2 Nonlinear axial damped bar with single damage 𝐴+ 𝐴+ 𝐵+ 𝐴+ 𝐴+ 𝐴+
3 Linear Axial undamped bar with single damage 𝐴+ 𝐶+ 𝐵+ 𝐴+ 𝐴+ 𝐴+
4 Nonlinear axial undamped bar with single damage 𝐴+ 𝐶+ 𝐵+ 𝐴+ 𝐴+ 𝐴+
5 Linear axial undamped bar with multi-damage 𝐴+ 𝐶+ 𝐵+ 𝐴− 𝐴− 𝐴+
6 Nonlinear axial undamped bar with multi-damage 𝐴+ 𝐶+ 𝐵+ 𝐴− 𝐴− 𝐴+
7 Nonlinear undamped beam with single damage 𝐴+ 𝐶+ 𝐵+ 𝐴− 𝐴+ 𝐴−
8 Linear undamped beam with single damage 𝐴+ 𝐶+ 𝐵+ 𝐴− 𝐴+ 𝐶−
8 Nonlinear undamped beam with multi-damage 𝐶+ 𝐷 𝐵+ 𝐴− 𝐶+ 𝐶−
9 Linear undamped beam with multi-damage 𝐴− 𝐷 𝐵+ 𝐴− 𝐶+ 𝐶−

Table 3 3.5.2. Performance analysis on IASC-ASCE benchmark problem

Description of notations used for qualitative comparison.
Sl No. Notation Description
1 𝐴+ Detect and isolate all damaged elements accurately
2 𝐴− Detect and localize all damaged elements with
fluctuations
3 𝐵+ Detect all damaged locations accurately but cannot
localize all damaged elements
4 𝐵− Detect all damaged location with fluctuations but
cannot localize all damaged elements
5 𝐶+ Detect few/single damage location/s and localize
few/single damage element/s accurately
6 𝐶− Detect few/single damage location/s and can
localize few/single damage element/s with
fluctuations
7 D Cannot detect or localize damage elements
all-weather index, which performed with more notable accuracy than
other indices for every case of damage. Further, the higher-order space
derivative of state variables in selective index requires more attention
to utilize the sensitivity of velocity and acceleration curvature to local
damages with greater accuracy. As the method is directly based on
the curvature, which is inversely proportional to the stiffness of the
member, it can also be applied for the measurement of damage severity.
The cross-correlation damage indicator on the other hand shows lower
sensitivity to damage identification technique, especially in case of
model-based approach. In some cases, the indicator even could not
locate the presence of damage. The performances of the selective index
were analyzed for almost all types of excitation in the past research
excluding random vibration with different levels of noise. To reckon the
efficiency of this index yielded as the most efficient indicators among
all categories discussed here, a benchmark problem is finally taken up
to check the efficiency of the SI method under a noisy environment in
Section 3.5.
3.5. Demonstration on IASC-ASCE benchmark problem
3.5.1. Geometrical description of steel frame structure
The standard benchmark problem of IASC-ASCE [82] considered for
the present study consists of a 4-story steel frame structure (Fig. 20(a)).
The healthy state of the structure contains a single bracing system at
all stories. The damaged frame is simulated by removing all bracings of
1st story. The structure is then analyzed for two cases. In one case, the
system is subjected to a random excitation input signal and in another
case, different levels of white noise are introduced with external inputs.
The damping ratio of the system is assumed as 1%. The slab of 400 kg
is placed on all floors for each of these cases. Each joint of the floor
consists of two accelerometers to measure responses along the x and y
directions simultaneously. The axis direction, numbering and spacing
of columns are shown in Fig. 20(b). For the present study, a random
excitation is exerted in the y-direction with sensors attached at the
6th column to record y-direction acceleration data and processed for
the calculation of damage index. Performance is also analyzed with
three levels of noise 0%, 5%, and 10% respectively for measuring the
efficiency of the selected indicator.
