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Chapter 2 - Accounting Analysis - SV
Chapter 2 - Accounting Analysis - SV
Chapter 2 - Accounting Analysis - SV
1
Accrual Accounting
▪ Illustration
▪ Definition of accrual accounting
▪ Describe accrual process
▪ Relation between accruals and cash
flows
▪ Relevance and limitations of accrual
accounting
2
Accruals - Illustration
The company is established with the total capital of
$700. The company’s capital is financed totally by
equity. The company decide to sell printed T-shirts for
$10 each. The costs of this business include purchasing
100 plain T-shirts for $5 each, fixed screen cost of $100
and variable print cost of $0.75 per T-shirt. By the end of
the company first week in business, all T-shirts are ready
for sale. Customers with orders totalling 50 T-shirts pick
up their T-shirts in that first week. But, of the 50 T-shirts
picked up, only 25 are paid for in cash. For the other 25,
the company accept customer’s late payment till next
week.
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Accruals - Illustration
Additional information:
- The company is free of tax
- There is no distribution of dividends to shareholders
- The company uses the unit of production method in
determining depreciation
Machine: $500,000 - No. of units: 240,000
Salvage value: 20,000
Depreciation/unit:
(500,000-20,000)/240,000 = $2/unit
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Case Illustration – Cash Accounting
Income Statement Balance Sheet (Cash basis)
Revenues Assets
T-Shirt sales $250 Cash $275
Costs
T-Shirt purchases $500
Screen purchase $100 Equity
Printing charges $75 Beginning Equity $700
Total payments ($675) Retained earnings ($425)
Net Income ($425) Total equity ($275)
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Case Illustration – Accrual Accounting
Revenues Assets
T-Shirt sales $500 Cash $275
T-Shirt inventory $337.5
Expenses Receivables $250
T-Shirts costs $250 Total assets $862.5
Screen depreciation $50
Printing charges $37.5 Equity
Total expenses ($337.5) Beginning equity $700
Add net income $162.5
Net income $162.5 Total equity $862.5
Income statement:
- Revenue ghi nhận 50 doanh thu, giá $10/each
- Expenses match với sản phẩm được bán ⇒ đối với Cash
accounting thì lỗ ( vì họ không ghi nhận credit sales, còn
expense thì ghi không match với sales nên không match với
revenue). Còn Accrual accounting thì không lỗ
- 50spham còn lại chưa bán thì expenses của nó sẽ được vốn
hoá để trở thành giá thành của inventory.
Balance sheet:
- Net income = R.E ( vì không có hoạt động chi trả cổ tức) =
$162.5
- T-shirt inventory = chi phí tạo nên spham mà chưa bán được
(50spham) = $337.5/ 50 products
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Accrual Accounting
- An accounting method measures the
performance and position of a company
by recognizing economic events
regardless of when cash transactions
occur.
- The general idea is that economic
events are recognized by matching
revenues to expenses (the matching
principle) at the time in which the
transaction occurs rather than when
payment is made (or received)
Accrual ghi nhận cơ sở không phải tiền mặt mà dựa vào nguyên tắt
Revenue recognition (chỉ cần sản phẩm đc chuyển đi và tới tay
người tiêu dùng thì đã ghi nhận doanh thu), Expense matching
(expense hạch toán trước và revenue hạch toán sau).
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Accrual Process
Revenue Recognition – revenues are recognized
when
(1) Earned – deliver products and services
(2) Realized (cash acquired) or Realizable
(asset received)
Expense Matching – match with corresponding
revenue
- Product costs – arise in the production
- Period costs – marketing, administrative
expenses
Accrual ghi nhận cơ sở không phải tiền mặt mà dựa vào nguyên tắc
Revenue recognition (chỉ cần sản phẩm đc chuyển đi và tới tay người
tiêu dùng thì đã ghi nhận doanh thu). Expense matching, ghi nhận chi
phí cost chỉ đc ghi nhận là chi phí khi nó vốn hoá vào sản phẩm khi sản
phẩm đã được bán đi, đã ghi nhận revenue
⇒ Những nguyên tắc này dẫn tới việc performance không dựa trên
cơ sở tiền mặt ( tiền nhận và trả) ⇒ net income không phải là cash
profit
8
Cash Flows vs Accruals
- Operating cash flow (OCF)
refers to cash from a company’s ongoing operating activities
9
● FCF:
FCF = CFO - FC (inv)
FCFF = FCF + [Int x (1-t)]
- Khi tính CFO, không có hoạt động thay thế tài sản hao mòn ⇒
để đảm bảo hoạt động kinh doanh bình thường thì phải có
khoản fixed investment (trừ ra)
- FC(inv) đại diện cho khoản tiền sau khi đã chi trả cho equity &
debt holders
- Dòng tiền dành cho chủ nợ không chỉ là tiền để trả nợ gốc
(tuỳ vào phương án thống nhất giữa con nợ và người cho
mượn nợ), mà còn lấy tiền trả lãi. FCF là đã trả lãi rồi, nên sẽ
không đánh giá được là FCFF có khả năng trả lãi không. Có lãi
thì chắc chắn có tác động tax của nhà nước ⇒ giảm số tiền
mà doanh nghiệp phải trả lãi
- Định giá ra giá trị doanh nghiệp là dùng FCFF
● FCFE:
FCFE = FCF + Net borrowing
Net borrowing = Debt issued- Debt repaid
- Là dòng tiền tự do cho equity holder
- Trong FCF đã trả lãi, thêm Net borrowing là trả thêm nợ gốc
- Dòng tiền dùng để định giá cổ phiếu
Cash Flows vs Accruals
Net Operating
Income = Cash Flow + Accruals
10
Relevance of accrual accounting
- Financial performance: Revenue recognition and
expense matching yield an income number superior
to cash flows for evaluating financial performance.