In this case study, a bracing frame is subjected to random excitation
with a peak intensity of 150 N. The output of the system is obtained
as acceleration time–history recorded for a time span of 8 s with a
sampling frequency of 1000 Hz. All floors are braced in case of the
undamaged state of the model and damage is assigned by removing all
1st story bracing. Two levels of noise 5% and 10% are induced with
random excitation for the analysis. At all noise levels, selective index
attains the peak value at the damaged story. The influence of noise is
observed in the index value of other undamaged stories, which attain
a higher value of the index in the presence of noise than the value
obtained from the excitation without any measurement noises. This
may affect the efficiency of the selective index in some cases. However,
for higher DoFs where damage is not located near the boundary, this
abnormality will not be significant. As the DoFs involved in this analysis
are only limited to 4 number of stories, hence the index value is
presented by bar chart in Fig. 20(c) instead of a curve.
The source code of MATLAB and dataset for different damage cases
are provided in the work of Johnson et al. [82]. The analysis shows
the accuracy of the method even in the presence of noise. At both 5%
and 10% noise, SI successfully locates damage as broken or removed
bracing with a higher index value at 1st story. It is observed that
the boundary value at story-4 appears with a significant index value
at other noise levels, but at 0% noise level the index value at 4th
floor is nearly 70% less than the peak value. An increase in DoFs may
reduce this irregularity if the damage appears at a location far from
the boundary. It can be seen in the problem of beam simulated by FE
modeling which indicates the vulnerability of boundary region to noise
due to restraints of DoFs or numerical approximations.
Most of the damage indicators performed on this benchmark prob-
lem are either frequency domain or parameter extraction based meth-
ods. As present study focuses on indicator based damage identification,
hence, to compare SI, result of energy damage index (EDI) [83] is
presented in Fig. 20(d). EDI is calculated from the relative difference
of instantaneous frequency (IF) signal energy between healthy and
damaged state of structure. The index is then employed for different
damage cases of IASCE-ASCE benchmark model. One of the damage
cases evaluated by EDI is similar to the present study where all bracing
of first floor are removed. Sensor data of each floor in terms of acceler-
ation is recorded and EDI is computed for each floor. The result shows a
peak value at damaged floor location as desired. EDI of other floors also
emerged with significant index value which makes it difficult to identify
actual number of damaged floors. It also indicates transfer of energy to
each floor by the removal of bracing at first floor. In comparison to
this, SI indicator shows relatively lower index value at non-damaged
floor. Small index value of SI that generates at top story is mainly due
to numerical approximations. The difference between two consecutive
higher index values for EDI and SI are approximately 32% and 74%
respectively. This observation stipulates the supremacy of SI damage
indicator over EDI.

19
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 20. (a) Arrangement of beam and column in steel frame structure, (b) column numbering, adopted from Johnson et al. [82], (c) Selective index performance at 0%, 5%, and
10% noise level, and (d) EDI [83].
4. Experimental case studies
4.1. An experimental case study on spring–mass system
The efficiency and accuracy of any mathematical or numerical
model proposed for damage detection are best realized by practical
investigation. To achieve this goal, the present work is extended to
an 8 DoFs spring–mass model [78,84] where 8 number of translating
aluminum masses of diameter 25.4 mm are connected with spring (for
undamaged spring stiffness = 56.7 kN/m and damaged spring stiff-
ness = 49 kN/m) and the end mass is excited to analyze the vibration
response of the damaged and undamaged systems. The damaged spring
is introduced at location 5 i.e. between mass #5 and #6. The weight
of mass #1 is 559.3 g and the other masses are 419.8 g. Mass #1 was
provided heavier than others to hold all arrangements of vibrational
instruments. The damping in the system (Fig. 21) generated in the
form of Coulomb friction is minimized to an insignificant value by
proper arrangement of spring–mass system with the use of lubricant
and Tri-Flo. The analysis is performed for the impact vibration of the 8
DoFs system. Accelerometers were attached with each mass to record
acceleration time–history acceleration data which has been applied to
20
Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
compute different damage indices to locate damaged spring position.
The dimensional details are provided in Fig. 21.
4.1.1. Geometrical description and material properties
A set up of a translating spring–mass system [84] is considered here
to investigate further the performances of the index with experimental
data. The system consists of eight numbers of aluminum disks 25 mm
thick and 75 mm diameter separated by an attached spring of stiffness
56.7 kN/m at healthy state. At damage location, this spring is replaced
with reduced stiffness of 49 kN/m to induce 14% damage. The weight
of mass #1 is kept heavier (weight 559.3 g) compared to other masses
(weight 419.4 g) in order to attach the arrangement of external exciter
arrangements. Though different forcing function is applied on the
system, for the present case, an impact-hammer excitation response is
adopted for analysis. The set-up of the instrument is depicted in Fig. 21.
The acceleration data was recorded from each of the accelerometers
mounted on all masses up to a time duration of 8 s. The sampling
rate is 500 Hz and a total 4096 number of samples were collected
from the initiation of the experiment. Velocity and displacement at
each interval of time are then derived from the base corrected result
of acceleration, which is used for the evaluation of all index values.
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 21. (a) Recreated pictorial description of spring–mass system [64] and (b) mass numbering and damaged spring location, [84].
The selective index is estimated with 16-time intervals from 5.5 s to
overcome initial noise in the response and a total 28 number of points
are taken in the Poincaré section for indices based on the projected
phase space plot. The cross-correlation function as a direct time–history
response-based damage indicator is estimated for consecutive pairs of
masses considering the response of mass #1 as a reference signal for
other masses. Results obtained from every damage index are shown in
Fig. 22. Damaged spring is connected between mass #5 and mass #6.
Hence the formation of the crest in the indicator function of mass #5
and mass #6 is defined as damage at spring location 5.
4.1.2. Performance analysis of damage indices on spring–mass system
The performance of the 𝐷𝐼 here in Fig. 22(a) is somewhat ques-
tionable as the index value reached a minimum at the location of
mass 5 where the damaged spring is located. 𝐷𝐼3 curve in Fig. 22(b)
captures the location of damage by the peak of the curve but with a
lower magnitude. This lower value at the summit point of the curve
in the damaged region is the result of irregularities at the boundary
region. The initial higher value in the 𝐷𝐼3 diagram Fig. 22(c) suppresses
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Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
the peak of the curve at the location of spring with reduced stiffness.
𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 among the Poincaré map-based method and both of the direct
response-based indicator SI and CDI successfully identify damage posi-
tion between mass #5 and #6 or spring location #5 in Fig. 22(d), 22(e)
and 22(f) respectively. On the other hand, in both 𝐷𝐼2 (Fig. 22(b)) and
𝐷𝐼3 (Fig. 22(c)) the peak occurs at mass #5 which denotes the affected
mass position with damaged spring. However, from the diagram, it is
difficult to locate actual position whether the damage is in between
mass #4 and #5 or mass #5 and #6. A higher boundary value is also
present in the 𝐷𝐼2 diagram (Fig. 22(b)). The higher index value near
boundary of the mass–spring system in 𝐷𝐼3 , 𝐷𝐼2 and selective index
arises due to boundary constraints at those ends. Also, it is important
to notice that in case of all previous simulation-based analyses the
performance of CDI is not remarkable in the identification of damage.
However, for this experimental system, it performed better than other
indicators. Earlier, the cross-correlation function was applied to detect
damage in structure only with generated response by physical or ambi-
ent excitation. To increase the sensitivity of local damage to damage
indicator in some works [65] each element between node pairs is
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 22. (a) 𝐷𝐼, (b) 𝐷𝐼2 , (c) 𝐷𝐼3 , (d) 𝐷𝐼𝑁𝐷𝑖 , (e) SI, and (f) CDI of 8 DoFs spring–mass system.
excited by external force. After observing the cross-correlation damage
indicator performance to simulation-based model in the study, it can
be assumed that the CDI system is more vulnerable to modeling error
than measurement errors associated with an experimental model.
4.2. Effect of changing environmental condition on the performance of
indicator
The identification of damage by vibration-based damage detection
method depends on the change in dynamic signature of the structure.