- Financial condition: Accrual accounting produces
a balance sheet that more accurately reflects the
level of resources availability to the company to
generate future cash flows.
- Predicting future cash flows: accrual income is a
superior predictor of future cash flows than are
current cash flows
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+ income ⇒ loại các NCC ⇒ ra FCFF, FCFE
⇒ AA is better predictor of future CF
Because: AI để mà ra được potential CF thì phải có căn cứ để dự
đoán. Còn nếu chỉ dùng past CF thì rất cứng nhắc, không có thông
tin căn cứ, chỉ dựa theo quy luật dao động để expect next CF ⇒ not
good. Dùng AI thì sẽ có những thông tin indicate future CF (vd như
Account Receivables). Revenue recognition ⇒ revenue và expense
sẽ luôn song song ⇒ có căn cứ để expect future CF. Chỉ phù hợp với
nội bộ, vì lúc này mới có đủ thông tin thông số để predict. Người bên
ngoài thì không làm được
Limitations of accrual accounting
- Arbitrary rules
- Estimation errors
- Earnings management
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Accounting Analysis
o Accounting analysis is the process of evaluating the
extent to which a company’s accounting numbers
reflect economic reality - evaluating accounting risk
and earning quality, estimating earning power, and
making necessary adjustments to financial
statements to both reflect economic reality and
assist in financial analysis.
o Accounting analysis is the process an analyst uses to
identify and assess accounting distortions in a
company’s financial statements. It also includes the
necessary adjustments to financial statements that
reduce the distortions and make the statements
amenable to financial analysis.
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Demand for Accounting Analysis
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Sources of Accounting Distortions
o Accounting Standards
o Estimation Errors
o Reliability vs Relevance
o Earnings Management
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Sources of Accounting Distortions
o Accounting Standards – attributed to
1) Accounting principles: the historical cost principle,
inventory rules
2) Conservatism – write down impaired assets
o Estimation Errors – attributed to estimation errors
inherent in accrual accounting (sold on credit)
o Reliability vs Relevance – attributed to over-emphasis
on reliability at the loss of relevance, trade-off bw
reliability and relevance
o Earnings Management – attributed to
window-dressing of financial statements by managers to
achieve personal benefits
16
Accounting standards
The historical cost principle Conservatism
Inventory rules Nguyên tắc thận trọng
⇒ LIFO FIFO COGS ⇒ Những giao dịch tạo ra doanh
thu thì phải đảm bảo tính chắc
chắn, nhưng nếu ghi nhận làm
giảm hay lỗ, mà không chắc chắn
xảy ra sự việc thì cũng phải có
cách ghi nhận ⇒ xác suất như
nhau có thể làm giảm hay tăng
tài sản (k thể thu hồi nợ hay sp bị
kém phẩm chất) đều phải ghi
nhận (ghi giá trị âm vào mục dự
phòng giảm giá)
17
Sources of Accounting distortions
Earning management strategies:
Increasing income - managers adjust accruals
to increase reported income
Big Bath - managers record huge write offs in
one period to relieve other period of expenses
Income smoothing - managers decrease or
increase reported income to reduce its volatility
18
Earnings Management
Earning Management strategies:
o Increasing Income – managers adjust
accruals to increase
reported income
o Big Bath – managers record huge
write-offs in one period to relieve other
periods of expenses
o Income Smoothing – managers decrease or
increase reported income to reduce its
volatility
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Process of Accounting Analysis
1) Evaluating earnings quality
2) Adjusting financial statements
20
Process of Accounting Analysis
Evaluating Earning Quality: Steps
1) Identify and assess key accounting
policies
2) Evaluate extent of accounting
flexibility
3) Determine the reporting strategy
4) Identify and assess red flags
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Process of Accounting Analysis
Evaluating Earning Quality: Steps
1) Identify and assess key accounting
policies:
• Are the policies reasonable?
• Is the set of policies adopted consistent
with industry norms?
• What impact will the accounting
policies have on reported numbers in
financial statements?
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Process of Accounting Analysis
Evaluating Earning Quality: Steps
2) Evaluate extent of accounting
flexibility
The accounting for industries that have more
intangible assets, greater volatility in business
operations, a larger portion of its production
costs incurred prior to production, and unusual
revenue recognition methods requires more
judgments and estimates
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Process of Accounting Analysis
Evaluating Earning Quality: Steps
3) Determine the reporting strategy
▪ Is the company adopting aggressive reporting
practices?
▪ Does the company have a clean audit report?
▪ Has there been a history of accounting problems?
▪ Has the management of the company have a
reputation for integrity, or are they known to cut
corners?
▪ Examine incentives for earnings management and
evaluate the quality of a company’s disclosures
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4) Red Flags
▪ Poor financial performance,
▪ Reported earnings consistently higher
than operating cash flows,
▪ Qualified audit report, auditor resignation
or a unusual auditor change,
▪ Unexplained or frequent changes in
accounting policies,
▪ Sudden increase in inventories in
comparison to sales.
▪ Frequent one-time charges and big baths.
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Process of Accounting Analysis
Evaluating Earning Quality: Steps
1) Identify and assess key accounting policies
2) Evaluate extent of accounting flexibility
3) Determine the reporting strategy
4) Identify and assess red flags
Adjusting Financial Statements:
Identify, measure, and make necessary
adjustments to financial statements to better
serve one’s analysis objectives;
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