Most of the derivations of damage indicators are established with
the assumption of constant environmental conditions. In the practical
scenario, variation of temperature and other factors such as traffic,
humidity, wind etc. affect the consistency of collected data [85–91]. In
the formulation of damage indicators, reference of damaged response
is generally made based on the baseline drawn from the undamaged
condition. However, both in damaged and undamaged states, envi-
ronmental conditions barely remain the same. It thus incorporates a
source of error in the detection, localization, and quantification of
damage for indicators which does not take into account changes in the
system’s property due to the change in environmental conditions. Zhou
et al. [92] stated the possibility of false positive or false negative iden-
tification of damage if environmental factors are not taken into account
in the damage detection methods. A parametric solution technique
is also proposed in this work to eliminate the effect of temperature
variations in the detection of damage. In some of the recent researches
the problem of temperature variation is encountered with advanced
solution techniques of damage detection by eliminating the effect of
temperature variation. In one of such work by Wah et al. [93], the
change in dynamic properties is separately calculated for both damage
and temperature variations. The effect of external variations is then
subtracted from the indicator value obtained from the response to eval-
uate the effect of only damage. Consideration of uniform temperature
distribution is another problem in determining damage with maximum
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Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
accuracy. For a small-scale structure, the distribution can be considered
uniform but for a large-scale structure, this variation is nonlinear or
random in nature. The statistical model can be used in that case to
incorporate non-uniform distribution among structural components.
The severity of effect is also dependent on the material property.
Xia et al. [94] in his work on aluminum beam, steel beam, and RC
slab reported that RC slab is more vulnerable to ambient temperature
changes among other construction materials. The reason behind this
is mainly greater differential temperature at the surface and inner
materials of RC structure. This indicates that indicators performances
may also vary depending on thermal property of material.
The response of a structure in time-domain is dependent on loading
parameter and changes in the inherent characteristics of system. As all
the indicators in this review are based on time–history response of the
structure, the effect of temperature variation on each index should be
same. An experimental analysis was conducted by Manoach et al. [18]
to understand the significance of the impact of temperature variation
on the Poincaré map-based index. The analysis was carried out on a
composite beam heated at different temperature ranges with a specified
external forcing function. The time–history response of the mid-point
of beam at different temperatures shows that for the same amount of
damage the pattern of time–history changes for both damaged and
undamaged structures with the temperature change. This is due to
the change in natural frequency of the structure with the change in
temperature. However, the deviation of amplitude is not significant.
The analysis is further performed on damage indicator to evaluate the
temperature effect on it. It has been observed from the result depicted
in Figs. 23(a) and 23(b) that the effect on damage indicator does
not only dependent on temperature change but also on the excitation
frequency. At a frequency far from a resonating one (5665 rad/s) with
the increase in temperature natural frequency comes close to external
frequency and the response gets magnified by resonance. Thus the
indicator value also increases with the increase in temperature. On the
other hand, when a structure vibrates at a frequency close to resonating
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Fig. 23. Poincaré map based damage index for external harmonic loading with frequency (a) 5665 rad/s, and (b) 11,330 rad/s at different temperatures [18].
Fig. 24. Elevation of the Z24 bridge [102].
frequency at a reference temperature, the natural frequency shifts away
from the excitation frequency if temperature changes. It lowers the
amplitude and thus the value of the damage indicator. The above
explanation indicates a significant dependency of any time-domain
damage indicator value on temperature change. In this review, all the
indicators are established from direct time–history response. Among
this, Poincaré map-based index was studied in the past by Manoach
et al. [18] for temperature variation and shows its substantial influence
on nonlinear dynamic response. Environmental effect on curvature and
cross-correlation based indexes are verified with real time dataset. The
developed indicators can also be made more robust by recognizing the
effects of damage and other external factors on the changes in structural
response. Various models [45,95–97] have already been proposed to
eliminate outlier measurements or effect of changing environments
from the dynamic response to detect even small amount of damage
with better accuracy. However, most of studies on the influence of en-
vironmental factors and their elimination are performed on frequency
or modal parameters [98–101]. In the future, more researches need
to be performed to demonstrate the application of these models on
time-domain-based indicators.
4.3. Case study on Z-24 bridge
The time-domain damage indicators evaluated in this study with
numerical simulations on different members and experimental dataset
of a series of spring–mass systems examine the sensitivity of state
variables to damage. The direct response time–history-based indicators
are observed to be better damage indicator than Poincaré map-based
indices. More specifically, curvature-based damage indicator which
23
Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
is the weighted combination of curvature of different state variables
performed well in both numerical and experimental studies. However,
cross-correlation damage indicator also shows its efficiency with real
data. The performance of any damage indicator can be ensured by an-
alyzing on a large-scale structure with measured data. Hence, a review
study is finally performed on the Z24 bridge for the comparison of
performance between curvature and cross-correlation based indicators.
The Z24 bridge has been used to study many SHM based methods
in the past. The analysis in this work is carried out for detection of
damage due to spalling of concrete of 12 m2 area. The details of the
accelerometer setup and other dimensions of the bridge are shown
in Figs. 24 and 25. From the cluster of accelerometers used in this
set up only 9 nos. of sensor readings are used for the performance
analysis of indicators. The middle sensor of each of the nine set-ups
is selected for the detection and localization of damage in the pier.
Acceleration responses after 10 s of the initiation of measurement are
taken for the estimation of each of the two damage indicators results.
The acceleration time–history data of three sensors located at the two
extreme ends and the middle are shown for undamaged and damaged
condition of the structure in Fig. 26(a). The velocity and displacement
state variables and their higher-order space derivatives are calculated
by numerical methods after the base correction of measured data for the
selective index. Cross-correlations of acceleration time history recorded
at each DoF are then calculated for CDI. The results of the damage
indicators are shown in Figs. 26(b) and 26(c). Due to the absence of
harmonic response, Poincaré map-based indicators could not have been
studied with forced vibration data of Z-24 bridge. In Fig. 26(b), the
curvature-based indicator appears with two peaks at sensor locations
#1 and #2. The damaged pier is located between set-up #1 and #2
S. Ganguly and K. Roy Measurement 216 (2023) 112847

Fig. 25. Accelerometer positions for forced vibration test setup on the Z24 bridge [102].

Fig. 26. (a) Acceleration time–history recorded by three sensors at damaged and healthy conditions of pier, (b) SI, and (b) CDI results for detection of spalling of concrete in pier
near Koppigen side.

(Fig. 25). Position of sensor #1 (for FVT) is just behind the damaged clearly indicates position of damaged pier between sensor locations #1
pier, whereas sensor #2 at just front of the same pier (from the Koppi- and #2. Similar values of damage index (SI) at two sensor locations
gen side). The appearance of peak value at these two sensor locations equidistant from damaged pier establish the accuracy of this indicator.

24
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
On the other hand, in the CDI diagram (Fig. 26(c)) though peak value
occurs at sensor #2, the value obtained from first sensor response shows
low sensitivity to damage. Similar observations for CDI have been found
in previous analyses also. In case of SI, the index value of sensor
#3 is found unexpectedly higher than CDI. Any local changes near
sensor location #3 or presence of noises may result in higher values
at the sensor location far from damaged component. During the test,
temperature variations along with other external parameters were also
recorded to verify the influence of different environmental factors. As
the formulation of each selected damage indicator is based on directly
measured data, this analysis in time-domain thus automatically incor-
porates effect of environmental factors and other external noises on
the indicator result. Hence, the analysis simultaneously evaluates the
robustness of the methods under different environmental conditions.
The elimination of temperature and other effects from the indicator
result may improve the performance reflecting more accuracy.
5. Conclusive remarks
In this research, time-domain indicators are evaluated to high-
light their qualitative performances and applicability under different
practical conditions. This is to facilitate selection of appropriate dam-
age detection techniques with detailed knowledge and to open up
future scopes of improvement revealing present shortcomings of estab-
lished formulations. The most important findings obtained from this
performative review can be summed up as below.
(i) One of the major findings that evolved from all damage in-
dicators’ performance is the effect of boundary region of the
structure. It has been found that the noisy peak near both ends
of the boundary sometimes suppresses the actual damage index
value. The problem arises due to application of backward or for-
ward difference method as an approximate numerical procedure
performed at the boundary to estimate the space or time deriva-
tive. For the SI, this problem can be minimized by judiciously
selecting the weightage of indicator value deduced from higher-
order curvature. An advanced numerical approximation or other
established filtering method may solve the problem of other
indices to some extent in case of model-based and experimental
damage identification problems.
(ii) Another point of concern for time-domain indicators is the selec-
tion of time frames. The application of Poincaré map addresses
this issue by incorporating its unique characteristics under peri-
odic motion. However, the selection of total number of points on
the Poincaré section requires more experiments and case studies.
(iii) The application of TEO in this work shows its efficiency in
smoothing the boundary effects along with other undulations.
Hence, Teager energy operator (TEO) on different indices can
be applied with a more detailed study. It may also improve the
relative peak value of the index at actual damage locations as
well as suppress other external noises.
(iv) From the benchmark problem, it has been found that curvature-
based damage index is less sensitive to noise. As the curvature
value is directly related to the stiffness property of the mem-
ber, the same may be utilized for the quantification of damage
severity in time-domain.
(v) Previously cross-correlation damage index has been performed
with repetitive pulse excitations on the member to achieve
greater sensitivity. In this study, the performance of the same has
been evaluated with defined distributed loading condition and
ambient response obtained from real structure. The performance
of the index shows better results with real noisy data than
approximate responses obtained from numerical simulations.
(vi) The change in response due to the effect of temperature varia-
tions and other environmental factors do not show any signif-
icant effect on SI and CDI results. However, the temperature
25
Measurement 216 (2023) 112847
change is observed to have a noticeable effect on the Poincaré
map based indicators in terms of index value but not on the
localization ability of damage. Therefore, environmental factors
should also be considered in the study of damage quantification
if formulated advancing with these damage indicators under
review.
It is important to note from all above findings that instead of the
presence of noisy measurement data in both numerical simulation and
small-to-large-scale experiments, time-domain indicators performed
well in most of the cases. However, those performances are not consis-
tent. The efficiency of indicators varies under different circumstances.
Some of the challenges and future scopes evolved from this study can
be itemized with the following points.
• Firstly, it is difficult to get filtered data for accurate detection and
localization of damage. In most cases, measured data is found to
be noisy and it reflects in the indicator results with false positive
and false negative peaks. A robust formulation of damage indi-
cator independent of noise or a technique to eliminate effects of
various external disturbances on the response other than damage
is the need of future studies.
• In addition, the dependence on the reference state of a system for
damage detection is another hindrance in the application of dam-
age indicators for vibration-based damage detection techniques.
For a structure with damaged components or degraded material
property, getting baseline data is quite difficult one. The use
of model-based method is one of the solutions to this problem.
However, for a complex type of structure, model-based reference
data accumulates lots of numerical errors. The development of
new reference-free damage indicators in future may solve this
problem.
• Furthermore, if any such vibration-based technique is intended
to apply with ambient excitation data it becomes difficult to
get almost similar environmental or loading conditions for both
damaged and healthy states of the system. In that case, normal-
ization of data or evaluation of statistical variation of response is
resorted to as the probable solution and a probabilistic result with
upper and lower bound confidence is provided. In this study, it
has been found that environmental changes have a considerable
impact on response signals. The effect of these factors needs to
be analyzed extensively to isolate only damage induced changes
from measured response. Also, optimization of sensor numbers,
economical advantages of different methods, etc. can be studied
in future.
• Lastly, the present review is developed considering damage equiv-
alent to the loss of stiffness in both numerical and experimental
works. At the same time, excessive settlement of foundation or
pier of bridge, tear of tendons, corrosion of cable, etc. are also
required to be monitored to maintain serviceability condition
as well as to generate an early warning about the initiation of
damage. The capacity to identify this type of failure can also be
studied in future to expand the applicability of these indicators.
The present work considers a wide range of applications for perfor-
mance analysis. With the present development of performance review,
it is shown that numerical approximations and the number of dam-
age have major impact on the efficiency of any time-domain indi-
cators. More such comparisons are required with complex structures
and real damage scenarios to include other unprecedented sources of
noise/errors that are not considered here. Hence, future work can be
focused on the performance evaluation with real damage scenarios to
enrich the state-of-the-art with a higher degree of reliability.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
S. Ganguly and K. Roy
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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